research methodology asr702

By

Reaz Uddin, Ph. D.Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug

Research, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences,

University of Karachi

Research Methodology ASR702

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Course Contents Public Safety (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes) Lab Safety (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes) Environment conservations (Dr. Raza Shah) (2 classes) Scientific Record Keeping (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes) Handling of Research Material (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes) Research Misconduct (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes) Critical Evaluation of Research (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes) Ownership of Data (Dr. Hina Siddiqui) (2 classes) Research Ethics (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes) Scientific Integrity (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes) Effective use of computers and internet (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2

classes) Publication (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes) Communication of Science (Dr. Reaz Uddin) (2 classes) Students Presentations (Dr. Hina Siddiqui and Dr. Reaz) (10 classes) Biostatistics (Mr. Yaseen Menai) (9 classes)

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A question for you to consider.

What principles underpin ethical behaviour? What does it mean to be ethical?

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Principles of ethical behavior.

Justice.Beneficence/Non-maleficence.Respect for others.

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Principles of ethical behavior Justice. Is this morally right?

Beneficence/non-maleficence. Respectively,

these mean ‘doing good’ and “avoiding harm”. We should maximize benefits and minimize physical, emotional, economic and environmental harms and discomfort.

Am I doing harm?

Respect for others. Individuals must be regarded as autonomous agents and anyone of diminished autonomy (e.g. intellectually disabled) should be protected. It is important to have consideration for the welfare, beliefs, rights, heritage and customs of people involved.

Am I showing respect for others?

But what has ethics got to do with research?Is “pure” research above ethics and morality? Is ethics and morality to do with technology and politics (the appliance of research) not research itself?

Science as a black box

RESEARCH

TECHNOLOGY

SOCIETYOne view of research might be that it is isolated from society – although it influences society it is isolated from it with its own •Sociology•Norms•Ethics

MANAGEMENT POLITICS

Research is defined by its special methods

Experimentation, observation, analysis,

ObjectiveTheorizing

As if it transcends ethical and political considerations

Scientific research

Research is a system of organized knowledge above mundane considerations

Archival aspectInformation about natural

phenomenaAcquired by researchOrganized in coherent

theoretical schemesPublished in books and

journalsHistorical process

But facts are not completely objective – they are not isolated from the society that gave rise to them

Facts can only be recorded in the framework of a theory.

The history, the environment, the culture, the politics, the religion, the personality of the scientist all influence the theory and therefore the facts recorded.

Research cannot be isolated from society and an ethical system

Which is brighter, a snowball seen indoors or a lump of coal outside?A bright, sunlit day is about one hundred times brighter than a room lit by electric light. If we use a light meter to measure the absolute number of photons being reflected, the outdoor coal registers a higher value than the indoor snowball. The coal is brighter, and more photons are hitting your retina, sending a stronger signal to your brain.

“Get your facts first, and then you can distort them as much as you please.” Mark Twain (1835 - 1910)

“If the facts don't fit the theory, change the fact.” Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)

“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them.” Sir William Bragg (1862 - 1942)

“Science is facts; just as houses are made of stones, so is science made of facts; but a pile of stones is not a house and a collection of facts is not necessarily science.” Henri Poincare (1854 - 1912)

“There are no facts, only interpretations.”Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900)

“We want the facts to fit the preconceptions. When they don't, it is easier to ignore the facts than to change the preconceptions.”Jassamyn West (1907–1984)

It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859 - 1930)

The separation of academic and industry/technology/society is illusoryResearch transforms

societyANDThe inner workings of

science are changed by the social forces acting on it even down to the philosophical and psychological level

Ethical decisions have to be made at all levels in the scientific chain of discovery

RESEARCH

TECHNOLOGY

SOCIETY

Discovery

Invention

Because research has a profound influence on society scientists cannot ignore the consequences of their discoveries

Research is often a means of solving problemsIt is intimately

connected with politics, technology and society

Research should be used wisely but this is not for researchers to decide alone

The Impact of Research on Values and Values on Research

Ethical considerations are to therefore with the development of new technologies and new social systems

Society is inherently conservative and seeks to set the limits of research activity

I’m damned if they are going to make me redundant

Ethics ReviewMorals: Rules that define what is right and wrongEthics-process of examining moral standards and

looking at how we should interpret and apply such standards in real world situations

Ethics Review Ethical Principles

1. Autonomy2. Beneficence3. Non-maleficence4. Justice5. Fidelity

Think for a moment … how might these principles relate to research?

Respect for PersonsTreat individuals as autonomous agentsDo not use people as a means to an endAllow people to make choices for themselvesProvide extra protection to those with limited

autonomyVoluntary ParticipationInformed ConsentProtection of Privacy & ConfidentialityRight to Withdraw without Penalty

BeneficenceActs of kindness or charity that go beyond dutyObligations derived from beneficence

Do no harmPrevent harmPrevent evilPromote good

Risks are justified by the benefits Risks are minimized Conflicts of interest are managed to avoid bias

JusticeTreat people fairlyFair sharing of burdens and benefits of

researchDistinguish procedural justice from distributive

justice

Vulnerable subjects are not targeted for conveniencePeople are not selected as subjects because of their

ease of availability or compromised positionPeople who are likely to benefit are not excluded

Research Ethics: Areas of FocusHarm Informed ConsentConfidentialityDeceptionReporting Results and Plagiarism

HarmAs mentioned before, researchers should take

every precaution to ensure that participants are not subjected to undue harm or stress

Informed Consent Voluntary Informed Consent is essential for research

involving human subjects Informed Consent should include:

Description of the nature of the researchStatement that the research is voluntary and

participants can withdraw at any timeIdentification of Risks and BenefitsDescription of how confidentiality will be protectedDescription of compensationDescription of what info researchers will share with

participantsIdentification of who is responsible for research with

contact information

ConfidentialityAll information collected in a research project

should remain confidentialData should be locked away in a secure settingElectronic Databases should also be protected

What do you do if you bump into a research participant in Wal-Mart?

DeceptionAt times, researchers may choose to hide from

participants the true nature of the studyDeception by Omission

Withholding important facts from the participantsDeception by Commission

Lie to or purposely mislead research participants

Deception Staged Manipulations

Also called Event Manipulations Used for 2 reasons

The researcher may need to create some sort of psychological state (anxiety)

The researcher may need to stage a manipulation to recreate a real-world scenario Having a participant do one task and then having them do more tasks at

the same time Staged manipulations usually employ a confederate

Also called an accomplice A confederate is someone who appears to be another

participant in an experiment but is really a part of the experiment

Example: Someone who purposely insults a participant in a study in order to provoke anger or frustration

DeceptionAnother example of the use of confederates:Asch (1956) study on conformity

Which line is bigger?1)---------------------2)-----------------------------3)-------------------

Right before a participant had to choose which line was the longest, a confederate announced an incorrect answer

Repeatedly, Asch found that people confirmed to the confederate’s incorrect response

DeceptionAccording to the APA, researchers can use

deception under certain conditions:Participants must be provided with enough

information to consent voluntarilyResearchers must convince that deception is

necessary to collect data and that it will cause little or no harm

Researchers must arrange to fully inform the patients of the true nature of the study in a timely manner

American Psychological Association

Reporting Research Results Results of research studies should be reported in a

honest, accurate mannerResearchers cannot “massage” data to fit their

hypothesesResearchers cannot make up or report false resultsResearcher must report what they find, even if the

data does not support their initial hypothesesResearchers should ensure that data is being

collected consistently (do checks of research assistants)

Researchers should give the proper credit (authorship) to those who have earned it

PlagiarismComes from the Latin word meaning “to kidnap”Examples of plagiarism:

Copying someone else’s words without proper citation

Stealing someone else’s ideasStealing someone else’s intellectual property

Bottom Line: Cite sources properly and minimize quotations in research reports

Ethics Among ResearchersAuthorshipOwnership of dataConsultants