status of porcine cysticercosis in the smallholder pig production systems in uganda

Status of porcine cysticercosis in the Smallholder Pig Production systems in Uganda

Joseph Kungu and Michel Dione

GALVmed Porcine Cysticercosis Meeting, Kampala, Uganda, 26-27 January 2015

Importance of Pig Production in Uganda

Pig production- a dynamic and rapidly growing sector in Uganda. In the past three decades increased from 0.19 to 3.2 million pigs (UBOS, 2009; FAO, 2011).

Uganda has the highest per capita consumption (3.4 kg/person/year) in the region -10 times increase in the last 30 years, whereas beef is declining (FAO, 2011)

Structure of the Pig Sector in Uganda

A large informal subsector

• More than1.1 million households.• Backyard pig production, mainly managed by

women and children, as means to diversify risk and increase livelihood security.

• Tethering & scavenging are common.• In few districts, peri-urban small-scale semi-

intensive systems • Uncoordinated trade & transport• Mostly unsupervised slaughter, no meat

inspection in local markets, road-side butchers• Pork joints

Pig production types

• Piglet producers - farmers who focus on piglet production and sell weaners.

• Farmers start weaning piglets at 2-3 months of age.

• Growers - Farmers who buy or rear piglets, fatten and sell grown pigs for slaughter.

Pig feeding systems• Feeding 60-75% of total variable costs

• Crop residues, forages and kitchen leftovers represent 70-75% of the diet. Crop residues replaced by grasses and weeds during crop growing seasons.

• Sweet potato vines the most preferred fodder for pigs,

regardless of VC domain; the 2nd most preferred cassava leaves in rural, while yam leaves in peri-urban VCs.

• Feed collection and feeding mainly done by women and children, however men and hired labor participate more in peri-urban farms.

• Main constraints as identified by farmers: fodder shortages in the dry season, high cost of commercial feeds, price fluctuations of feed ingredients and poor quality of purchased feeds.

Changes in the use of different breed-types in Masaka, during the last 10 years

Pig keeping systems (n=1165)

House not raised floor Tethered pig Scavenging pig

House with raised floor

Confinement type

value chain domain

TotalRR RU UU

Backyard confinement 43 (6.08) 11 (5.07) 27 (11.2) 81 (6.95)

IMO 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.41) 1 (0.09)

Housed-raised floor 38 (5.37) 33 (15.21) 69 (28.63) 140 (12.02)

Housed cemented floor 51 (7.21) 47 (21.66) 98 (40.66) 196 (16.82)

Housed-non-cemented floor 48 (6.79) 14 (6.45) 8 (3.32) 70 (6.01)

Free-range 43 (6.08) 16 (7.37) 9 (3.73) 68 (5.84)

Tethering on pastures 19 (2.69) 6 (2.76) 2 (0.83) 27 (2.32)

Tethering under a tree shade 465 (65.77) 90 (41.47) 27 (11.2) 582 (49.96)

Total 707 (100) 217 (100) 241 (100) 1165 (100)

Disease

Rural-Rural (n=170) Rural-Urban (n=90)

Urban-Urban (n=80)

Morbidity (%)

Mortality (%)

Case fatality (%)

Morbidity (%)

Mortality (%)

Case fatality (%)

Morbidity (%)

Mortality (%)

Case Fatality (%)

ASF 29.8 23.1 77.5 43.1 31.8 73.6 15.8 7.5 47.5worms 55.1 12.0 21.9 35.0 5.0 14.4 22.3 1.8 8.3mange 16.1 1.9 11.5 14.8 1.1 7.5 14.0 0.4 2.8

lice 9.8 0.3 3.6 7.5 0.0 0.6 1.1 0.0 0.3midge 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.3

diarrhea 5.8 1.3 4.7 4.6 0.7 5.4 5.6 0.5 4.2malnutrition 2.4 0.1 2.6 3.6 0.0 0.9 4.3 0.1 3.2

FMD 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.1Others* 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 0.2 4.9 0.3 0.0 0.8

Pig diseases prioritized by farmers

*Swine erysipelas, anemia, ticks, jiggers, heat stress, fever, undiagnosed diseases usually related to sudden death

Pig movement control and animal welfare

• Lack of pig movement control• Poor transportation means

Pig being transported from Masaka to Kampala

Pig being transported from a rural village to the town in Lira district

Pig being transported from a rural village (Tenjeru) to the town in Mukono district

Slaughtering and handling practicesBackyard slaughter Use of banana leaves as underway

No proper disposable of offal's after slaughtering Tool sharing

Main issues on Animal Health and Husbandry- African swine fever the most important production disease

(endemic, high mortality , and persistent outbreaks especially during the dry season).

- Worms and ectoparasites (lice, mange, jiggers, flies and ticks) also endemic and lead to LWG losses, and reduce market prices.

- Low efficacy of drugs, especially dewormers and antibiotics, attributed by farmers to poor quality (“fake drugs”).

- Poor biosecurity on farm and along the value chain a major constraint for controlling ASF outbreaks.

- Lack of knowledge on best management practices and biosecurity measures pointed out by farmers

- Poor regulation and enforcement on disease control and drug quality

Porcine cysticercosis• Pork tapeworm, Taenia solium (T. solium) , a zoonosis associated

with pig farming and consumption of under-cooked pork is endemic in Uganda.

• The infection affects swine as porcine cysticercosis, humans as

taeniosis, and human cysticercosis.

• The larval stage of the pork tapeworm, generally referred to as T. solium cysticercosis , has for decades caused unestimated suffering.

• It lowers economic productivity when it affects pigs and causes direct human health defects.

• Pigs and causes direct human health defects

Epidemiology of the taeniosis-T. solium cysticercosis complex (1)

• The taeniosis-T.solium cysticercosis complex probably occurs in the whole country. Border towns (10-27%), Kaliro and Kamuli (25%) (Nsadha et al, 2011; Nsadha et al, 2014).

• Kamuli, Mukono, Masaka (15.8%)(Kungu et al, 2015, Unpublished).

• No estimated prevalence of taeniosis-T. solium cysticercosis in humans

• Expected to be prominent in pig keeping communities (Central ,41.1%; Western, 24.4%;Eastern ,22%; Northern ,10.7%; Karamoja, 1.8% (UBOS, 2008).

Epidemiology of the taeniosis-T. solium cysticercosis complex (2)

• Distribution however influenced by variation of factors such as management practices (free roaming), hygiene and sanitation, consumption of undercooked pork, un-inspection of pork, tapeworm carriers in vicinity.

Material and Methods• A cross-sectional study was carried out from April to August 2013 in

Masaka, Mukono and Kamuli districts of Uganda to determine the prevalence of the infection in pigs kept under urban and rural production systems.

• A total of 1185 pigs sampled and their sera tested for presence of T. solium cysticercosis antigen using the HP10 antigen-ELISA and B158/B60 antigen-ELISA assays.

• A household questionnaire administered to pig owner to assess potential risk factor for the infection.

• Using binomial logistic regression analysis (univariable and multivariable), odds ratios determining association of the potential risk factors with the infection were determined.

Prevalence findings• Overall apparent sero-prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in the 3

districts was 12.2% using parallel interpretation of the results of HP10 antigen-ELISA (8.1%) and B158/B60 antigen-ELISA (4.4%) tests respectively.

• The HP10 Ag-ELISA test had higher sensitivity (64.9%) and lower Specificity (92.2%) compared to B158/B60 Ag-ELISA test (Sensitivity=35.4%, Specificity=95.9%).

• By assuming conditional independence of the two tests (McNemar χ2=13.83, P=0.0002), the overall estimated true prevalence was 15.8%.

• The disease seropositivity in pigs varied from 0-54.3% in rural villages and 5.9-25.3% in urban ones.

Toilets constructed near the pig pens

Toilets constructed near the pig pens (open toilet without door)

Open toilet without door

Risk factors (1)

There were significant associations of T.

solium cysticercosis with the exotic and

crossbred pigs, unprotected water

sources, not boiling drinking water

and homesteads with family members

who are unable to use latrines.

Risk factors (2)

Most farmers in Masaka, Mukono and Kamuli districts had an idea about the disease but could not link taeniosis with human cysticercosis and porcine cysticercosis which has made eradication of the condition difficult.

Disease causal web

Conclusion

• This study has set a platform for more extensive research about the disease dynamics in pigs and humans to enable setting up appropriate control measures.

• Control of T. solium is feasible considering that a holistic approach undertaken i.e combining therapeutic and measures that limit the prevailing risk factors.

Acknowledgements

• Small Holder Pig Value Chain Development Project funded by IFAD

• Safe Food-Fair Food Project (GIZ funded)• ILRI CGIAR Livestock and Fish• Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH)• DAAD• COVAB, Makerere University• Researchers and farmers who participated in

this study.

CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world.

CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish

livestockfish.cgiar.org

EU/IFAD; ILRI; The team of facilitators; The local government authorities of Masaka, Mukono and Kamuli districts; VEDCO in Kamuli