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The Making of Industrial Society
Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display.
Energy: coal and steam replace wind, water, human and animal labor
Organization: factories over cottage industries
Rural agriculture declines, urban manufacturing increases
Transportation: trains, automobiles replace animals, watercraft
2
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The Industrial Middle Class Urban Proletariat Shift in political power Inspiration for new political systems,
esp. Marxism
3
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Genesis of an environmental catastrophe• Intellectual origins of human domination
over natural resources• Unforeseen toxins, occupational hazards
Social ills• Landless proletariat• Migrating work forces
4
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Great Britain, 1780s Followed agricultural (or agrarian)
revolution Food surplus• Disposable income• Population increase
Market Labor supply
5
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Jethro Tull and his seed drill (1701)
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Strong banking tradition Natural resources
• Coal, iron ore Ease of transportation
• Size of country• River and canal system
Exports to imperial colonies• Esp. machine textiles
7
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Flying shuttle doubled weaving output • without doubling supply of yarn
Spinning jenny (1768)• Increased supply of yarn, faster than flying
shuttle could process Power loom (1787) met supply of
yarn
8
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The yarn passes through the heddles in each shaft of this four-shaft table loom. This is a view from the rear of the loom.
A Turkish woman works at a traditional loom. Vertical looms were probably the first to be invented.
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The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves in 1764 and vastly improved upon by Richard Arkwright in 1769 when it was
water powered. This led to the world's first water-powered cotton
mill.
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Massive machinery Supply of labor Transport of raw materials, finished
product to markets Concentration in newly built factory
towns on rivers
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050
100150200250300350400
Lbs. (mill.)
1760 1840
Cotton Imports to UK Steam Engine
• James Watt (1736-1819)
• Coal fired• Applied to rotary
engine, multiple applications
1760: 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton imported
1787: 22 million 1840: 360 million
12
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James Watt and his steam engine
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Fulton presents the first steamship to Bonaparte in 1803.
Robert Fulton
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Cheap cotton from American south Benefit of transatlantic slave trade
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Henry Cort devises method of refining iron ore (1780s)• First major advance since middle ages
1852 produces more high-quality iron than rest of world combined
18
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Henry Bessemer and the Bessemer Furnace,
which could efficiently change molten iron into
steel by forcing air through the iron to burn away carbon and other
impurities.
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1804 first steam-powered locomotive Capacity: Ten tons + 70 passengers
@ 5 mph The Rocket from Liverpool to
Manchester (1830), 16 mph Ripple effect on industrialization Engineering and architecture
20
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Early modern Europe adopts “putting-out” system
Individuals work at home, employers avoid wage restrictions of medieval guilds
Rising prices cause factories to replace both guilds and putting-out system• Machines too large, expensive for home use• Large buildings could house specialized laborers• Urbanization guarantees supply of cheap unskilled
labor
21
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An Iron Forge by Joseph Wright, 1772
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Dramatic shift from rural work rhythms Six days a week, fourteen hours a day Immediate supervision, punishments “Luddite” Protest against machines 1811-
1816• Name from legend about boy named Ludlam who
broke a knitting frame• Leader called “King Lud”
Masked Luddites destroy machinery, enjoyed popular support
14 Luddites hung in 1813, movement dies out
24
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Development of technical schools for engineers, architects, etc.
Government support for large public works projects (canals, rail system)
Spreads throughout Germany under Bismarck
25
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Industrial Europe ca. 1850
26
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Eli Whitney (U.S., 1765-1825) invents cotton gin (1793), also technique of using machine tools to make interchangeable parts for firearms
Applied to wide variety of machines Henry Ford, 1913, develops assembly
line approach• Complete automobile chassis every 93
minutes• Previously: 728 minutes
27
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Eli Whitney is credited with creating the cotton gin, a mechanical device which
removes the seeds from cotton, a process which until that time
had been extremely labor-intensive.
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American Charles Goodyear discovered how to make rubber
less sticky. His vulcanization process
is the basis of the modern rubber
industry.
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1800 US agrarian• Population 5 million• No city larger than 100,000• 6/7 Americans farmers
1860 US industrializing• Population 30 million• Nine cities 100K +• ½ Americans farmers
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Workday: 6 am to 7 pm• 2 hours total for meals
Lateness: 2 minutes fined ½ hour pay, more than 2 minutes partial shift
Conversation prohibited
32
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01020304050607080
Percentage of Total US
Weath
1800 1860
Richest 10
Other 90
33
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New class, evolved from guild merchants in cities
“bourgeoisie” Capitalists Begin to eclipse power and status of
agrarian landed classes
34
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Large factories require start-up capital
Corporations formed to share risk, maximize profits
Britain and France lay foundations for modern corporation, 1850-1860s• Private business owned by hundreds,
thousands or even millions of stockholders• Investors get dividends if profitable, lose
only investments in case of bankruptcy
35
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Large corporations form blocs to drive out competition, keep prices high• John D. Rockefeller controls almost all oil
drilling, processing, refining, marketing in U.S.
• German IG Farben controls 90% of chemical production
Governments often slow to control monopolies
36
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Technological innovation• Improved agricultural tools
Cheap manufactured goods• Especially textiles
Travel and transportation
37
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Samuel Morse
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Varieties of the telegraph
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0
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150
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250
300
350
400
1700 1800 1900
Europe
Americas
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Industrialization results in marked decline of both fertility and mortality
Costs of living increase in industrial societies
Urbanization proceeds dramatically• 1800: only 20% of Britons live in towns with
population over 10,000• 1900: 75% of Britons live in urban
environments
41
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London: 1 million in 1800, 2.4 million in 1850 Wealthy classes move out to suburbs Industrial slum areas develop in city centers Open gutters as sewage systems
• Danger of Cholera First sewage systems, piped water only in
1848
42
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19th-early 20th centuries, rapid population growth drives Europeans to Americas• 50 million cross Atlantic• Britons to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid
potato famines of 1840s, Jews to abandon Tsarist persecution
• United States favored destination
43
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Economic factors result in decline of slavery
Capitalist wealth brings new status to non-aristocratic families
New urban classes of professionals Blue-collar factory workers Urban environment also creates new
types of diversions• Sporting events
44
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Agricultural, cottage industry work involved women: natural transition
But development of men as prime breadwinners, women in private sphere, working cheap labor
Double burden: women expected to maintain home as well as work in industry
Related to child labor: lack of day care facilities
45
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Easily exploited• Low wages: 1/6 to 1/3 of adult male wages• High discipline
Advantages of size• Coal tunnels• Gathering loose cotton under machinery
Cotton industry, 1838: children 29% of workforce
Factory Act of 1833: 9 years minimum working age
46
Copyright © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Permission Required for Reproduction or Display.Young, Industrial Revolution workers
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Two girls wearing banners with slogan "ABOLISH CHILD SLAVERY!!" in English and Yiddish, May 1, 1909 labor parade in New York City
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Accepting the idea that a species produced more offspring than the food supply could support, members of each species had to compete to survive, allowing the most able of the species to survive, leading to an improved society.
Social Darwinism promoted the thought that successful businessmen were successful because they were more genetically ‘fit’ to succeed than others.
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Many began to question whether laissez-faire (French phrase meaning "let do, let go, let pass.") capitalism was the best economic system. Some of these reformers advocated a political and social system known as socialism. Under socialism, governments own the means of production and operates them for the benefit of all people, rich and poor.
Socialism focused on the overall interests of the majority of society. Socialists believed that laissez faire capitalism had created a large gap between the rich and the poor. Under socialism, farms and businesses would belong to the people, not to individuals.
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Socialism first used in context of Utopian Socialists Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Opposed competition of market system
Attempted to create small model communities
Inspirational for larger social units
52
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Two major classes: • Capitalists, who control means of production• Proletariat, wageworkers who sell labor
Exploitative nature of capitalist system
Religion: “opiate of the masses” Argued for an overthrow of capitalists
in favor of a “dictatorship of the proletariat”
53
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Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who together published The Communist Manifesto
“Workers of all countries, unite!”
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The hammer and sickle is a symbol used to represent communism and communist political parties. The two tools are symbols of the peasantry and the industrial proletariat; placing them together symbolizes the unity between agricultural and industrial workers.
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John Stuart Mill, who believed that the government should work for the good of all its citizens. Mill was a utilitarian (u·til·i·tar·i·an), which holds that one must
always act so as to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
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Slower starts on industrial process Russia constructs huge railway
network across Siberia under finance minister Count Sergei Witte
Japanese government takes initiative by hiring thousands of foreign experts• Reforms iron inudstry• Opens universities, specializing in science
and technology
57
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Global division of labor• Rural societies that produce raw materials• Urban societies that produce manufactured
goods Uneven economic development Developing export dependencies of
Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and south-east Asia• Low wages, small domestic markets
58
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Conservatism was the set of beliefs held by classes who had previously been in power: monarchs, nobles, and church leaders. They wanted a return to previous class structures, prior to the revolutions. These individuals formed a new business aristocracy.
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