the classification of languages introduction to linguistics 2
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The classification of languagesThe classification of languagesIntroduction to Linguistics 2Introduction to Linguistics 2
Defining languageDefining language
Dialect and languageDefining criteria
If two speeches are mutually intelligible, they are dialects.
Dialect and languageDefining criteria
If two speeches are mutually intelligible, they are dialects.
Fuzzy boundaries Fuzzy boundaries
Claimed to be one language, but there are a variety of mutually unintelligible ‘dialects’. Chinese
Taiwanese, Cantonese, Mandarin/ Putonhua, Wu…
Claimed to be two independent languages, but they are actually mutually intelligible. Serbian and Croatian
Claimed to be one language, but there are a variety of mutually unintelligible ‘dialects’. Chinese
Taiwanese, Cantonese, Mandarin/ Putonhua, Wu…
Claimed to be two independent languages, but they are actually mutually intelligible. Serbian and Croatian
Approaches to language classification
Approaches to language classification
Genetic classificationLinguistic typology
Genetic classificationLinguistic typology
Genetic Classification Genetic Classification
Genetic classificationGenetic classification
Languages with related historical decent are said to be genetically related.
‘language families’
Languages with related historical decent are said to be genetically related.
‘language families’
Language familiesLanguage families
Case Study: The Indo-European language
family
Case Study: The Indo-European language
family
Linguistic TypologyLinguistic Typology
Linguistic typology Linguistic typology
Languages are grouped together according to the similarities of their linguistic features.
Languages are grouped together according to the similarities of their linguistic features.
Linguistic UniversalsLinguistic Universals
The common linguistic features that are found in all or most languages.
The common linguistic features that are found in all or most languages.
How to describe linguistic universals
How to describe linguistic universals
Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies
Implicational universalsMarkedness theory
Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies
Implicational universalsMarkedness theory
Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies
Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies
Absolute universalsThe linguistic features that occur in
ALL languagesUniversal tendencies
The linguistic features that occur in MOST languages
Absolute universalsThe linguistic features that occur in
ALL languagesUniversal tendencies
The linguistic features that occur in MOST languages
Implicational universalsImplicational universals
The presence of one linguistic feature in one language must indicate the occurrence of another.
If A is found in language L, B must be also present in language L.
The implication is one-way.Example:
If one language has fricative phonemes, it will also have stop phonemes
The presence of one linguistic feature in one language must indicate the occurrence of another.
If A is found in language L, B must be also present in language L.
The implication is one-way.Example:
If one language has fricative phonemes, it will also have stop phonemes
Implicational universals: Example
Implicational universals: Example
The implication is one-way.Example:
If one language has fricative phonemes (/s/, /z/), it will also have stop phonemes (/p/, /t/).
But not vice versa.
The implication is one-way.Example:
If one language has fricative phonemes (/s/, /z/), it will also have stop phonemes (/p/, /t/).
But not vice versa.
Markedness theoryMarkedness theory
The most common/default features are unmarked.
The less common features are marked.
The most common/default features are unmarked.
The less common features are marked.
Markedness theory:example
Markedness theory:example
Gender in nounsWhich is marked? Masculine or feminine
? Prince-princess; actor-actressDoctor-female doctor; nurse-male nurse
萬綠叢中一點紅Which is marked?
Gender in nounsWhich is marked? Masculine or feminine
? Prince-princess; actor-actressDoctor-female doctor; nurse-male nurse
萬綠叢中一點紅Which is marked?
Typological classification by Typological classification by
PhonologyMorphologySyntax
PhonologyMorphologySyntax
Typology: phonologyTypology: phonology
Vowel systemsConsonant systemsSuprasegmental systemsSyllable structure
Vowel systemsConsonant systemsSuprasegmental systemsSyllable structure
Typology: phonology: vowel Typology: phonology: vowel
UniversalsThe most common vowel system
5 vowels /a/-/i/-/u/-/e/-/o/The most common phonemes
/a/-/i/-/u/Front vowel phonemes are generally unr
ounded.Low vowels are generally unrounded.
UniversalsThe most common vowel system
5 vowels /a/-/i/-/u/-/e/-/o/The most common phonemes
/a/-/i/-/u/Front vowel phonemes are generally unr
ounded.Low vowels are generally unrounded.
Typology: phonology: Consonant
Typology: phonology: Consonant
Universals All languages have stops/p, t, k/The most common fricative phoneme is /s/Most of languages have at least one nasal.
Implicational universalsFricatives -> stopsVoiced obstruents -> voiceless obstruentsAffricates -> stops and fricatives
Universals All languages have stops/p, t, k/The most common fricative phoneme is /s/Most of languages have at least one nasal.
Implicational universalsFricatives -> stopsVoiced obstruents -> voiceless obstruentsAffricates -> stops and fricatives
Typology: phonology: suprasemental
Typology: phonology: suprasemental
Types Tone languages
Languages that use pitch to make semantic distinctions of words
Mandarin Chinese Stress languages
Fixed stressFree stress
Syllable structureCV, V
Types Tone languages
Languages that use pitch to make semantic distinctions of words
Mandarin Chinese Stress languages
Fixed stressFree stress
Syllable structureCV, V
Typology: morphology Typology: morphology
The isolating typeThe polysynthetic typeThe synthetic type
The agglutinating typeThe fusional type
The isolating typeThe polysynthetic typeThe synthetic type
The agglutinating typeThe fusional type
Typology: morphology: The isolating/analytic type
Typology: morphology: The isolating/analytic type
One word represents one single morpheme. No affixes
Mandarin Chinese
One word represents one single morpheme. No affixes
Mandarin Chinese
Typology: morphology: The polysynthetic typeTypology: morphology: The polysynthetic type
One single word with a long string of roots and affixes
The semantic equivalent of one sentence in other languages.Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luunar-nar-p
uq ‘some one did not find a completely suitable resting place.’ (Inuktitut)
One single word with a long string of roots and affixes
The semantic equivalent of one sentence in other languages.Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luunar-nar-p
uq ‘some one did not find a completely suitable resting place.’ (Inuktitut)
Typology: morphology: The agglutinating type Typology: morphology: The agglutinating type
An agglutinating words Contains several morphemesThe root and affixes in the words can
be semantically identified.
An agglutinating words Contains several morphemesThe root and affixes in the words can
be semantically identified.
Swahili Tu –ta –wa -on- esha we-fut.-them-see-cause 'we will show them'
An aggluinating example: Antidisestablishmentarianism
An aggluinating example: Antidisestablishmentarianism
establish (9) to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin star
e, to stand) dis-establish (12)
ending the established status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England
disestablish-ment (16) the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it
is the political movement of the 1860s in Britain) anti-disestablishment (20)
opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishment-arian (25)
an advocate of opposition to disestablishment Antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28)
the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment
establish (9) to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin star
e, to stand) dis-establish (12)
ending the established status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England
disestablish-ment (16) the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it
is the political movement of the 1860s in Britain) anti-disestablishment (20)
opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishment-arian (25)
an advocate of opposition to disestablishment Antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28)
the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment
Typology: morphology: The fusional/inflectional type
Typology: morphology: The fusional/inflectional type
A fusional/inflectional word contains several morphemes which indicate grammatical categories. Ein kleiner Hamster "a little hamster" (nominati
ve case) Der kleine Hamster "the little hamster" (nominative case) Ich sah den kleinen Hamster "I saw the little ha
mster" (accusative case) Mit kleinem Hamster "with little hamster" (dati
ve case).
A fusional/inflectional word contains several morphemes which indicate grammatical categories. Ein kleiner Hamster "a little hamster" (nominati
ve case) Der kleine Hamster "the little hamster" (nominative case) Ich sah den kleinen Hamster "I saw the little ha
mster" (accusative case) Mit kleinem Hamster "with little hamster" (dati
ve case).
Typology: syntaxTypology: syntax
Word order universalsSVOSOVVSO
Word order universalsSVOSOVVSO
Word order: SVOWord order: SVO
John loves Mary. John loves Mary.
word order: SOVword order: SOV
私 は 箱 を 開けます。watashi-wa-hako-o-akemasu. I box open‘I open the box.’
私 は 箱 を 開けます。watashi-wa-hako-o-akemasu. I box open‘I open the box.’
word order: OSVword order: OSV
Sentence الكتاب المدرس قرأ
Words الكتاب المدرس قرأ
al-kitāba al-mudarrisu Qara'a
Read. the teacher the book
Parts Object Subject Verb
Translation The teacher read the book.
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