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Section III
Response to Intervention
Response to Intervention (RTI) is designed to ensure all students receive
effective, research-based instruction to meet their needs. RTI frameworks
combine prevention and intervention with ongoing assessment in a school-wide
system to identify students’ instructional needs and appropriate learning
supports. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) allows for
the use of a student’s response to intervention for identifying specific learning
disabilities, including dyslexia. Importantly, the IDEA law requires a student be
provided high-quality, research-based general education instruction to ensure a
student’s difficulties are not the result of inadequate instruction. Thus, RTI
provides a framework to coordinate levels of instruction and intervention and to
document high-quality instruction.
The most common implementation of RTI is through a multi-tiered system
of support using a combination of screening tools, effective classroom instruction,
intervention, and data-based decision making to support all students within a
school. Within each tier, students receive instruction using scientifically based
reading research. Students who make insufficient progress in initial tiers of
instruction are provided more intensive and specific intervention to better meet
their needs.
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Tier I: Core Instruction
Tier I Core Instruction focuses on providing effective, research-based
instruction to all students in general education and provides the foundation for
successful RTI. Tier I, or classroom instruction focuses on the essential, grade-
specific, reading standards across content areas and should meet the needs of
the large majority of students, allowing them to successfully meet grade level
expectations. High quality, effective reading instruction is paramount prior to
screening for and identifying students who may need Tier II intervention.
As part of Tier I, all students are screened on reading measures to
determine instructional needs and identify students with risk factors or reading
deficits. Results may indicate a student needs supplemental intervention
supports in addition to Tier I instruction. If screening results identify a large
number of students with risk factors, school personnel should consider the fidelity
of the administration of the screening tools, the adequacy of the core curriculum,
and/or whether differentiated learning activities need to be added to better meet
the needs of the students. Differentiated learning practices can involve
meaningful pre-assessments, flexible grouping based on needs, instructional
supports such as peer-tutoring or learning centers, and accommodations to
ensure that all students have access to the instructional program.
Effective Tier I Core Instruction is the first line of defense. It is critical that
classroom teachers build skills in effective, research-based reading instruction
that includes the five essential components (phonemic awareness, phonics,
comprehension, fluency, and vocabulary) and provides differentiated instruction
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to meet the needs of all students. If at any time students continue to struggle
with one or more of these components, schools should follow their RTI plan.
Tier II: Supplemental Intervention
The universal screening results should potentially identify those students
at risk for poor learning outcomes. Students who do not meet the cut-points for
risk indicate a skill level where success would be unlikely without a supplemental
or intensive, targeted intervention in Tier II or Tier III. Teachers use formative
assessments and observations to place students in the appropriate tiers of
intervention.
In order to provide targeted interventions at the correct level of difficulty,
anecdotal notes from classroom observations and the results from additional
diagnostic tools should be considered. Diagnostic tools refer to specific tests or
instruments selected to measure specific areas of concern. For example, when
students demonstrate difficulty on a phoneme segmentation screener,
administering additional phonological awareness assessments will identify the
specific point of difficulty on the phonological awareness continuum. The results
from these targeted assessments or diagnostic tools are critical in planning
interventions focused on the student’s needs. The use of diagnostic tools does
not lead to a diagnosis, but identifies focus areas for differentiated instruction or a
targeted intervention. This process for gathering additional data would be
considered part of the Level 1 Dyslexia Screening Process.
Many students identified for Tier II may need an AIP/IRI. See Arkansas
Department of Education Rules Governing the Arkansas Comprehensive
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Testing, Assessment and Accountability Program and the Academic Distress
Program, August 2014, Section 7.0 Student Accountability regarding Academic
Improvement Plans (AIPs) and Intensive Reading Improvement (IRI) plans for
additional regulations regarding intervention programs for students exhibiting
substantial reading difficulty which may include students exhibiting the
characteristics of dyslexia. AIPs and IRI plans require parental notification and
written consent. This could be one avenue for notifying parents of the results of
the screeners and an opportunity to provide them with information and resource
materials pertaining to dyslexia (A.C.A 6-41-604).
Progress monitoring data is used to determine when a student is or is not
responding to intervention. Until a student maintains scores above the cut-point
for two consecutive cycles, progress monitoring is recommended at least every
two weeks. When a student is not making sufficient progress, the school-based
decision making team should consider increasing the intensity of an intervention.
This may be attained in several ways, such as adjusting the level of intervention,
providing individualized or small group instruction, increasing the amount of time
for intervention, or increasing the frequency of sessions.
Tier II intervention is in addition to the Tier I instruction. For many
students, a supplemental, Tier II intervention provides the necessary support to
improve reading achievement to grade-level expectations and maintains reading
growth without further intervention.
If a student continues to make insufficient progress or fails to respond to
intervention, the RTI committee may consider further screening, a Level II:
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Dyslexia Screener, to determine the nature of the reading problem and the
severity of the reading difficulty. Best practice would be to obtain written parental
consent before this specialized evaluation takes place.
Tier III: Intensive Intervention
Some students do not demonstrate adequate response to Tier I and Tier II
intervention and continue to struggle with reading and/or fall further behind in
reading achievement despite the increased supports provided by the
supplemental Tier II intervention. Continued failure to reach grade-level
expectations may result in a school-based decision-making team recommending
entry into a Tier III reading intervention based on the needs of the student.
Schools should continue to communicate and include parents in the decision
process.
Students requiring a more intensive intervention (Tier III) may receive
additional instructional time, individually or in a small group, with more targeted,
specialized content or instructional delivery, increased practice and feedback
opportunities, or attention given to cognitive processing strategies. Students
receiving Tier III intervention also receive frequent and ongoing progress
monitoring.
If screening indicates characteristics of dyslexia exist, then the student
shall be provided dyslexia intervention services (Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603).
Dyslexia intervention may occur at Tier II or Tier III. Dyslexia intervention is a
general education component of RTI. In Tier II and Tier III, teachers continue to
track student learning, establish goals, plan instruction, and make appropriate
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adjustments to instruction based on student progress toward achievement of
state standards. Referral for Special Education may occur if a student fails to
make adequate progress.
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Section IV
Initial Screening
Early identification of students at risk for reading difficulties is critical in
developing the appropriate instructional plan. “The best solution to the problem
of reading failure is to allocate resources for early identification and prevention.”
(Torgesen, 2000). Initial screening is the first step in identifying the students who
are at risk for learning difficulties. (c)(1) If the initial, level I, or level II dyslexia
screening indicates that a student has characteristics of dyslexia, the Response to
Intervention (RtI) process shall be used to address the needs of the student (A.C.A 6-41-
603).
Initial screening measures consist of short, informal probe(s) given to all
students to identify those at risk or at some risk for not meeting grade-level
standards. Screeners should be administered with fidelity to include without
limitation, phonological awareness, sound symbol recognition, alphabet
knowledge, decoding skills, rapid naming skills and encoding (A.C.A. 6-41-603).
The results should be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the core instructional
program and to determine which students need additional assessments and/or
interventions. If screening results identify a large number of students with risk
factors, school personnel should consider the fidelity of the administration of the
screening tools, the adequacy of the core curriculum, and/or whether
differentiated learning activities need to be added to better meet the needs of the
students. Differentiated learning practices can involve meaningful pre-
assessments, flexible grouping based on needs, instructional supports such as
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peer-tutoring or learning centers, and accommodations to ensure that all
students have access to the instructional program.
While results of the initial screening will identify struggling learners, they
may not provide all of the information needed to develop an instructional plan,
including appropriate interventions. Additional information may be needed to
pinpoint areas of basic early reading skills that need acceleration.
Who should be screened? According to Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603, a
school district shall screen
1) Each student in kindergarten through grade two (K-2); 2) Kindergarten through grade 2 (K-2) students who transfer to a new
school and have not been screened; 3) Kindergarten through grade 2 (K-2) students who transfer from another
state and cannot present documentation that the student has had similar screening;
4) A student in grade three or higher experiencing difficulty, as noted by a classroom teacher.
Exemptions:
1) Students with an existing dyslexia diagnosis. 2) Students with a sensory impairment.
The screening components may not be appropriate for students with
severe cognitive limitations. It is recommended that school staff work closely
with district administrators to determine if the screening is appropriate for each
student. Careful consideration must be given to any decision to exclude a
student from screening.
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The screening of students shall be performed with fidelity and include
without limitation (Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603):
1) Phonological and phonemic awareness;
2) Sound symbol recognition;
3) Alphabet knowledge;
4) Decoding skills;
5) Rapid naming; and
6) Encoding skills.
The initial screener as defined in the Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603 includes
the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) or an equivalent
screener. Additional screening assessments will need to be administered to
measure components that are not measured by DIBELS or the equivalent
screener.
The performance criteria (i.e. cut-points, benchmarks) should be used to
determine if the student is unlikely to achieve reading goals without receiving
additional targeted intensive support. Intensive support refers to interventions
that include something more or something different from the core curriculum or
supplemental support. Progress should be monitored throughout to determine
the effectiveness of the intervention.
Personnel administering the screener should be trained in the screening
tools. School resources and enrollment will influence individual district decisions
about who should give and score the screening tools. Because the data will be
used to help guide instruction, classroom teachers should participate in
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screening, scoring, and progress monitoring.
If the screener under subdivision (a)(1) of the law shows that a student is
at risk, or at some risk then a Level I Dyslexia Screener shall be administered
(A.C.A. 6-41-603). The Level I Dyslexia Screener is described in Section V of the
guide.
Initial screening is not required for all students in grades three and higher.
However, Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603 states that a student in grade three or
higher experiencing difficulty, as noted by a classroom teacher, in phonological
and phonemic awareness, sound symbol recognition, alphabet knowledge,
decoding skills, and encoding skills should be screened using assessments
chosen by the school’s RTI team.
Initial Screening Required Component Possible Screening Tools Phonological and Phonemic Awareness
DIBELS: First Sound Fluency (FSF) (K) DIBELS: Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) (K-1) AIMSWEB: Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (K-1) Abecedarian Reading Assessment: Phonological and Phonemic Awareness Phonological Awareness Skills Screener (PASS) (K-2 & struggling learners)
Alphabet Knowledge DIBELS: Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) (K-1) AIMSWEB: Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) (K-1) Abecedarian Reading Assessment: Letter Knowledge Lakeshore: Alphabet Letter Knowledge Assessment Reading A-Z: Alphabet Naming Assessment
Sound Symbol Recognition
DIBELS: Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) AIMSWEB: Letter Sound Fluency College Station TX, Texas A&M: Quick Phonics Screener (K-6) Scholastic: CORE Phonics Survey (K-8) Houghton Mifflin: Phonics/Decoding Screening Test
Decoding Skills DIBELS: Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) (K-2) DIBELS: Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) (1-6) AIMSWEB: Nonsense Word Fluency (K-1) Abecedarian Reading Assessment: Decoding DIBELS: Oral reading Fluency (ORF) (1-6)
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FCRR: Oral Reading Fluency Passages (7-12) Rapid Naming Arkansas Rapid Naming Screener (AR-RAN) (K-2 based on times)(3-12
based on observed behaviors) Encoding Word Journeys: Kindergarten Inventory of Spelling (KIDS) (K)
Words Their Way: Primary Spelling Inventory (K-3) Words Their Way: Elementary Spelling Inventory (1-6) Words Their Way: Upper-Level Spelling Inventory (upper elem., middle, high school, postsecondary) Gentry’s Developmental Spelling Inventory (K-8) FCRR: Phonics Screening Inventory (intermediate, middle, high school)
This initial screener list is to be used as a resource and provides
information to assist in research use to determine which screener would provide
the most beneficial data for each subcomponent of literacy development at each
grade level. The Dyslexia Resource Guide Committee is in no way endorsing any
of the screeners listed here as good or bad screeners. The list is in no way all
inclusive or to be considered as “approved” screeners.
Sources for additional screeners:
https://dibels.org/dibelsnext.html http://www.rti4success.org/resources/tools-charts/screening-tools-chart http://www.sedl.org/reading/rad/chart.html http://www.sde.ct.gov/sde/lib/sde/pdf/curriculum/cali/elementary_assessments_4-9-12.pdf http://www.sde.ct.gov/sde/lib/sde/pdf/curriculum/cali/secondary_assessments_4-9-12.pdf
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Section V
Level 1 Dyslexia Screening
Once it is determined that the initial screener indicates a student is at-risk
or at some risk for reading failure and a student does not adequately respond to
intervention, a dyslexia screening process shall begin to determine if
characteristics of dyslexia are present (Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603). The Level I
Dyslexia Screening is a process of gathering additional information that should
include progress monitoring data, work samples, formative literacy assessments,
and additional dyslexia screening tools. Classroom instruction should provide
appropriate differentiation and interventions tailored to meet the child’s individual
needs.
A school-based decision-making team should meet to review student
records and progress, inform parents of concerns, and obtain parental consent
when additional assessments are needed to determine if characteristics of
dyslexia exist. RTI team should consider the following factors:
● The child has received effective classroom instruction;
● The student has adequate intelligence or the ability to learn;
● The lack of progress is not due to sociocultural factors such as
language differences, irregular attendance, or background
experiences.
The Level I Dyslexia Screening process shall include documentation of the
components of literacy to include phonological and phonemic awareness, sound
symbol recognition, alphabet knowledge, decoding skill, rapid naming skills, and
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encoding skills. The determination of existing characteristics should be based on
multiple sources of data.
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Section VI
Level II Dyslexia Screening
The Level II Dyslexia Screening is a more detailed process for identifying
a pattern of strengths and weaknesses documenting the characteristics of
dyslexia. The determination of existing characteristics may be based on
performance criteria (i.e. cut-points, benchmarks) of the chosen assessments to
be used as the Level II Dyslexia Screening. Norm-referenced, diagnostic
assessments designed to measure the underlying cause, characteristics, and
outcomes should be administered to identify the characteristics of dyslexia. The
specific skills to be tested include phonological awareness, rapid naming, word
reading, decoding, fluency, spelling and reading comprehension. Examples of
screening tools may be found in Appendix G.
When reporting results of norm-referenced tests, standard scores should
be used. Criterion-referenced and group achievement tests scores may be
informative as historical or secondary information, but are considered weaker
dyslexia identification tools. Individual subtests scores should be used rather
than composite or cluster scores, because a skill is only as strong as the weakest
subskill. For example, consider the Elision and the Blending subtest scores on
the CTOPP-2 rather than the Phonological Awareness composite score.
The Luke Waites Center for Dyslexia and Learning Disorders at Texas
Scottish Rite Hospital for Children created the Characteristic Profile of Dyslexia
to aid in school-based identification of dyslexia. This profile provides five
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questions to consider when identifying student with characteristics of
dyslexia. The questions are:
1. Does the student demonstrate one or more of the primary reading characteristics of dyslexia in addition to a spelling deficit?
2. Are the reading and spelling difficulties the result of a phonological
processing deficit? 3. Are the reading, spelling, and phonological processing deficits
unexpected? Does the student demonstrate cognitive ability to support age level academic learning?
4. Are there secondary characteristics of dyslexia evident in reading
comprehension and written expression? 5. Does the student have strengths that could be assets? Are there
coexisting deficits that may complicate identification and the response to intervention and may deserve further assessment and intervention?
The school-based decision making team may use these five key questions
to determine if the student needs dyslexia intervention services. The information
gleaned from these questions reflects components of the definition of dyslexia as
expressed in A.C.A. 6-41-602. If the Level II Dyslexia Screening conducted by
the school district indicates a student exhibits characteristics of dyslexia (first
three questions answered with a “yes”), the student shall be considered to have
met the typical profile of a student with dyslexia and should be provided
intervention services (A.C.A. 6-41-603) using a dyslexia program delivered with
fidelity.
If it is determined that the student has functional difficulties in the
academic environment due to characteristics of dyslexia, the necessary
accommodations or equipment for the student shall be provided under Section
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504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Ark. Code Ann. § 6-41-603) as they existed
on February 1, 2013, if qualified under the applicable federal law. In other words,
having a learning problem does not automatically qualify a student for
accommodations/equipment under Section 504. The impairment must
substantially limit one or more major life activities in order to be considered a
disability under Section 504. The determination of substantial limitation must be
made on a case-by-case basis with respect to each individual student. The
Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35 (c) requires that a group of
knowledgeable persons draw upon information from a variety of sources in
making this determination.
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