self and personality psychology 448c 10/14/08. agenda lecture don’t need to know culture &...

Self and PersonalitySelf and PersonalityPsychology 448CPsychology 448C

10/14/0810/14/08

AgendaAgenda

LectureLecture Don’t need to know Culture & Gender or Five Don’t need to know Culture & Gender or Five

Factor Model of Personality for examsFactor Model of Personality for exams

In-class ActivityIn-class Activity

Self-ConceptSelf-Concept

How we perceive ourselves, and understand our How we perceive ourselves, and understand our identity plays a crucial role in how we think about identity plays a crucial role in how we think about many things. many things.

The self-concept is implicated in The self-concept is implicated in directing what information we should attend to, directing what information we should attend to, it shapes the kinds of meaning that we draw from it shapes the kinds of meaning that we draw from

events, events, it influences the kinds of relationships that we have, it influences the kinds of relationships that we have, it affects our emotions, and it affects our emotions, and it influences what we will be motivated to work towards. it influences what we will be motivated to work towards.

Who Am I?Who Am I?

People are asked to describe themselves People are asked to describe themselves with a number of statements that begin with a number of statements that begin with “I am _______.”with “I am _______.”

The kinds of statements that they list are The kinds of statements that they list are then counted and analyzed.then counted and analyzed.

People from some different cultural groups People from some different cultural groups often provide different kinds of statements.often provide different kinds of statements.

Comparisons of European-Americans and Comparisons of European-Americans and

Native Americans Native Americans (Fryberg & Markus, 2003)(Fryberg & Markus, 2003) European-American European-American

students described students described themselves more in themselves more in terms of inner attributes terms of inner attributes than did Native than did Native Americans.Americans.

Independent vs. Interdependent Independent vs. Interdependent Views of SelfViews of Self

Seminal paper by Markus and Kitayama Seminal paper by Markus and Kitayama (1991).(1991).

Argued that much of what is known in Argued that much of what is known in social psychology, has been studied with social psychology, has been studied with people who share a primarily distinct view people who share a primarily distinct view of self - an independent self.of self - an independent self.

In much of the non-Western world, in In much of the non-Western world, in contrast, an interdependent self is more contrast, an interdependent self is more common.common.

European American Exceptionalism?European American Exceptionalism?

A unique way of being in human history?A unique way of being in human history? Modern subjectivity?Modern subjectivity?

Social alienationSocial alienation IndividualismIndividualism

Independent View of SelfIndependent View of Self

Identity is experienced as largely Identity is experienced as largely independent from others.independent from others.

Important aspects of identity are personal Important aspects of identity are personal characteristics.characteristics.

Identity remains largely constant across Identity remains largely constant across roles and situations.roles and situations.

Considerable fluidity between ingroups Considerable fluidity between ingroups and outgroups.and outgroups.

Interdependent View of SelfInterdependent View of Self

Individual’s identity is importantly Individual’s identity is importantly interdependent with others.interdependent with others.

Key aspects of identity include roles, Key aspects of identity include roles, relationships, and memberships.relationships, and memberships.

As roles change across situations, identity As roles change across situations, identity is also somewhat fluid across situations.is also somewhat fluid across situations.

Clear distinction between ingroups and Clear distinction between ingroups and outgroups.outgroups.

Culture and BusinessCulture and Business

1. How should a company determine compensation of its employees?

a) A company should take into account the size of the employee’s family. The company should be responsible for paying additional compensation for each additional family member.

b) An employee should be paid on the basis of the work s/he is doing for the company. Therefore, the company does not have to take into account the employee’s family.

2. Suppose you, as a manager, are in the process of hiring a new employee to work in your department. Which of the two following considerations is more important:

a) The new employee must fit into the group or team in which s/he is to work.

b) The new employee must have the skills, the knowledge, and a record of success in a previous job.

Determining compensation

Percentage of people who agree with “b”:Family size of the employee is not a relevant factor for a

company to consider in determining compensation.

England

USA

Japan

Italy

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Hiring

Percentage of People who chose “b”:The new employee must have the skills, the knowledge,

and a record of success in a previous job.

0

20

40

60

80

100

USA

Germ

any

Singapore

France

Italy

Self-ConsistencySelf-Consistency

The interdependent self should be more The interdependent self should be more contextually variable than the independent contextually variable than the independent self.self.

When people are in different situations When people are in different situations they are often in different rolesthey are often in different roles if the identity of the interdependent self is if the identity of the interdependent self is

grounded in roles, then across situations, grounded in roles, then across situations, identity should vary.identity should vary.

ExampleExample

In one study, Japanese and American students In one study, Japanese and American students completed the Twenty Statements Test in completed the Twenty Statements Test in different situations (Kanagawa et al., 2001).different situations (Kanagawa et al., 2001).

There were 4 test-taking situations: There were 4 test-taking situations: alonealone with peerswith peers in a professor’s office in a professor’s office in a large classin a large class

DV: how similarly positive people’s self-DV: how similarly positive people’s self-descriptions were across situations.descriptions were across situations.

American DataAmerican Data

American self-American self-descriptions were descriptions were highly similar highly similar across different across different situations.situations.

Their self-Their self-descriptions were descriptions were also uniformly also uniformly positive.positive.

Ratio of Positive to Negative Statements

Japanese DataJapanese Data

Japanese self-Japanese self-descriptions varied descriptions varied significantly across significantly across different situations.different situations.

They were more positive They were more positive when alone and most when alone and most critical when with their critical when with their professor.professor.

Their self-descriptions Their self-descriptions were also less positive were also less positive than the Americans.than the Americans.

Ratio of Positive to Negative Statements

Why do cultures vary in self-consistency?Why do cultures vary in self-consistency?

Often, cultural tendencies are functionalOften, cultural tendencies are functional People behave according to cultural norms People behave according to cultural norms

because they derive benefits from it.because they derive benefits from it.

Westerners benefit more than East Asians Westerners benefit more than East Asians from being consistent across situations.from being consistent across situations.

ExampleExample

Study compared how consistently Koreans Study compared how consistently Koreans and Americans described themselves and Americans described themselves across roles (Suh, 2002). across roles (Suh, 2002).

A consistency score was calculated for each A consistency score was calculated for each participant.participant.

Americans described themselves more Americans described themselves more consistently than did Koreans.consistently than did Koreans.

These consistency scores were then These consistency scores were then correlated with some other variables.correlated with some other variables.

Benefits of ConsistencyBenefits of Consistency

For Americans, For Americans, positive correlations positive correlations

between consistency and between consistency and well-being, social skills, well-being, social skills, and likability.and likability.

For Koreans,For Koreans, the correlations were far the correlations were far

weakerweaker

Americans benefit more Americans benefit more from being consistent from being consistent across roles than do across roles than do Koreans. Koreans.

Correlations between Self-Consistency and...

Self-consistencySelf-consistency Note that the East Asian tendency to be less consistent Note that the East Asian tendency to be less consistent

across situations does not mean unpredictability.across situations does not mean unpredictability.

East Asians are also consistent but it’s a different kind of East Asians are also consistent but it’s a different kind of consistency than found among Westerners.consistency than found among Westerners. consistency across time within each kind of relationship.consistency across time within each kind of relationship. East Asians may feel differently about themselves when they’re East Asians may feel differently about themselves when they’re

with their family than when they’re with their friends, with their family than when they’re with their friends, The family self remains constant, and the friend self remains The family self remains constant, and the friend self remains

constant (see English & Chen, 2007).constant (see English & Chen, 2007).

A Western PsychologyA Western Psychology

Why doesn’t psychology examine Why doesn’t psychology examine role-consistency instead of self-role-consistency instead of self-consistency?consistency? Americans would then be the exceptionAmericans would then be the exception Non-Westerners would be the normNon-Westerners would be the norm

Self-AwarenessSelf-Awareness

Think back to your high school graduation, Think back to your high school graduation, when you stood on stage and received when you stood on stage and received your diploma.your diploma.

Is your mental imagery about this event Is your mental imagery about this event more from the 1st person perspective more from the 1st person perspective (what you saw from the stage) or from the (what you saw from the stage) or from the 3rd person perspective (how people saw 3rd person perspective (how people saw you from the audience)? you from the audience)?

ExampleExample (Cohen & Gunz, 2002) (Cohen & Gunz, 2002)

Participants indicated whether their Participants indicated whether their memories contained 1st person or 3rd memories contained 1st person or 3rd person imagery for a variety of events.person imagery for a variety of events.

In some of the events they were the center In some of the events they were the center of attention (e.g., your birthday party) and of attention (e.g., your birthday party) and some they were not the center of attention some they were not the center of attention (e.g., watching a movie with friends).(e.g., watching a movie with friends).

This study suggests that East Asians are This study suggests that East Asians are attending to the perspective of an attending to the perspective of an audience so much more than are audience so much more than are Westerners that this perspective Westerners that this perspective influences their memories.influences their memories.

Cultural Differences in Interpreting Social Cultural Differences in Interpreting Social EventsEvents

(Chua, Leu, & Nisbett, 2005)(Chua, Leu, & Nisbett, 2005)

Main character focus:Main character focus: ““To what extent were the passages about Emma?” (Scale To what extent were the passages about Emma?” (Scale

1-9)1-9) ““To what extent were the passages about Jason, Elliot, To what extent were the passages about Jason, Elliot,

Elliot’s cousin, Michele, Hannah, Amelia, Tom, and Elliot’s cousin, Michele, Hannah, Amelia, Tom, and Professor Lewin, etc.?” (Scale 1-9)Professor Lewin, etc.?” (Scale 1-9)

Agency focus:Agency focus: ““To what extent were the characters’ actions driven by their To what extent were the characters’ actions driven by their

plans and goals?” (Scale 1-9)plans and goals?” (Scale 1-9) ““To what extent were the characters’ actions influenced by To what extent were the characters’ actions influenced by

the circumstances they found themselves in?” (Scale 1-9)the circumstances they found themselves in?” (Scale 1-9)

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

7.5

8

Chinese American

Rati

ng

of

Fo

cu

s o

f th

e D

iary

(Scale

1-9

)

About Main Character

About Others

F(1, 55) = 2.14, p <.01

5

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

6

6.2

6.4

Chinese American

Rati

ng

of

Main

Ch

ara

cte

r's I

nte

nti

on

s

(Scale

1-9

)

Goals

Circumstances

F(1, 54) = 4.94, p < .05

Emotion PerceptionEmotion Perception

Are there cultural differences between EuropeanAre there cultural differences between EuropeanAmericans and Japanese in…Americans and Japanese in…

1.1. whether social context influences emotion perception whether social context influences emotion perception of a target? (Masuda, Ellsworth, Mesquita, Leu, et al., of a target? (Masuda, Ellsworth, Mesquita, Leu, et al., 2008)2008)

Target stimuli:Target stimuli:

JON

Central = Happy Background = Angry

Central = Happy Background = Sad

Central = Happy Background = Happy

Central = Happy Background = Neutral

Emotion of Background Figures: Angry, Sad, Happy, Neutral

Emotions of Central Figures: Angry, Sad, Happy X

Angry Sad Happy

Angry Sad Happy Neutral

X XXX

MethodsMethods• Participants:

•40 Japanese in Japan•40 European American in the US

• Procedure:•Rating intensity of center figure’s emotion(s)

•Measures:•Emotion Scales (0-9): anger, happiness, sadness

Central Person = HappyCentral Person = Happy

4

5

6

7

8

9

Angry Sad Happy Neutral Background Emotions

USA JPN

Inte

nsi

ty R

atin

gs

of H

ap

pin

ess

0

1

2

3

Central Person = HappyCentral Person = Happy

Angry Sad Happy Neutral Background Emotions

USA JPN

Inte

nsi

ty R

atin

gs

of A

nge

r

Incremental vs. Entity Theories Incremental vs. Entity Theories of Selfof Self

Incremental theories of self Incremental theories of self abilities are malleable and are capable of abilities are malleable and are capable of

being changed, with effort.being changed, with effort. Entity theories of self Entity theories of self

abilities are largely fixed, and reflect innate abilities are largely fixed, and reflect innate features of the self.features of the self.

Interdependent selves: more incremental Interdependent selves: more incremental and less entity-based theories of self. and less entity-based theories of self.

Independent selves: more entity and less Independent selves: more entity and less incremental-based theories of self.incremental-based theories of self.

What is Intelligence Based On?

Japanese Asian-Americans Euro-Americans

In-class Activity: ExamplesIn-class Activity: Examples

Gender and mathGender and math Ethnicity and Ethnicity and intelligenceintelligence