the pratice and science of drawing - harold speed

7/31/2019 The Pratice and Science of Drawing - Harold Speed

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Title:ThePracticeandScienceOfDrawing

Author:HaroldSpeed

ReleaseDate:December6,2004[EBook#14264]

Language:English

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PRACTICE&SCIENCE

DRAWING

HAROLDSPEED

AssociÃ©delaSociÃ©tÃ©NationaledesBeaux-Arts,Paris;MemberoftheRoyalSocietyofPortraitPainters,&c.

With93Illustrations&Diagrams

LONDONSEELEY,SERVICE&CO.LIMITED38GREATRUSSELLSTREET1913

[Illustration:PlateI.

FOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFSAMEMONOCHROMEPAINTINGINDIFFERENTSTAGESILLUSTRATINGAMETHODOFSTUDYINGMASSDRAWINGWITHTHEBRUSH]

PREFACE

Permitmeinthefirstplacetoanticipatethedisappointmentofanystudentwhoopensthisbookwiththeideaoffinding"wrinkles"onhowtodrawfaces,trees,clouds,orwhatnot,shortcutstoexcellenceindrawing,oranyofthetrickssopopularwiththedrawingmastersofourgrandmothersandstilldearlylovedbyalargenumberofpeople.Nogoodcancomeofsuchmethods,fortherearenoshortcutstoexcellence.Buthelpofaverypracticalkinditistheaimofthefollowingpagestogive;althoughitmaybenecessarytomakeagreatercallupontheintelligenceofthestudentthantheseVictorianmethodsattempted.

Itwasnotuntilsometimeafterhavingpassedthroughthecourseoftrainingintwoofourchiefschoolsofartthattheauthorgotanyidea

ofwhatdrawingreallymeant.Whatwastaughtwasthefaithfulcopyingofaseriesofobjects,beginningwiththesimplestforms,suchascubes,cones,cylinders,&c.(anexcellentsystemtobeginwithatpresentindangerofsomeneglect),afterwhichmorecomplicatedobjectsinplasterofPariswereattempted,andfinallycopiesofthehumanheadandfigureposedinsuspendedanimationandsupportedbyblocks,&c.Insofarasthiswasaccuratelydone,allthismechanicaltrainingofeyeandhandwasexcellent;butitwasnotenough.AndwhenwithaneyetrainedtotheclosestmechanicalaccuracytheauthorvisitedthegalleriesoftheContinentandstudiedthedrawingsoftheoldmasters,itsoonbecameapparentthateitherhisortheirideasofdrawingwereallwrong.Veryfewdrawingscouldbefoundsufficiently"likethemodel"toobtaintheprizeateitherofthegreatschoolshehad

attended.Luckilytherewasjustenoughmodestyleftforhimtorealisethatpossiblytheywereinsomemysteriouswayrightandhisowntraininginsomewaylacking.Andsohesettoworktotryandclimbthelonguphillroadthatseparatesmechanicallyaccuratedrawingfromartisticallyaccuratedrawing.

Nowthisjourneyshouldhavebeencommencedmuchearlier,andperhapsitwasduetohisownstupiditythatitwasnot;butitwaswithavagueideaofsavingsomestudentsfromsuchwrong-headedness,andpossiblystraighteningoutsomeofthepath,thatheacceptedtheinvitationtowritethisbook.

Inwritinguponanymatterofexperience,suchasart,thepossibilities

ofmisunderstandingareenormous,andoneshudderstothinkofthethingsthatmaybeputdowntoone'scredit,owingtosuchmisunderstandings.Itislikewritingaboutthetasteofsugar,youareonlylikelytobeunderstoodbythosewhohavealreadyexperiencedtheflavour;bythosewhohavenot,thewildestinterpretationwillbeputuponyourwords.Thewrittenwordisnecessarilyconfinedtothethingsoftheunderstandingbecauseonlytheunderstandinghaswrittenlanguage;whereasartdealswithideasofadifferentmentaltexture,whichwordscanonlyvaguelysuggest.However,therearealargenumberofpeoplewho,althoughtheycannotbesaidtohaveexperiencedina

fullsenseanyworksofart,haveundoubtedlytheimpellingdesirewhichalittledirectionmayleadontoafullerappreciation.Anditistosuchthatbooksonartareuseful.Sothatalthoughthisbookisprimarilyaddressedtoworkingstudents,itishopedthatitmaybeofinteresttothatincreasingnumberofpeoplewho,tiredwiththerushandstruggleofmodernexistence,seekrefreshmentinartisticthings.Tomanysuchinthiscountrymodernartisstillaclosedbook;itspointofviewissodifferentfromthatofthearttheyhavebeenbroughtupwith,thattheyrefusetohaveanythingtodowithit.Whereas,iftheyonlytookthetroubletofindoutsomethingofthepointofviewofthemodernartist,theywoulddiscovernewbeautiestheylittlesuspected.

IfanybodylooksatapicturebyClaudeMonetfromthepointofviewofaRaphael,hewillseenothingbutameaninglessjargonofwildpaint-strokes.AndifanybodylooksataRaphaelfromthepointofviewofaClaudeMonet,hewill,nodoubt,onlyseehard,tinnyfiguresinasettingdevoidofanyofthelovelyatmospherethatalwaysenvelopsformseeninnature.Sowideapartaresomeofthepointsofviewinpainting.Inthetreatmentofformthesedifferencesinpointofviewmakeforenormousvarietyinthework.Sothatnoapologyneedbemadeforthelargeamountofspaceoccupiedinthefollowingpagesbywhatisusuallydismissedasmeretheory;butwhatisinrealitythefirstessentialofanygoodpracticeindrawing.Tohaveaclearideaofwhat

itisyouwishtodo,isthefirstnecessityofanysuccessfulperformance.Butourexhibitionsarefullofworksthatshowhowseldomthisisthecaseinart.Worksshowingmuchingenuityandability,butnoartisticbrains;picturesthatarelittlemorethanschoolstudies,exercisesintherepresentationofcarefullyorcarelesslyarrangedobjects,butcoldtoanyartisticintention.

Atthistimeparticularlysomeprinciples,andaclearintellectualunderstandingofwhatitisyouaretryingtodo,areneeded.Wehavenosettraditionstoguideus.Thetimeswhenthestudentacceptedthestyleandtraditionsofhismasterandblindlyfollowedthemuntilhefoundhimself,aregone.Suchconditionsbelongedtoanagewhenintercommunicationwasdifficult,andwhentheartistichorizonwas

restrictedtoasingletownorprovince.Sciencehasalteredallthat,andwemayregretthelossoflocalcolourandsinglenessofaimthisgrowthofartinseparatecompartmentsproduced;butitisunlikelythatsuchconditionswilloccuragain.Quickmeansoftransitandcheapmethodsofreproductionhavebroughttheartofthewholeworldtoourdoors.Whereformerlytheartisticfoodatthedisposalofthestudentwasrestrictedtothefewpicturesinhisvicinityandsomeprintsofothers,nowthereisscarcelyapictureofnoteintheworldthatisnotknowntotheaveragestudent,eitherfrompersonalinspectionatourmuseumsandloanexhibitions,orfromexcellentphotographicreproductions.NotonlyEuropeanart,buttheartoftheEast,ChinaandJapan,ispartoftheformativeinfluencebywhichheissurrounded;nottomentionthemodernscienceoflightandcolourthathashadsuchan

influenceontechnique.Itisnowonderthataperiodofartisticindigestionisuponus.Hencethestudenthasneedofsoundprinciplesandaclearunderstandingofthescienceofhisart,ifhewouldselectfromthismassofmaterialthosethingswhichanswertohisowninnerneedforartisticexpression.

Thepositionofartto-dayislikethatofariverwheremanytributariesmeetingatonepoint,suddenlyturnthesteadyflowtoturbulence,themanystreamsjostlingeachotherandthedifferentcurrentspullinghitherandthither.Afteratimethesenewly-metforces

willadjustthemselvestothealteredcondition,andalarger,finerstreambetheresult.Somethinganalogoustothiswouldseemtobehappeninginartatthepresenttime,whenallnationsandallschoolsareactingandreactinguponeachother,andartislosingitsnationalcharacteristics.Thehopeofthefutureisthatalargeranddeeperart,answeringtothealteredconditionsofhumanity,willresult.

Therearethosewhowouldleavethissceneofstrugglinginfluencesandawayuponsomebareprimitivemountain-topstartanewstream,beginalloveragain.Buthowevernecessaryitmaybetogivetheprimitivemountainwatersthatwerethestartofallthestreamsamoreprominentplaceinthenewflowonwards,itisunlikelythatmuchcancomeofanyattempttoleavetheturbulentwaters,gobackwards,andstartagain;theycanonlyflowonwards.Tospeakmoreplainly,thecomplexityofmodernartinfluencesmaymakeitnecessarytocallattentiontotheprimitiveprinciplesofexpressionthatshouldneverbelostsightofinanywork,buthardlyjustifiestheattitudeofthoseanarchistsinartwhowouldflouttheheritageofculturewepossessandattemptanewstart.Suchattemptshoweverwhensincereareinterestingandmaybeproductiveofsomenewvitality,addingtotheweightofthemainstream.Butitmustbealongthemainstream,alonglinesinharmonywithtraditionthatthechiefadvancemustbelookedfor.

Althoughithasbeenfeltnecessarytodevotemuchspacetoanattempt

tofindprinciplesthatmaybesaidtobeatthebasisoftheartofallnations,theexecutivesideofthequestionhasnotbeenneglected.Anditishopedthatthelogicalmethodforthestudyofdrawingfromthetwooppositepointsofviewoflineandmasshereadvocatedmaybeuseful,andhelpstudentstoavoidsomeoftheconfusionthatresultsfromattemptingsimultaneouslythestudyofthesedifferentqualitiesofformexpression.

CONTENTS

I.INTRODUCTIONII.DRAWINGIII.VISIONIV.LINEDRAWINGV.MASSDRAWINGVI.THEACADEMICANDCONVENTIONALVII.THESTUDYOFDRAWINGVIII.LINEDRAWING:PRACTICALIX.MASSDRAWING:PRACTICALX.RHYTHM

XI.RHYTHM:VARIETYOFLINEXII.RHYTHM:UNITYOFLINEXIII.RHYTHM:VARIETYOFMASSXIV.RHYTHM:UNITYOFMASSXV.RHYTHM:BALANCEXVI.RHYTHM:PROPORTIONXVII.PORTRAITDRAWINGXVIII.THEVISUALMEMORYXIX.PROCEDUREXX.MATERIALS

XXI.CONCLUSION

APPENDIX

LISTOFPLATES

I.SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGESII.DRAWINGBYLEONARDODAVINCIIII.STUDYFOR"APRIL"IV.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOF"BOREAS"V.FROMASTUDYBYBOTTICELLIVI.STUDYBYALFREDSTEPHENSVII.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFAPOLLOVIII.STUDYFORAPICTUREIX.STUDYBYWATTEAUX.EXAMPLEOFXVTHCENTURYCHINESEWORKXI.LOSMENENAS.BYVELAZQUEZ

XII.STUDYATTRIBUTEDTOMICHAELANGELOXIII.STUDYBYDEGASXIV.DRAWINGBYERNESTCOLEXV.FROMAPENCILDRAWINGBYINGRESXVI.STUDYBYRUBENSXVII.ADEMONSTRATIONDRAWINGATTHEGOLDSMITHS'COLLEGEXVIII.STUDYILLUSTRATINGMETHODOFDRAWINGXIX.ILLUSTRATINGCURVEDLINESXX.STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOF"Love"XXI.STUDYILLUSTRATINGTREATMENTOFHAIRXXII.STUDYFORDECORATIONATAMIENSXXIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(1)XXIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(2)

XXIV.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(3)XXIV.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPAINTINGFROMACAST(4)XXV.ILLUSTRATINGSOMETYPICALBRUSHSTROKESXXVI.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(1)XXVII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(2)XXVIII.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(3)XXIX.DIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHESAMESTUDY(4)XXX.ASTUDYFORAPICTUREOF"ROSALINDANDORLANDO"XXXI.ILLUSTRATIONSFROMBLAKE'S"JOB"(PLATESI.,V.,X.,XXI.)XXXII.ILLUSTRATIONSFROMBLAKE'S"JOB"(PLATESII.,XI.,XVIII.,XIV.)XXXIII.FÃTECHAMPÃTREXXXIV.BACCHUSANDARIADNEXXXV.LOVEANDDEATH

XXXVI.SURRENDEROFBREDAXXXVII.THEBIRTHOFVENUSXXXVIII.THERAPEOFEUROPAXXXIX.BATTLEOFS.EGIDIOXL.THEASCENSIONOFCHRISTXLI.THEBAPTISMOFCHRISTXLII.PORTRAITOFTHEARTIST'SDAUGHTERXLIII.MONTESOLARO,CAPRIXLIV.PARTOFTHE"SURRENDEROFBREDA"XLV.VENUS,MERCURY,ANDCUPID

XLVI.OLYMPIAXLVII.L'EMBARQUEMENTPOURCYTHÃREXLVIII.THEANSIDEIMADONNAXLIX.FINDINGOFTHEBODYOFST.MARKL.FROMADRAWINGBYHOLBEINLI.SIRCHARLESDILKELII.JOHNREDMOND,M.P.LIII.THELADYAUDLEYLIV.STUDYONBROWNPAPERLV.FROMASILVERPOINTDRAWINGLVI.STUDYFORTREEIN"THEBOARHUNT"

LISTOFDIAGRAMS

I.TYPESOFFIRSTDRAWINGSBYCHILDRENII.SHOWINGWHERESQUARENESSESMAYBELOOKEDFORIII.ADEVICEFORENABLINGSTUDENTSTOOBSERVEAPPEARANCESASAFLATSUBJECTIV.SHOWINGTHREEPRINCIPLESOFCONSTRUCTIONUSEDINOBSERVINGMASSES,CURVES,ANDPOSITIONOFPOINTS

V.PLANOFCONEILLUSTRATINGPRINCIPLESOFLIGHTANDSHADEVI.ILLUSTRATINGSOMEPOINTSCONNECTEDWITHTHEEYESVII.EGGANDDARTMOULDINGVIII.ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRYIX.ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRYX.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFHORIZONTALLINESXI.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFVERTICALLINESXII.ILLUSTRATINGINFLUENCEOFTHERIGHTANGLEXIII.LOVEANDDEATHXIV.ILLUSTRATINGPOWEROFCURVEDLINESXV.THEBIRTHOFVENUSXVI.THERAPEOFEUROPAXVII.BATTLEOFS.EGIDIO

XVIII.SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYXIX.SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYXX.THEARTIST'SDAUGHTERXXI.THEINFLUENCEONTHEFACEOFDIFFERENTWAYSOFDOINGTHEHAIRXXII.THEINFLUENCEONTHEFACEOFDIFFERENTWAYSOFDOINGTHEHAIRXXIII.EXAMPLESOFEARLYITALIANTREATMENTOFTREESXXIV.THEPRINCIPLEOFMASSORTONERHYTHMXXV.MASSORTONERHYTHMIN"ULYSSESDERIDINGPOLYPHEMUS"XXVI.EXAMPLEOFCOROT'SSYSTEMOFMASSRHYTHMXXVII.ILLUSTRATINGHOWINTERESTMAYBALANCEMASSXXVIII.PROPORTION

THEPRACTICEANDSCIENCEOFDRAWING

INTRODUCTION

Thebestthingsinanartist'sworkaresomuchamatterofintuition,thatthereismuchtobesaidforthepointofviewthatwouldaltogetherdiscourageintellectualinquiryintoartisticphenomenaonthepartoftheartist.Intuitionsareshythingsandapttodisappeariflookedintotooclosely.Andthereisundoubtedlyadangerthattoomuchknowledgeandtrainingmaysupplantthenaturalintuitivefeelingofastudent,leavingonlyacoldknowledgeofthemeansofexpressioninitsplace.Fortheartist,ifhehastherightstuffinhim,hasaconsciousness,indoinghisbestwork,ofsomething,asRuskinhassaid,"notinhimbutthroughhim."Hehasbeen,asitwere,buttheagentthroughwhichithasfoundexpression.

Talentcanbedescribedas"thatwhichwehave,"andGeniusas"thatwhichhasus."Now,althoughwemayhavelittlecontroloverthispowerthat"hasus,"andalthoughitmaybeaswelltoabandononeselfunreservedlytoitsinfluence,therecanbelittledoubtastoitsbeingthebusinessoftheartisttoseetoitthathistalentbesodeveloped,thathemayproveafitinstrumentfortheexpressionofwhateveritmaybegivenhimtoexpress;whileitmustbelefttohisindividualtemperamenttodecidehowfaritisadvisabletopursueanyintellectual

analysisoftheelusivethingsthatarethetruematterofart.Providedthestudentrealisesthis,andthatarttrainingcanonlydealwiththeperfectingofameansofexpressionandthattherealmatterofartliesabovethisandisbeyondthescopeofteaching,hecannothavetoomuchofit.Foralthoughhemusteverbeachildbeforetheinfluencethatmoveshim,ifitisnotwiththeknowledgeofthegrownmanthathetakesoffhiscoatandapproachesthecraftofpaintingordrawing,hewillbepoorlyequippedtomakethemameansofconveyingtoothersinadequateformthethingshemaywishtoexpress.Greatthingsareonlydoneinartwhenthecreativeinstinctoftheartisthasawell-organisedexecutivefacultyatitsdisposal.

Ofthetwodivisionsintowhichthetechnicalstudyofpaintingcanbedivided,namelyFormandColour,weareconcernedinthisbookwithFormalone.Butbeforeproceedingtoourimmediatesubjectsomethingshouldbesaidastothenatureofartgenerally,notwiththeambitionofarrivingatanyfinalresultinashortchapter,butmerelyinordertogiveanideaofthepointofviewfromwhichthefollowingpagesarewritten,sothatmisunderstandingsmaybeavoided.

Thevarietyofdefinitionsthatexistjustifiessomeinquiry.Thefollowingareafewthatcometomind:

"Artisnatureexpressedthroughapersonality."

Butwhatofarchitecture?Ormusic?ThenthereisMorris's

"Artistheexpressionofpleasureinwork."

Butthisdoesnotapplytomusicandpoetry.AndrewLang's

"Everythingwhichwedistinguishfromnature"

seemstoobroadtocatchholdof,whileTolstoy's

"Anactionbymeansofwhichoneman,havingexperiencedafeeling,intentionallytransmitsittoothers"

isnearerthetruth,andcoversallthearts,butseems,fromitsomittinganymentionof#rhythm#,veryinadequate.

Nowthefactsoflifeareconveyedbyoursensestotheconsciousnesswithinus,andstimulatetheworldofthoughtandfeelingthatconstitutesourreallife.Thoughtandfeelingareveryintimatelyconnected,fewofourmentalperceptions,particularlywhentheyfirstdawnuponus,beingunaccompaniedbysomefeeling.Butthereisthisgeneraldivisiontobemade,ononeextremeofwhichiswhatwecallpureintellect,andontheotherpurefeelingoremotion.Thearts,Itakeit,areameansofgivingexpressiontotheemotionalsideofthismentalactivity,intimatelyrelatedasitoftenistothemorepurelyintellectualside.Themoresensualsideofthisfeelingisperhapsitslowest,whilethefeelingsassociatedwiththeintelligence,thelittlesensitivenessesofperceptionthatescapepureintellect,arepossiblyitsnoblestexperiences.

Pureintellectseekstoconstructfromthefactsbroughttoourconsciousnessbythesenses,anaccuratelymeasuredworldofphenomena,uncolouredbythehumanequationineachofus.Itseekstocreateapointofviewoutsidethehumanstandpoint,onemorestableandaccurate,unaffectedbytheever-changingcurrentofhumanlife.Itthereforeinventsmechanicalinstrumentstodothemeasuringofoursenseperceptions,astheirrecordsaremoreaccuratethanhumanobservationunaided.

Butwhileinscienceobservationismademuchmoreeffectivebytheuseofmechanicalinstrumentsinregisteringfacts,thefactswithwhichartdeals,beingthoseoffeeling,canonlyberecordedbythefeelinginstrument--man,andareentirelymissedbyanymechanicallydevised

substitutes.

Theartisticintelligenceisnotinterestedinthingsfromthisstandpointofmechanicalaccuracy,butintheeffectofobservationonthelivingconsciousness--thesentientindividualineachofus.Thesamefactaccuratelyportrayedbyanumberofartisticintelligencesshouldbedifferentineachcase,whereasthesamefactaccuratelyexpressedbyanumberofscientificintelligencesshouldbethesame.

Butbesidesthefeelingsconnectedwithawiderangeofexperience,eacharthascertainemotionsbelongingtotheparticularsenseperceptionsconnectedwithit.Thatistosay,therearesomethatonlymusiccanconvey:thoseconnectedwithsound;othersthatonlypainting,

sculpture,orarchitecturecanconvey:thoseconnectedwiththeformandcolourthattheyseverallydealwith.

Inabstractformandcolour--thatis,formandcolourunconnectedwithnaturalappearances--thereisanemotionalpower,suchasthereisinmusic,thesoundsofwhichhavenodirectconnectionwithanythinginnature,butonlywiththatmysterioussensewehave,thesenseofHarmony,Beauty,orRhythm(allthreebutdifferentaspectsofthesamething).

Thisinnersenseisaveryremarkablefact,andwillbefoundtosomeextentinall,certainlyallcivilised,races.AndwhentheartofaremotepeopleliketheChineseandJapaneseisunderstood,oursensesofharmonyarefoundtobewonderfullyinagreement.Despitethefactthattheirarthasdevelopedonlineswidelydifferentfromourown,nonetheless,whenthesurpriseatitsnewnesshaswornoffandwebegintounderstandit,wefinditconformstoverymuchthesamesenseofharmony.

Butapartfromthefeelingsconnecteddirectlywiththemeansofexpression,thereappearstobemuchincommonbetweenalltheartsintheirmostprofoundexpression;thereseemstobeacommoncentreinourinnerlifethattheyallappealto.Possiblyatthiscentrearethegreatprimitiveemotionscommontoallmen.Thereligiousgroup,thedeepaweandreverencemenfeelwhencontemplatingthegreatmysteryoftheUniverseandtheirownlittlenessinthefaceofitsvastness--thedesiretocorrespondanddeveloprelationshipwiththesomethingoutsidethemselvesthatisfelttobebehindandthroughallthings.Thentherearethoseconnectedwiththejoyoflife,thethrobbingofthegreatlifespirit,thegladnessofbeing,thedesireofthesexes;andalsothoseconnectedwiththesadnessandmysteryofdeathanddecay,&c.

Thetechnicalsideofanartis,however,notconcernedwiththesedeepermotivesbutwiththethingsofsensethroughwhichtheyfind

expression;inthecaseofpainting,thevisibleuniverse.Theartistiscapableofbeingstimulatedtoartisticexpressionbyallthingsseen,nomatterwhat;tohimnothingcomesamiss.Greatpictureshavebeenmadeofbeautifulpeopleinbeautifulclothesandofsqualidpeopleinuglyclothes,ofbeautifularchitecturalbuildingsandtheuglyhovelsofthepoor.AndthesamepainterwhopaintedtheAlpspaintedtheGreatWesternRailway.

Thevisibleworldistotheartist,asitwere,awonderfulgarment,attimesrevealingtohimtheBeyond,theInnerTruththereisinallthings.Hehasaconsciousnessofsomecorrespondencewithsomethingtheothersideofvisiblethingsanddimlyfeltthroughthem,a"still,

smallvoice"whichheisimpelledtointerprettoman.Itistheexpressionofthisall-pervadinginnersignificancethatIthinkwerecogniseasbeauty,andthatpromptedKeatstosay:

"Beautyistruth,truthbeauty."

Andhenceitisthattheloveoftruthandtheloveofbeautycanexisttogetherintheworkoftheartist.Thesearchforthisinnertruthisthesearchforbeauty.Peoplewhosevisiondoesnotpenetratebeyondthenarrowlimitsofthecommonplace,andtowhomacabbageisbutavulgarvegetable,aresurprisediftheyseeabeautifulpicturepaintedofone,andsaythattheartisthasidealisedit,meaningthathehasconsciouslyaltereditsappearanceonsomeidealisticformula;whereas

hehasprobablyonlyhonestlygivenexpressiontoatruer,deepervisionthantheyhadbeenawareof.Thecommonplaceisnotthetrue,butonlytheshallow,viewofthings.

[Illustration:PlateII.

DRAWINGBYLEONARDODAVINCIFROMTHEROYALCOLLECTIONATWINDSOR

_Copyrightphoto,Braun&Co._]

Fromentin's

"Artistheexpressionoftheinvisiblebymeansofthevisible"

expressesthesameidea,anditisthisthatgivestoartitshighplaceamongtheworksofman.

Beautifulthingsseemtoputusincorrespondencewithaworldtheharmoniesofwhicharemoreperfect,andbringadeeperpeacethanthisimperfectlifeseemscapableofyieldingofitself.Ourmomentsofpeaceare,Ithink,alwaysassociatedwithsomeformofbeauty,ofthissparkofharmonywithincorrespondingwithsomeinfinitesourcewithout.Likeamariner'scompass,wearerestlessuntilwefindreposeinthisonedirection.Inmomentsofbeauty(forbeautyis,strictlyspeaking,astateofmindratherthananattributeofcertainobjects,althoughcertainthingshavethepowerofinducingitmorethanothers)weseemtogetaglimpseofthisdeepertruthbehindthethingsofsense.Andwhocansaybutthatthissense,dullenoughinmostofus,isnotanechoofagreaterharmonyexistingsomewheretheothersideofthings,thatwedimlyfeelthroughthem,evasivethoughitis.

Butwemusttreadlightlyintheserarefiedregionsandgetontomorepracticalconcerns.Byfindingandemphasisinginhisworkthoseelementsinvisualappearancesthatexpresstheseprofounderthings,the

painterisenabledtostimulatetheperceptionoftheminothers.Intherepresentationofafinemountain,forinstance,thereare,besidesallitsrhythmicbeautyofformandcolour,associationstouchingdeeperchordsinournatures--associationsconnectedwithitssize,age,andpermanence,&c.;atanyratewehavemorefeelingsthanformandcolourofthemselvesarecapableofarousing.Andthesethingsmustbefeltbythepainter,andhispicturepaintedundertheinfluenceofthesefeelings,ifheisinstinctivelytoselectthoseelementsofformandcolourthatconveythem.Suchdeeperfeelingsarefartoointimatelyassociatedevenwiththefinerbeautiesofmereformandcolourforthepaintertobeabletoneglectthem;noamountoftechnicalknowledgewilltaketheplaceoffeeling,ordirectthe

paintersosurelyinhisselectionofwhatisfine.

Therearethosewhowouldsay,"Thisisallverywell,butthepainter'sconcerniswithformandcolourandpaint,andnothingelse.Ifhepaintsthemountainfaithfullyfromthatpointofview,itwillsuggestalltheseotherassociationstothosewhowantthem."Andotherswhowouldsaythattheformandcolourofappearancesareonlytobeusedasalanguagetogiveexpressiontothefeelingscommontoallmen."Artforart'ssake"and"Artforsubject'ssake."Therearethesetwoextremepositionstoconsider,anditwilldependontheindividualonwhichsidehisworklies.Hisinterestwillbemoreontheaestheticside,inthefeelingsdirectlyconcernedwithformandcolour;oronthesideofthementalassociationsconnectedwithappearances,accordingto

histemperament.Butneitherpositioncanneglecttheotherwithoutfatalloss.Thepictureofformandcolourwillneverbeabletoescapetheassociationsconnectedwithvisualthings,neitherwillthepictureallforsubjectbeabletogetawayfromitsformandcolour.Anditiswrongtosay"Ifhepaintsthemountainfaithfullyfromtheformandcolourpointofviewitwillsuggestallthoseotherassociationstothosewhowantthem,"unless,asispossiblewithasimple-mindedpainter,hebeunconsciouslymovedbydeeperfeelings,andimpelledtoselectthesignificantthingswhileonlyconsciousofhispaint.Butthechancesarethathispicturewillconveythethingshewasthinking

about,and,inconsequence,insteadofimpressinguswiththegrandeurofthemountain,willsaysomethingverylike"SeewhatacleverpainterIam!"Unlesstheartisthaspaintedhispictureundertheinfluenceofthedeeperfeelingsthescenewascapableofproducing,itisnotlikelyanybodywillbesoimpressedwhentheylookathiswork.

Andthepainterdeeplymovedwithhighidealsastosubjectmatter,whoneglectstheformandcolourthroughwhichheisexpressingthem,willfindthathisworkhasfailedtobeconvincing.Theimmaterialcanonlybeexpressedthroughthematerialinart,andthepaintedsymbolsofthepicturemustbeveryperfectifsubtleandelusivemeaningsaretobeconveyed.Ifhecannotpaintthecommonplaceaspectofourmountain,howcanheexpecttopaintanyexpressionofthedeeperthingsinit?Thefactis,bothpositionsareincomplete.Inallgoodartthematterexpressedandthemannerofitsexpressionaresointimateastohavebecomeone.Thedeeperassociationsconnectedwiththemountainareonlymattersforartinsofarastheyaffectitsappearanceandtakeshapeasformandcolourinthemindoftheartist,informingthewholeprocessofthepainting,eventothebrushstrokes.Asinagoodpoem,itisimpossibletoconsiderthepoeticideaapartfromthewordsthatexpressit:theyarefiredtogetheratitscreation.

Nowanexpressionbymeansofoneofourdifferentsenseperceptionsdoesnotconstituteart,ortheboyshoutingatthetopofhisvoice,

givingexpressiontohisdelightinlifebutmakingahorriblenoise,wouldbeanartist.Ifhisexpressionistobeadequatetoconveyhisfeelingtoothers,theremustbesomearrangement.Theexpressionmustbeordered,rhythmic,orwhateverwordmostfitlyconveystheideaofthosepowers,consciousorunconscious,thatselectandarrangethesensuousmaterialofart,soastomakethemosttellingimpression,bybringingitintorelationwithourinnatesenseofharmony.Ifwecanfindaroughdefinitionthatwillincludeallthearts,itwillhelpustoseeinwhatdirectionliethosethingsinpaintingthatmakeitanart.Thenotuncommonidea,thatpaintingis"theproductionbymeansofcoloursofmoreorlessperfectrepresentationsofnaturalobjects"willnotdo.Anditisdevoutlytobehopedthatsciencewillperfectamethodofcolourphotographyfinallytodispelthisillusion.

What,then,willserveasaworkingdefinition?Theremustbesomethingaboutfeeling,theexpressionofthatindividualitythesecretofwhicheveryonecarriesinhimself;theexpressionofthategothatperceivesandismovedbythephenomenaoflifearoundus.And,ontheotherhand,somethingabouttheorderingofitsexpression.

Butwhoknowsofwordsthatcanconveyajustideaofsuchsubtlematter?Ifonesays"ArtistherhythmicexpressionofLife,oremotionalconsciousness,orfeeling,"allareinadequate.Perhapsthe"rhythmicexpressionoflife"wouldbethemoreperfectdefinition.Buttheword"life"issomuchmoreassociatedwitheatinganddrinkinginthepopularmind,thanwiththespiritorforceorwhateveryoucareto

callit,thatexistsbehindconsciousnessandistheanimatingfactorofourwholebeing,thatitwillhardlyserveausefulpurpose.Sothat,perhaps,forarough,practicaldefinitionthatwillatleastpointawayfromthemechanicalperformancesthatsooftenpassforart,"#theRhythmicexpressionofFeeling#"willdo:forbyRhythmismeantthatorderingofthematerialsofart(formandcolour,inthecaseofpainting)soastobringthemintorelationshipwithourinnatesenseofharmonywhichgivesthemtheirexpressivepower.Withoutthisrelationshipwehavenodirectmeansofmakingthesensuousmaterialofartawakenanansweringechoinothers.Theboyshoutingatthetopof

hisvoice,makingahorriblenoise,wasnotanartistbecausehisexpressionwasinadequate--wasnotrelatedtotheunderlyingsenseofharmonythatwouldhavegivenitexpressivepower.

[Illustration:PlateIII.

STUDYFOR"APRIL"

Inredchalkontonedpaper.]

Letustestthisdefinitionwithsomesimplecases.Hereisasavage,shoutingandflinginghisarmsandlegsaboutinwilddelight;heisnotanartist,althoughhemaybemovedbylifeandfeeling.Butletthisshoutingbedoneonsomeorderedplan,toarhythmexpressiveofjoyanddelight,andhislegandarmmovementsgovernedbyitalso,andhehasbecomeanartist,andsinginganddancing(possiblytheoldestofthearts)willresult.

Ortakethecaseofonewhohasbeendeeplymovedbysomethinghehasseen,sayamankilledbyawildbeast,whichhewishestotellhisfriends.Ifhejustexplainsthefactsashesawthem,makingnoefforttoorderhiswordssoastomakethemosttellingimpressionuponhishearersandconveytothemsomethingofthefeelingsthatarestirringinhim,ifhemerelydoesthis,heisnotanartist,althoughthe

recitalofsuchaterribleincidentmaybemoving.Butthemomenthearrangeshiswordssoastoconveyinatellingmannernotonlytheplainfacts,butthehorriblefeelingsheexperiencedatthesight,hehasbecomeanartist.Andifhefurtherordershiswordstoarhythmicbeat,abeatinsympathywithhissubject,hehasbecomestillmoreartistic,andaprimitiveformofpoetrywillresult.

Orinbuildingahut,solongasamanisinterestedsolelyintheutilitariansideofthematter,asaresomanybuildersto-day,andjustputsupwallsasheneedsprotectionfromwildbeasts,andarooftokeepouttherain,heisnotyetanartist.Butthemomenthebeginstoconsiderhisworkwithsomefeeling,andarrangestherelativesizesofhiswallsandroofsothattheyanswertosomesensehehasfor

beautifulproportion,hehasbecomeanartist,andhishuthassomearchitecturalpretensions.Nowifhishutisofwood,andhepaintsittoprotectitfromtheelements,nothingnecessarilyartistichasbeendone.Butifheselectscoloursthatgivehimpleasureintheirarrangement,andiftheformshiscolourmassesassumearedesignedwithsomepersonalfeeling,hehasinventedaprimitiveformofdecoration.

Andlikewisethesavagewho,wishingtoillustratehisdescriptionofastrangeanimalhehasseen,takesapieceofburntwoodanddrawsonthewallhisideaofwhatitlookedlike,asortofcatalogueofitsappearanceinitsdetails,heisnotnecessarilyanartist.Itisonlywhenhedrawsundertheinfluenceofsomefeeling,ofsomepleasurehefeltintheappearanceoftheanimal,thathebecomesanartist.

Ofcourseineachcaseitisassumedthatthemenhavethepowertobemovedbythesethings,andwhethertheyaregoodorpoorartistswilldependonthequalityoftheirfeelingandthefitnessofitsexpression.

[Illustration:PlateIV.

STUDYONTISSUE-PAPERINREDCHALKFORFIGUREOFBOREAS]

Thepurestformofthis"rhythmicexpressionoffeeling"ismusic.AndasWalterPatershowsusinhisessayon"TheSchoolofGiorgione,""musicisthetypeofart."Theothersaremoreartisticastheyapproachitsconditions.Poetry,themostmusicalformofliterature,isitsmostartisticform.Andinthegreatestpicturesform,colour,andideaareunitedtothrilluswithharmoniesanalogoustomusic.

ThepainterexpresseshisfeelingsthroughtherepresentationofthevisibleworldofNature,andthroughtherepresentationofthosecombinationsofformandcolourinspiredinhisimagination,thatwerealloriginallyderivedfromvisiblenature.Ifhefailsfromlackofskilltomakehisrepresentationconvincingtoreasonablepeople,nomatterhowsublimehasbeenhisartisticintention,hewillprobablyhavelandedintheridiculous.Andyet,#sogreatisthepowerofdirectionexercisedbytheemotionsontheartistthatitisseldomhisworkfailstoconveysomething,whengenuinefeelinghasbeenthemotive#.Ontheotherhand,thepainterwithnoartisticimpulsewhomakesalaboriouslycommonplacepictureofsomeordinaryorpretentioussubject,hasequallyfailedasanartist,howevermuchtheskilfulnessofhisrepresentationsmaygainhimreputationwiththeunthinking.

Thestudy,therefore,ofthe#representationofvisiblenature#andof#thepowersofexpressionpossessedbyformandcolour#istheobjectof

thepainter'straining.Andacommandoverthispowerofrepresentationandexpressionisabsolutelynecessaryifheistobecapableofdoinganythingworthyofhisart.

Thisisallinartthatonecanattempttoteach.Theemotionalsideisbeyondthescopeofteaching.Youcannotteachpeoplehowtofeel.Allyoucandoistosurroundthemwiththeconditionscalculatedtostimulateanynaturalfeelingtheymaypossess.Andthisisdonebyfamiliarisingstudentswiththebestworksofartandnature.

Itissurprisinghowfewartstudentshaveanyideaofwhatitisthatconstitutesart.Theyareimpelled,itistobeassumed,byanaturaldesiretoexpressthemselvesbypainting,and,iftheirintuitiveabilityisstrongenough,itperhapsmatterslittlewhethertheyknowornot.Buttothelargernumberwhoarenotsoviolentlyimpelled,itishighlyessentialthattheyhavesomebetterideaofartthanthatitconsistsinsettingdownyourcanvasbeforenatureandcopyingit.

Inadequateasthisimperfecttreatmentofaprofoundlyinterestingsubjectis,itmayservetogivesomeideaofthepointofviewfromwhichthefollowingpagesarewritten,andifitalsoservestodisturbthe"copyingtheory"inthemindsofanystudentsandencouragesthemto

makefurtherinquiry,itwillhaveservedausefulpurpose.

DRAWING

Bydrawingisheremeant#theexpressionofformuponaplanesurface#.

Artprobablyowesmoretoformforitsrangeofexpressionthantocolour.Manyofthenoblestthingsitiscapableofconveyingareexpressedbyformmoredirectlythanbyanythingelse.Anditisinterestingtonoticehowsomeoftheworld'sgreatestartistshavebeenveryrestrictedintheiruseofcolour,preferringtodependonformfortheirchiefappeal.ItisreportedthatApellesonlyusedthreecolours,black,red,andyellow,andRembrandtusedlittleelse.Drawing,althoughthefirst,isalsothelast,thingthepainterusuallystudies.Thereismoreinitthatcanbetaughtandthatrepaysconstantapplicationandeffort.Colourwouldseemtodependmuchmoreonanaturalsenseandtobelessamenabletoteaching.Awell-trainedeyefortheappreciationofformiswhateverystudentshouldsethimselftoacquirewithallthemightofwhichheiscapable.

Itisnotenoughinartisticdrawingtoportrayaccuratelyandincoldbloodtheappearanceofobjects.Toexpressformonemustfirstbemovedbyit.Thereisintheappearanceofallobjects,animateandinanimate,whathasbeencalledan#emotionalsignificance#,ahiddenrhythmthatisnotcaughtbytheaccurate,painstaking,butcoldartist.Theformsignificanceofwhichwespeakisneverfoundinamechanicalreproductionlikeaphotograph.Youarenevermovedtosaywhenlookingatone,"Whatfineform."

Itisdifficulttosayinwhatthisqualityconsists.Theemphasisandselectionthatisunconsciouslygiveninadrawingdonedirectlyundertheguidanceofstrongfeeling,aretoosubtletobetabulated;theyescapeanalysis.Butitisthisselectionofthesignificantandsuppressionofthenon-essentialthatoftengivestoafewlinesdrawnquickly,andhavingasomewhatremoterelationtothecomplexappearanceoftherealobject,morevitalityandtruththanaretobefoundinahighly-wroughtandpainstakingdrawing,duringtheprocessofwhichtheessentialandvitalthingshavebeenlostsightofinthelabourofthework;andthenon-essential,whichisusuallymoreobvious,isallowedtocreepinandobscuretheoriginalimpression.Ofcourse,hadthefinisheddrawingbeendonewiththemindcentredupontheparticular

formsignificanceaimedat,andeverytouchanddetailaddedintunetothisidea,thecomparisonmighthavebeendifferent.Butitisrarelythatgooddrawingsaredonethisway.Finethingsseemonlytobeseeninflashes,andthenaturethatcancarryovertheimpressionofoneofthesemomentsduringthelabourofahighly-wroughtdrawingisveryrare,andbelongstothefewgreatonesofthecraftalone.

Itisdifficulttoknowwhyoneshouldbemovedbytheexpressionofform;butitappearstohavesomephysicalinfluenceoverus.Inlookingatafinedrawing,sayofastrongman,weseemtoidentifyourselveswithitandfeelathrillofitsstrengthinourownbodies,promptingustosetourteeth,stiffenourframe,andexclaim"That'sfine."Or,whenlookingatthedrawingofabeautifulwoman,wearesoftenedbyits

charmandfeelinourselvessomethingofitssweetnessasweexclaim,"Howbeautiful."Themeasureofthefeelingineithercasewillbetheextenttowhichtheartisthasidentifiedhimselfwiththesubjectwhenmakingthedrawing,andhasbeenimpelledtoselecttheexpressiveelementsintheforms.

Artthusenablesustoexperiencelifeatsecondhand.Thesmallmanmayenjoysomewhatofthewiderexperienceofthebiggerman,andbeeducatedtoappreciateintimeawiderexperienceforhimself.Thisisthetruejustificationforpublicpicturegalleries.Notsomuchforthe

moralinfluencetheyexert,ofwhichwehaveheardsomuch,butthatpeoplemaybeledthroughthevisionoftheartisttoenlargetheirexperienceoflife.Thisenlargingoftheexperienceistrueeducation,andaverydifferentthingfromthememorisingoffactsthatsooftenpassesassuch.Inawaythismaybesaidtobeamoralinfluence,asalargermindislesslikelytoharboursmallmeannesses.Butthisisnotthekindofmoralinfluenceusuallylookedforbythemany,whoratherdemandamoralstorytoldbythepicture;athingnotalwayssuitabletoartisticexpression.

Oneisalwaysprofoundlyimpressedbytheexpressionofasenseofbulk,vastness,ormassinform.Thereisafeelingofbeingliftedoutofone'spunyselftosomethingbiggerandmorestable.ItisthissplendidfeelingofbignessinMichaelAngelo'sfiguresthatissosatisfying.OnecannotcomeawayfromthecontemplationofthatwonderfulceilingofhisintheVaticanwithoutthesenseofhavingexperiencedsomethingofalargerlifethanonehadknownbefore.Neverhasthedignityofmanreachedsohighanexpressioninpaint,aheightthathasbeenthedespairofallwhohavesincetriedtofollowthatlonelymaster.Inlandscapealsothisexpressionoflargenessisfine:onelikestofeeltheweightandmassoftheground,thevastnessoftheskyandsea,thebulkofamountain.

Ontheotherhandoneischarmedalsobytheexpressionoflightness.

ThismaybenotedinmuchoftheworkofBotticelliandtheItaliansofthefifteenthcentury.Botticelli'sfiguresseldomhaveanyweight;theydriftaboutasifwalkingonair,givingadelightfulfeelingofotherworldliness.ThehandsoftheMadonnathatholdtheChildmightbeholdingflowersforanysenseofsupporttheyexpress.Itis,Ithink,onthissenseoflightnessthatagreatdealoftheexquisitecharmofBotticelli'sdrawingdepends.

Thefeatherylightnessofcloudsandofdraperiesblownbythewindisalwayspleasing,andBotticellinearlyalwayshasalightwindpassingthroughhisdraperiestogivethemthissense.

Aswillbeexplainedlater,inconnectionwithacademicdrawing,itis

eminentlynecessaryforthestudenttotrainhiseyeaccuratelytoobservetheformsofthingsbythemostpainstakingofdrawings.Intheseschoolstudiesfeelingneednotbeconsidered,butonlyacoldaccuracy.Inthesamewayasingertrainshimselftosingscales,givingeverynoteexactlythesameweightandpreservingamostmechanicaltimethroughout,sothateverynoteofhisvoicemaybeaccuratelyunderhiscontrolandbeequaltothesubtlestvariationshemayafterwardswanttoinfuseintoitatthedictatesoffeeling.Forhowcanthedraughtsman,whodoesnotknowhowtodrawaccuratelythecold,commonplaceviewofanobject,hopetogiveexpressiontothesubtledifferencespresentedbythesamethingseenundertheexcitementofstrongfeeling?

[Illustration:PlateV.

FROMASTUDYBYBOTTICELLI

InthePrintRoomattheBritishMuseum.]

Theseacademicdrawings,too,shouldbeashighlyfinishedashardapplicationcanmakethem,sothatthehabitofminutevisualexpressionmaybeacquired.Itwillbeneededlater,whendrawingofafinerkindisattempted,andwhenintheheatofanemotionalstimulustheartist

hasnotimetoconsiderthesmallersubtletiesofdrawing,whichbythenshouldhavebecomealmostinstinctivewithhim,leavinghismindfreetodwellonthebiggerqualities.

Drawing,then,tobeworthyofthename,mustbemorethanwhatiscalledaccurate.Itmustpresenttheformofthingsinamorevividmannerthanweordinarilyseetheminnature.Everynewdraughtsmaninthehistoryofarthasdiscoveredanewsignificanceintheformofcommonthings,andgiventheworldanewexperience.Hehasrepresentedthesequalitiesunderthestimulusofthefeelingtheyinspiredinhim,hotandunderlined,asitwere,addingtothegreatbookofsighttheworldpossessesinitsart,abookbynomeanscompletedyet.

Sothattosayofadrawing,asissooftensaid,thatitisnottruebecauseitdoesnotpresentthecommonplaceappearanceofanobjectaccurately,maybefoolish.Itsaccuracydependsonthecompletenesswithwhichitconveystheparticularemotionalsignificancethatistheobjectofthedrawing.Whatthissignificanceiswillvaryenormouslywiththeindividualartist,butitisonlybythisstandardthattheaccuracyofthedrawingcanbejudged.

Itisthisdifferencebetweenscientificaccuracyandartisticaccuracythatpuzzlessomanypeople.Sciencedemandsthatphenomenabeobservedwiththeunemotionalaccuracyofaweighingmachine,whileartistic

accuracydemandsthatthingsbeobservedbyasentientindividualrecordingthesensationsproducedinhimbythephenomenaoflife.Andpeoplewiththescientifichabitthatisnowsocommonamongus,seeingapictureordrawinginwhichwhatarecalledfactshavebeenexpressedemotionally,arepuzzled,iftheyaremodest,orlaughatwhattheyconsideraglaringmistakeindrawingiftheyarenot,whenallthetimeitmaybetheirmistakenpointofviewthatisatfault.

Butwhilethereisnoabsoluteartisticstandardbywhichaccuracyofdrawingcanbejudged,assuchstandardmustnecessarilyvarywiththeartisticintentionofeachindividualartist,thisfactmustnotbetakenasanexcuseforanyobviouslyfaultydrawingthatincompetencemayproduce,asisoftendonebystudentswhowhencorrectedsaythat

they"sawitso."Forthereundoubtedlyexistsaroughphysicalstandardofrightnessindrawing,anyviolentdeviationsfromwhich,evenatthedictatesofemotionalexpression,isproductiveofthegrotesque.Thisphysicalstandardofaccuracyinhisworkitisthebusinessofthestudenttoacquireinhisacademictraining;andeveryaidthatsciencecangivebysuchstudiesasPerspective,Anatomy,and,inthecaseofLandscape,evenGeologyandBotany,shouldbeusedtoincreasetheaccuracyofhisrepresentations.Forthestrengthofappealinartisticworkwilldependmuchonthepowertheartistpossessesofexpressinghimselfthroughrepresentationsthatarresteveryonebytheirtruthandnaturalness.Andalthough,whentruthandnaturalnessexistwithoutanyartisticexpression,theresultisoflittleaccountasart,ontheotherhand,whentrulyartisticexpressionisclothedin

representationsthatoffendourideasofphysicaltruth,itisonlythefewwhocanforgivetheoffenceforthesakeofthegenuinefeelingtheyperceivebehindit.

[Illustration:PlateVI.

STUDYINNATURALREDCHALKBYALFREDSTEPHENS

FromthecollectionofCharlesRickettsandCharlesShannon]

Howfarthenecessitiesofexpressionmaybeallowedtooverridethedictatesoftruthtophysicalstructureintheappearanceofobjectswillalwaysbeamuchdebatedpoint.InthebestdrawingthedeparturesfrommechanicalaccuracyaresosubtlethatIhavenodoubtmanywilldenytheexistenceofsuchathingaltogether.Goodartistsofstrongnaturalinspirationandsimplemindsareoftenquiteunconsciousofdoinganythingwhenpainting,butareallthesameasmechanicallyaccurateaspossible.

Yethowevermuchitmaybeadvisabletoletyourselfgoinartisticwork,duringyouracademictrainingletyouraimbe#asearchingaccuracy#.

VISION

ItisnecessarytosaysomethingaboutVisioninthefirstplace,ifwearetohaveanygraspoftheideaofform.

Anactofvisionisnotsosimpleamatterasthestudentwhoaskedhermasterifsheshould"paintnatureasshesawnature"wouldseemtohavethought.Andhisanswer,"Yes,madam,providedyoudon'tseenatureasyoupaintnature,"expressedthefirstdifficultythestudentofpaintinghastoface:thedifficultyoflearningtosee.

Letusroughlyexaminewhatweknowofvision.Sciencetellsusthatallobjectsaremadevisibletousbymeansoflight;andthatwhitelight,bywhichweseethingsinwhatmaybecalledtheirnormalaspect,iscomposedofallthecoloursofthesolarspectrum,asmaybeseeninarainbow;aphenomenoncaused,aseverybodyknows,bythesun'sraysbeingsplitupintotheircomponentparts.

Thislighttravelsinstraightlinesand,strikingobjectsbeforeus,isreflectedinalldirections.Someoftheserayspassingthroughapointsituatedbehindthelensesoftheeye,striketheretina.Themultiplicationoftheseraysontheretinaproducesapictureofwhateverisbeforetheeye,suchascanbeseenonthegroundglassatthebackofaphotographer'scamera,oronthetableofacameraobscura,bothofwhichinstrumentsareconstructedroughlyonthesameprincipleasthehumaneye.

Theseraysoflightwhenreflectedfromanobject,andagainwhenpassingthroughtheatmosphere,undergocertainmodifications.Shouldtheobjectbearedone,theyellow,green,andbluerays,all,infact,excepttheredrays,areabsorbedbytheobject,whiletheredis

allowedtoescape.Theseredraysstrikingtheretinaproducecertaineffectswhichconveytoourconsciousnessthesensationofred,andwesay"Thatisaredobject."Buttheremaybeparticlesofmoistureordustintheairthatwillmodifytheredrayssothatbythetimetheyreachtheeyetheymaybesomewhatdifferent.Thismodificationisnaturallymosteffectivewhenalargeamountofatmospherehastobepassedthrough,andinthingsverydistantthecolourofthenaturalobjectisoftenentirelylost,tobereplacedbyatmosphericcolours,asweseeindistantmountainswhentheairisnotperfectlyclear.Butwemustnotstrayintothefascinatingprovinceofcolour.

Whatchieflyconcernsushereisthefactthatthepicturesonourretinasareflat,oftwodimensions,thesameasthecanvasonwhichwepaint.Ifyouexaminethesevisualpictureswithoutanyprejudice,asonemaywithacameraobscura,youwillseethattheyarecomposedofmassesofcolourininfinitevarietyandcomplexity,ofdifferentshapesandgradations,andwithmanyvarietiesofedges;givingtotheeyetheillusionofnaturewithactualdepthsanddistances,althoughoneknowsallthetimethatitisaflattableonwhichoneislooking.

Seeingthenthatoureyeshaveonlyflatpicturescontainingtwo-dimensioninformationabouttheobjectiveworld,fromwhenceisthisknowledgeofdistanceandthesolidityofthings?Howdowe_see_ thethirddimension,thedepthandthickness,bymeansofflatpicturesoftwodimensions?

Thepowertojudgedistanceisdueprincipallytoourpossessingtwoeyessituatedinslightlydifferentpositions,fromwhichwegettwoviewsofobjects,andalsotothepowerpossessedbytheeyesoffocussingatdifferentdistances,othersbeingoutoffocusforthetimebeing.Inapicturetheeyescanonlyfocusatonedistance(thedistancetheeyeisfromtheplaneofthepicturewhenyouarelookingatit),andthisisoneofthechiefcausesoftheperennialdifficultyinpaintingbackgrounds.Innaturetheyareoutoffocuswhenoneis

lookingatanobject,butinapaintingthebackgroundisnecessarilyonthesamefocalplaneastheobject.Numerousarethedevicesresortedtobypainterstoovercomethisdifficulty,buttheydonotconcernushere.

Thefactthatwehavetwoflatpicturesonourtworetinastohelpus,andthatwecanfocusatdifferentplanes,wouldnotsufficetoaccountforourknowledgeofthesolidityandshapeoftheobjectiveworld,werethesesensesnotassociatedwithanothersenseallimportantinideasofform,#thesenseoftouch#.

Thissenseisveryhighlydevelopedinus,andtheearlierperiodofourexistenceislargelygivenovertofeelingfortheobjectiveworld

outsideourselves.Whohasnotwatchedthelittlebabyhandsfeelingforeverythingwithinreach,andwithoutitsreach,forthematterofthat;fortheinfanthasnoknowledgeyetofwhatisandwhatisnotwithinitsreach.Whohasnotofferedsomebrightobjecttoayoungchildandwatcheditsclumsyattemptstofeelforit,almostasclumsyatfirstasifitwereblind,asithasnotyetlearnedtofocusdistances.Andwhenhehasatlastgotholdofit,howeagerlyhefeelsitallover,lookingintentlyatitallthetime;thuslearningearlytoassociatethe"feelofanobject"withitsappearance.Inthiswaybydegreesheacquiresthoseideasofroughnessandsmoothness,hardnessandsoftness,solidity,&c.,whichlateronhewillbeabletodistinguishbyvisionalone,andwithouttouchingtheobject.

Oursurvivaldependssomuchonthissenseoftouch,thatitisofthefirstimportancetous.Wemustknowwhetherthegroundishardenoughforustowalkon,orwhetherthereisaholeinfrontofus;andmassesofcolourraysstrikingtheretina,whichiswhatvisionamountsto,willnotofthemselvestellus.Butassociatedwiththeknowledgeaccumulatedinourearlyyears,byconnectingtouchwithsight,wedoknowwhencertaincombinationsofcolourraysstriketheeyethatthereisaroadforustowalkon,andthatwhencertainothercombinationsoccurthereisaholeinfrontofus,ortheedgeofaprecipice.

Andlikewisewithhardnessandsoftness,thechildwhostrikeshisheadagainstthebed-postisforciblyremindedbynaturethatsuchthingsaretobeavoided,andfeelingthatitishardandthathardnesshasacertainlook,itavoidsthatkindofthinginthefuture.Andwhenitstrikesitsheadagainstthepillow,itlearnsthenatureofsoftness,andassociatingthissensationwiththeappearanceofthepillow,knowsinfuturethatwhensoftnessisobserveditneednotbeavoidedashardnessmustbe.

Sightisthereforenotamatteroftheeyealone.Awholetrainofassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectiveworldissetgoinginthemindwhenraysoflightstriketheretinarefractedfromobjects.Andtheseassociationsvaryenormouslyinquantityandvaluewithdifferentindividuals;buttheoneweareherechieflyconcernedwithisthisuniversaloneoftouch.Everybody"sees"theshapeofanobject,and"sees"whetherit"looks"hardorsoft,&c.Sees,inotherwords,the"feel"ofit.

Ifyouareaskedtothinkofanobject,sayacone,itwillnot,Ithink,bethevisualaspectthatwilloccurtomostpeople.Theywillthinkofacircularbasefromwhichacontinuoussideslopesuptoapointsituatedaboveitscentre,asonewouldfeelit.Thefactthatinalmosteveryvisualaspectthebaselineisthatofanellipse,notacircle,comesasasurprisetopeopleunaccustomedtodrawing.

Butabovethesecruderinstances,whatawealthofassociationscrowdinuponthemind,whenasightthatmovesoneisobserved.Puttwomenbeforeascene,oneanordinarypersonandtheotheragreatpoet,andaskthemtodescribewhattheysee.Assumingthembothtobepossessedofareasonablepowerhonestlytoexpressthemselves,whatadifferencewouldtherebeinthevalueoftheirdescriptions.Ortaketwopaintersbothequallygiftedinthepowerofexpressingtheirvisualperceptions,andputthembeforethescenetopaintit.Andassumingonetobeacommonplacemanandtheotheragreatartist,whatadifferencewilltherebeintheirwork.Thecommonplacepainterwillpaintacommonplacepicture,whiletheformandcolourwillbethemeansofstirringdeepassociationsandfeelingsinthemindoftheother,andwillmovehim

topaintthescenesothatthesamesplendourofassociationsmaybeconveyedtothebeholder.

[Illustration:PlateVII.

STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFAPOLLOINTHEPICTURE"APOLLOANDDAPHNE"

Innaturalredchalkrubbedwithfinger;thehighlightsarepickedoutwithrubber.]

Buttoreturntoourinfantmind.Whilethedevelopmentoftheperceptionofthingshasbeengoingon,thepurelyvisualsideofthequestion,theobservationofthepictureontheretinaforwhatitisas

formandcolour,hasbeenneglected--neglectedtosuchanextentthatwhenthechildcomestoattemptdrawing,#sightisnotthesenseheconsults#.Thementalideaoftheobjectiveworldthathasgrownupinhismindisnowassociatedmoredirectlywithtouchthanwithsight,withthefeltshaperatherthanthevisualappearance.Sothatifheisaskedtodrawahead,hethinksofitfirstasanobjecthavingacontinuousboundaryinspace.Thishismindinstinctivelyconceivesasaline.Then,hairheexpressesbyarowoflittlelinescomingoutfromtheboundary,allroundthetop.Hethinksofeyesastwopointsorcircles,oraspointsincircles,andthenoseeitherasatriangleor

anL-shapedline.Ifyoufeelthenoseyouwillseethereasonofthis.DownthefrontyouhavetheLline,andifyoufeelroundityouwillfindthetwosidesmeetingatthetopandabasejoiningthem,suggestingthetriangle.Themouthsimilarlyisanopeningwitharowofteeth,whicharegenerallyshownalthoughsoseldomseen,butalwaysapparentifthemouthisfelt(seediagramA).Thisis,Ithink,afairtypeofthefirstdrawingtheordinarychildmakes--andjudgingbysomeancientscribblingofthesameorderIremembernoticingscratchedonawallatPompeii,andbysavagedrawinggenerally,itappearstobeafairlyuniversaltype.Itisaveryremarkablethingwhich,asfarasIknow,hasnotyetbeenpointedout,thatinthesefirstattemptsatdrawingthevisionshouldnotbeconsulted.Ablindmanwouldnotdrawdifferently,couldhebutseetodraw.Werevisionthefirstsenseconsulted,andwerethesimplestvisualappearancesoughtafter,onemightexpectsomethinglikediagramB,theshadowsundereyes,nose,mouth,andchin,withthedarkermassofthehairbeingthesimplestthingthevisualappearancecanbereducedto.Butdespitethisbeingquiteaseasytodo,itdoesnotappealtotheordinarychildastheothertypedoes,becauseitdoesnotsatisfythesenseoftouchthatformssolargeapartoftheideaofanobjectinthemind.Allarchitecturalelevationsandgeometricalprojectionsgenerallyappealtothismentalideaofform.Theyconsistofviewsofabuildingorobjectthatcouldneverpossiblybeseenbyanybody,assumingastheydothattheeyeofthespectatorisexactlyinfrontofeverypartofthe

buildingatthesametime,aphysicalimpossibility.Andyetsoremovedfromtheactualvisualappearanceisourmentalideaofobjectsthatsuchdrawingsdoconveyaveryaccurateideaofabuildingorobject.Andofcoursetheyhavegreatadvantageasworkingdrawingsinthattheycanbescaled.

[Illustration:DiagramI.

A.TYPEOFFIRSTDRAWINGMADEBYCHILDREN,SHOWINGHOWVISIONHASNOTBEENCONSULTED

B.TYPEOFWHATMIGHTHAVEBEENEXPECTEDIFCRUDESTEXPRESSIONOFVISUALAPPEARANCEHADBEENATTEMPTED]

Ifsoearlythesenseofvisionisneglectedandrelegatedtobethehandmaidenofothersenses,itisnowonderthatintheaverageadultitisinsuchashockingstateofneglect.Ifeelconvincedthatwiththegreatmajorityofpeoplevisionisseldomifeverconsultedforitself,butonlytoministertosomeothersense.Theylookattheskytoseeifitisgoingtobefine;atthefieldstoseeiftheyaredryenoughtowalkon,orwhethertherewillbeagoodcropofhay;atthestreamnottoobservethebeautyofthereflectionsfromtheblueskyorgreenfieldsdancinguponitssurfaceortherichcolouringofitsshadoweddepths,buttocalculatehowdeepitisorhowmuchpoweritwouldsupplytoworkamill,howmanyfishitcontains,orsomeotherassociationalientoitsvisualaspect.Ifonelooksupatafinemass

ofcumuluscloudsaboveaLondonstreet,theordinarypasser-bywhofollowsone'sgazeexpectstoseeaballoonoraflying-machineatleast,andwhenheseesitisonlycloudsheisapttowonderwhatoneisgazingat.Thebeautifulformandcolourofthecloudseemtobeunobserved.Cloudsmeannothingtohimbutanaccumulationofwaterdustthatmaybringrain.Thisaccountsinsomewayforthenumberofgoodpaintingsthatareincomprehensibletothemajorityofpeople.Itisonlythosepicturesthatpursuethevisualaspectofobjectstoasufficientcompletiontocontainthesuggestionoftheseotherassociations,thattheyunderstandatall.Otherpictures,theysay,are

notfinishedenough.Anditissoseldomthatapicturecanhavethispettyrealisationandatthesametimebeanexpressionofthoselargeremotionalqualitiesthatconstitutegoodpainting.

TheearlypaintingsofthePre-RaphaeliteBrotherhoodappeartobeastrikingexceptiontothis.Butintheirworktheexcessiverealisationofalldetailswaspartoftheexpressionandgaveemphasistothepoeticideaatthebasisoftheirpictures,andwasthereforepartoftheartisticintention.Inthesepaintingsthefieryintensitywithwhicheverylittledetailwaspaintedmadetheirpictureareadymediumfortheexpressionofpoeticthought,asortof"paintedpoetry,"everydetailbeingselectedonaccountofsomesymbolicmeaningithad,bearingonthepoeticideathatwastheobjectofthepicture.

Buttothosepainterswhodonotattempt"paintedpoetry,"butseekinpaintingapoetryofitsown,avisualpoetry,thisexcessivefinish(asitiscalled)isirksome,asitmarstheexpressionofthosequalitiesinvisiontheywishtoexpress.Finishinarthasnoconnectionwiththeamountofdetailinapicture,buthasreferenceonlytothecompletenesswithwhichtheemotionalideathepaintersetouttoexpresshasbeenrealised.

[Illustration:PlateVIII.

STUDYFORAPICTUREInredcontÃ©chalkandwhitepastelrubbedontonedpaper.]

Thevisualblindnessofthemajorityofpeopleisgreatlytobedeplored,asnatureiseverofferingthemontheirretina,eveninthemeanestslum,amusicofcolourandformthatisaconstantsourceofpleasuretothosewhocanseeit.Butsomanyarecontenttousethiswonderfulfacultyofvisionforutilitarianpurposesonly.Itistheprivilegeoftheartisttoshowhowwonderfulandbeautifulisallthismusicofcolourandform,sothatpeople,havingbeenmovedbyitinhiswork,maybeencouragedtoseethesamebeautyinthethingsaroundthem.Thisisthebestargumentinfavourofmakingartasubjectof

generaleducation:thatitshouldteachpeopletosee.Everybodydoesnotneedtodrawandpaint,butifeverybodycouldgetthefacultyofappreciatingtheformandcolourontheirretinasasformandcolour,whatawealthwouldalwaysbeattheirdisposalforenjoyment!TheJapanesehabitoflookingatalandscapeupsidedownbetweentheirlegsisawayofseeingwithoutthedeadeninginfluenceoftouchassociations.Thuslooking,oneissurprisedintoseeingforoncethecolourandformofthingswiththeassociationoftouchforthemomentforgotten,andispuzzledatthebeauty.Theoddthingisthatalthoughthusweseethingsupsidedown,thepicturesonourretinasareforoncetherightwayup;forordinarilythevisualpictureisinvertedontheretina,likethatonthegroundglassatthebackofaphotographiccamera.

Tosumupthissomewhatramblingchapter,Ihaveendeavouredtoshowthattherearetwoaspectsfromwhichtheobjectiveworldcanbeapprehended.Thereisthepurelymentalperceptionfoundedchieflyonknowledgederivedfromoursenseoftouchassociatedwithvision,whoseprimitiveinstinctistoputanoutlineroundobjectsasrepresentingtheirboundariesinspace.Andsecondly,thereisthevisualperception,whichisconcernedwiththevisualaspectsofobjectsastheyappearontheretina;anarrangementofcolourshapes,asortofmosaicofcolour.Andthesetwoaspectsgiveustwodifferentpointsofviewfromwhich

therepresentationofvisiblethingscanbeapproached.

Whentherepresentationfromeitherpointofviewiscarriedfarenough,theresultisverysimilar.Workbuiltuponoutlinedrawingtowhichhasbeenaddedlightandshade,colour,aerialperspective,&c.,mayeventuallyapproximatetotheperfectvisualappearance.Andinversely,representationsapproachedfromthepointofviewofpurevision,themosaicofcolourontheretina,ifpushedfarenough,maysatisfythementalperceptionofformwithitstouchassociations.Andofcoursethetwopointsofviewareintimatelyconnected.Youcannotputanaccurateoutlineroundanobjectwithoutobservingtheshapeitoccupiesinthefieldofvision.Anditisdifficulttoconsiderthe"mosaicofcolourforms"withoutbeingveryconsciousoftheobjectivesignificanceofthecolourmassesportrayed.Buttheypresenttwoentirelydifferentandoppositepointsofviewfromwhichtherepresentationofobjectscanbeapproached.InconsideringthesubjectofdrawingIthinkitnecessarytomakethisdivisionofthesubject,andbothmethodsofformexpressionshouldbestudiedbythestudent.LetuscallthefirstmethodLineDrawingandthesecondMassDrawing.Mostmoderndrawingisamixtureofboththesepointsofview,buttheyshouldbestudiedseparatelyifconfusionistobeavoided.Ifthestudentneglectslinedrawing,hisworkwilllacktheexpressivesignificanceofformthatonlyafeelingforlinesseemstohavethesecretofconveying;while,ifheneglectsmassdrawing,hewillbepoorlyequippedwhenhecomesto

expressformwithabrushfullofpainttoworkwith.

LINEDRAWING

Mostoftheearliestformsofdrawingknowntousinhistory,likethoseofthechildwewerediscussinginthelastchapter,arelargelyinthenatureofoutlinedrawings.Thisisaremarkablefactconsideringthe

somewhatremoterelationlineshavetothecompletephenomenaofvision.Outlinescanonlybesaidtoexistinappearancesastheboundariesofmasses.Butevenherealineseemsapoorthingfromthevisualpointofview;astheboundariesarenotalwaysclearlydefined,butarecontinuallymergingintothesurroundingmassandlosingthemselvestobecaughtupagainlateronanddefinedoncemore.Itsrelationshipwithvisualappearancesisnotsufficienttojustifytheinstinctforlinedrawing.Itcomes,Ithink,ashasalreadybeensaid,fromthesenseoftouch.Whenanobjectisfeltthereisnomerginginthesurroundingmass,butafirmdefinitionofitsboundary,whichthemindinstinctivelyconceivesasaline.

Thereisamoredirectappealtotheimaginationinlinedrawingthanin

possiblyanythingelseinpictorialart.Theemotionalstimulusgivenbyfinedesignisduelargelytolinework.Thepoweralinepossessesofinstinctivelydirectingtheeyealongitscourseisoftheutmostvaluealso,enablingtheartisttoconcentratetheattentionofthebeholderwherehewishes.Thenthereisaharmonicsenseinlinesandtheirrelationships,amusicoflinethatisfoundatthebasisofallgoodart.Butthissubjectwillbetreatedlateronwhentalkingoflinerhythm.

Mostartistswhoseworkmakesalargeappealtotheimaginationare

strongonthevalueofline.Blake,whosevisualknowledgewassuchanegligiblequantity,butwhosementalperceptionsweresomagnificent,wasalwaysinsistingonitsvalue.Andhisdesignsaresplendidexamplesofitspowerfulappealtotheimagination.

Onthisbasisoflinedrawingthedevelopmentofartproceeded.TheearlyEgyptianwallpaintingswereoutlinestinted,andtheearliestwallsculpturewasanincisedoutline.Aftertheseincisedlinessomemanofgeniusthoughtofcuttingawaythesurfaceofthewallbetweentheoutlinesandmodellingitinlowrelief.Theappearanceofthismayhavesuggestedtothemanpaintinghisoutlineonthewalltheideaofshadingbetweenhisoutlines.

Atanyratethenextdevelopmentwastheintroductionofalittleshadingtorelievetheflatnessoftheline-workandsuggestmodelling.Andthiswasasfarasthingshadgoneinthedirectionoftherepresentationofform,untilwellonintheItalianRenaissance.Botticelliusednothingelsethananoutlinelightlyshadedtoindicateform.LightandshadewerenotseriouslyperceiveduntilLeonardodaVinci.Andawonderfuldiscoveryitwasthoughttobe,andwas,indeed,althoughitseemsdifficulttounderstandwheremen'seyeshadbeenforsolongwiththephenomenaoflightandshadebeforethemallthetime.Butthisisonlyanotherproofofwhatcannotbetooofteninsistedon,namelythattheeyeonlyseeswhatitisonthelook-outfor,anditmay

evenbetherearethingsjustaswonderfulyettobediscoveredinvision.

Butitwasstillthetouchassociationofanobjectthatwasthedominantone;itwaswithintheoutlinedemandedbythissensethatthelightandshadeweretobeintroducedassomethingasitwereputontheobject.Itwasthe"solidsinspace"ideathatartwasstillappealingto.

"Thefirstobjectofapainteristomakeasimpleflatsurfaceappearlikearelievo,andsomeofitspartsdetachedfromtheground;hewhoexcelsallothersinthatpartoftheartdeservesthegreatestpraise,"[1]wroteLeonardodaVinci,andtheinsistenceonthis

"standingout"quality,withitsappealtothetouchsenseassomethinggreatinart,soundsverystrangeinthesedays.Butitmustberememberedthatthemeansofcreatingthisillusionwerenewtoallandgreatlywonderedat.

[Footnote1:LeonardodaVinci,_TreatiseonPainting_,paragraph178.]

Andagain,inparagraph176ofhistreatise,Leonardowrites:"Theknowledgeoftheoutlineisofmostconsequence,andyetmaybeacquiredtogreatcertaintybydintofstudy;astheoutlinesofthehumanfigure,particularlythosewhichdonotbend,areinvariablythesame.Buttheknowledgeofthesituation,qualityandquantityofshadows,beinginfinite,requiresthemostextensivestudy."

Theoutlinesofthehumanfigureare"invariablythesame"?Whatdoesthismean?Fromthevisualpointofviewweknowthatthespaceoccupiedbyfiguresinthefieldofourvisionisbynomeans"invariablythesame,"butofgreatvariety.Soitcannotbethevisualappearanceheisspeakingabout.Itcanonlyrefertothementalideaoftheshapeofthemembersofthehumanfigure.Theremark"particularlythosethatdonotbend"showsthisalso,forwhenthebodyisbentupeventhementalideaofitsformmustbealtered.Thereisnohintyetofvisionbeingexploitedforitself,butonlyinsofarasityieldedmaterialto

stimulatethismentalideaoftheexteriorworld.

[Illustration:PlateIX.

STUDYBYWATTEAU

FromanoriginaldrawinginthecollectionofCharlesRickettsandCharlesShannon.]

Allthroughtheworkofthemenwhousedthislightandshade(orchiaroscuro,asitwascalled)theoutlinebasisremained.Leonardo,Raphael,MichaelAngelo,Titian,andtheVenetianswereallfaithfultoitasthemeansofholdingtheirpicturestogether;althoughtheVenetians,byfusingtheedgesoftheiroutlinemasses,gotverynearthevisualmethodtobeintroducedlaterbyVelazquez.

Inthisway,littlebylittle,startingfromabasisofsimpleoutlineforms,artgrewup,eachnewdetailofvisualappearancediscoveredadding,asitwere,anotherinstrumenttotheorchestraatthedisposaloftheartist,enablinghimtoaddtothesomewhatcrudedirectnessandsimplicityoftheearlyworkthegracesandrefinementsofthemorecomplexwork,makingtheproblemofcompositionmoredifficultbutincreasingtherangeofitsexpression.

Buttheseadditionstothevisualformulausedbyartistswasnotallgain;thesimplicityofthemeansatthedisposalofaBotticelligivesaninnocenceandimaginativeappealtohisworkthatitisdifficulttothinkofpreservingwiththemorecompletevisualrealisationoflaterschools.Whentherealisationofactualappearanceismostcomplete,themindisliabletobeledawaybysideissuesconnectedwiththethingsrepresented,insteadofseeingtheemotionalintentionsoftheartistexpressedthroughthem.Themindisapttoleavethepictureandlooking,asitwere,notatitbutthroughit,topursueatrainofthoughtassociatedwiththeobjectsrepresentedasrealobjects,butalientotheartisticintentionofthepicture.Thereisnothingintheseearlyformulaetodisturbthecontemplationoftheemotionalappealofpureformandcolour.Tothosewhoapproachapicturewiththe

ideathattherepresentationofnature,the"makingitlookliketherealthing,"isthesoleobjectofpainting,howstrangemustbetheappearanceofsuchpicturesasBotticelli's.

Theaccumulationofthedetailsofvisualobservationinartisliableeventuallytoobscurethemainideaanddisturbthelargesenseofdesignonwhichsomuchoftheimaginativeappealofaworkofartdepends.Thelargeamountofnewvisualknowledgethatthenaturalisticmovementsofthenineteenthcenturybroughttolightisparticularlyliableatthistimetoobscurethesimplerandmoreprimitivequalitiesonwhichallgoodartisbuilt.Attheheightofthatmovementlinedrawingwentoutoffashion,andcharcoal,andanawfulthingcalledastump,tooktheplaceofthepointintheschools.Charcoalisa

beautifulmediuminadexteroushand,butismoreadaptabletomassthantolinedrawing.Thelesssaidaboutthestumpthebetter,althoughIbelieveitstilllingersoninsomeschools.

Linedrawingishappilyreviving,andnothingissocalculatedtoputnewlifeandstrengthintothevagariesofnaturalisticpaintingandgetbackintoartafinesenseofdesign.

Thisobscuringofthedirectappealofartbytheaccumulationoftoomuchnaturalisticdetail,andthelossofpoweritentails,isthecause

ofartistshavingoccasionallygonebacktoamoreprimitiveconvention.TherewastheArchaisticmovementinGreece,andmenlikeRossettiandBurne-Jonesfoundabettermeansofexpressingthethingsthatmovedtheminthetechniqueofthefourteenthcentury.Anditwasnodoubtafeelingoftheweakeninginfluenceonart,asanexpressiveforce,oftheelaboraterealisationsofthemodernschool,thatpromptedPuvisdeChavannestoinventforhimselfhislargeprimitivemanner.Itwillbenoticedthatintheseinstancesitischieflytheinsistenceuponoutlinethatdistinguishestheseartistsfromtheircontemporaries.

Art,likelife,isapttolanguishifitgetstoofarawayfromprimitiveconditions.But,likelifealso,itisapoorthingandaveryuncouthaffairifithasnothingbutprimitiveconditionstorecommendit.Becausethereisadecadentartabout,oneneednotmakeaheroofthepavementartist.Butwithoutgoingtotheextremeoffloutingthecenturiesofculturethatartinherits,asitisnowfashionableinmanyplacestodo,studentswilldowelltostudyatfirsttheearlyratherthanthelateworkofthedifferentschools,soastogetintouchwiththesimpleconditionsofdesignonwhichgoodworkisbuilt.Itiseasiertostudytheseessentialqualitieswhentheyarenotoverlaidbysomuchknowledgeofvisualrealisation.Theskeletonofthepictureismoreapparentintheearlierthanthelaterworkofanyschool.

Thefinestexampleoftheunionoftheprimitivewiththemostrefined

andculturedarttheworldhaseverseenisprobablytheParthenonatAthens,abuildingthathasbeenthewonderoftheartisticworldforovertwothousandyears.NotonlyarethefragmentsofitssculpturesintheBritishMuseumamazing,butthebeautyandproportionsofitsarchitectureareofarefinementthatis,Ithink,neverevenattemptedinthesedays.Whatarchitectnowthinksofcorrectingthepoornessofhard,straightlinesbyveryslightlycurvingthem?Orofslightlyslopinginwardsthecolumnsofhisfacadetoaddtothestrengthofitsappearance?Theamountofthesevariationsisoftheveryslightestandbearswitnesstothepitchofrefinementattempted.Andyet,withitall,howsimple!ThereissomethingoftheprimitivestrengthofStonehengeinthatsolemnrowofcolumnsrisingfirmlyfromthesteps#withoutanybase#.Withallitsmagnificence,itstillretainsthe

simplicityofthehutfromwhichitwasevolved.

SomethingofthesamecombinationofprimitivegrandeurandstrengthwithexquisiterefinementofvisualisationisseenintheartofMichaelAngelo.Hisfollowersadoptedthebig,musculartypeoftheirmaster,butlosttheprimitivestrengthheexpressed;andwhenthisprimitiveforcewaslostsightof,whatadecadencesetin!

Thisisthepointatwhichartreachesitshighestmark:whentotheprimitivestrengthandsimplicityofearlyartareaddedtheinfiniterefinementsandgracesofculturewithoutdestroyingorweakeningthesublimityoftheexpression.

Inpainting,therefinementandgracesofculturetaketheformofanincreasingtruthtonaturalappearances,addedbitbybittotheprimitivebaldnessofearlywork;untilthepointisreached,asitwasinthenineteenthcentury,whenapparentlythewholefactsofvisualnatureareincorporated.Fromthiswealthofvisualmaterial,towhichmustbeaddedtheknowledgewenowhaveoftheartsoftheEast,ofChina,Japan,andIndia,themodernartisthastoselectthosethingsthatappealtohim;hastoselectthoseelementsthatanswertohisinmostneedofexpressinghimselfasanartist.Nowonderaperiodofartisticdyspepsiaisuponus,nowonderourexhibitions,particularly

thoseontheContinent,arefullofstrange,weirdthings.Theproblembeforetheartistwasneversocomplex,butalsoneversointeresting.Newforms,newcombinations,newsimplificationsaretobefound.Butthesteadyinginfluenceanddisciplineoflineworkwerenevermorenecessarytothestudent.

Theprimitiveforceweareindangeroflosingdependsmuchonline,andnoworkthataimsatasublimeimpressioncandispensewiththebasisofacarefullywroughtandsimplelinescheme.

Thestudy,therefore,ofpurelinedrawingisofgreatimportancetothepainter,andthenumerousdrawingsthatexistbythegreatmastersinthismethodshowhowmuchtheyunderstooditsvalue.

Andtherevivaloflinedrawing,andthedesirethereistofindasimplerconventionfoundedonthisbasis,areamongthemosthopefulsignsintheartofthemoment.

MASSDRAWING

Intheprecedingchapterithas,Ihope,beenshownthatoutlinedrawingisaninstinctwithWesternartistsandhasbeensofromtheearliesttimes;thatthisinstinctisduetothefactthatthefirstmentalideaofanobjectisthesenseofitsformasafeltthing,notathingseen;andthatanoutlinedrawingsatisfiesandappealsdirectlytothismentalideaofobjects.

Butthereisanotherbasisofexpressiondirectlyrelatedtovisualappearancesthatinthefulnessoftimewasevolved,andhashadaverygreatinfluenceonmodernart.Thisformofdrawingisbasedontheconsiderationoftheflatappearancesontheretina,withtheknowledge

ofthefeltshapesofobjectsforthetimebeingforgotten.Inoppositiontolinedrawing,wemaycallthisMassDrawing.

Thescientifictruthofthispointofviewisobvious.Ifonlytheaccuratecopyingoftheappearancesofnaturewerethesoleobjectofart(anideatobemetwithamongstudents)theproblemofpaintingwouldbesimplerthanitis,andwouldbelikelyerelongtobesolvedbythephotographiccamera.

Thisformofdrawingisthenaturalmeansofexpressionwhenabrushfullofpaintisinyourhands.Thereducingofacomplicatedappearancetoafewsimplemassesisthefirstnecessityofthepainter.Butthiswillbefullyexplainedinalaterchaptertreatingmore

practicallyofthepracticeofmassdrawing.

[Illustration:PlateX.

EXAMPLEOFFIFTEENTH-CENTURYCHINESEWORKBYLUILIANG(BRITISHMUSEUM)

ShowinghowearlyChinesemastershaddevelopedthemass-drawingpointofview.]

TheartofChinaandJapanappearstohavebeenmore[influencedbythis

viewofnaturalappearancesthanthatoftheWesthasbeen,untilquitelately.TheEasternminddoesnotseemtobesoobsessedbytheobjectivityofthingsasistheWesternmind.Withusthepracticalsenseoftouchisallpowerful."Iknowthatisso,becauseIfeltitwithmyhands"wouldbeacharacteristicexpressionwithus.WhereasIdonotthinkitwouldbeanexpressiontheEasternmindwoulduse.Withthemthespiritualessenceofthethingseenappearstobethemorereal,judgingfromtheirart.Andwhoistosaytheymaynotberight?Thisiscertainlytheimpressiononegetsfromtheirbeautifulpainting,withitslightnessoftextureandavoidanceofsolidity.Itisfoundedonnatureregardedasaflatvision,insteadofacollectionofsolidsinspace.Theiruseoflineisalsomuchmorerestrainedthanwithus,anditisseldomusedtoaccentuatethesolidityofthings,butchieflytosupporttheboundariesofmassesandsuggestdetail.Lightandshade,whichsuggestsolidity,areneverused,awidelightwherethereisnoshadowpervadeseverything,theirdrawingbeingdonewiththebrushinmasses.

When,asinthetimeofTitian,theartoftheWesthaddiscoveredlightandshade,linearperspective,aerialperspective,&c.,andhadbegunbyfusingtheedgesofthemassestosuspectthenecessityofpaintingtoawidelydiffusedfocus,theyhadgotverynearconsideringappearancesasavisualwhole.ButitwasnotuntilVelazquezthatapicturewaspaintedthatwasfoundedentirelyonvisualappearances,inwhicha

basisofobjectiveoutlineswasdiscardedandreplacedbyastructureoftonemasses.

WhenhetookhisownpaintingroomwiththelittleInfantaandhermaidsasasubject,Velazquezseemstohaveconsidereditentirelyasoneflatvisualimpression.ThefocalattentioniscentredontheInfanta,withthefiguresoneithersidemoreorlessoutoffocus,thoseontheextremerightbeingquiteblurred.Thereproductionheregivenunfortunatelydoesnotshowthesesubtleties,andflattensthegeneralappearanceverymuch.Thefocusisnowheresharp,asthiswoulddisturbthecontemplationofthelargevisualimpression.Andthere,Ithink,forthefirsttime,thewholegamutofnaturalvision,tone,colour,form,lightandshade,atmosphere,focus,&c.,consideredasone

impression,wereputoncanvas.

Allsenseofdesignislost.Thepicturehasnosurface;itisallatmospherebetweenthefouredgesoftheframe,andtheobjectsarewithin.PlacedasitisinthePrado,withthelightcomingfromtherightasinthepicture,thereisnobreakbetweentherealpeoplebeforeitandthefigureswithin,excepttheslightyellowveilduetoage.

Butwonderfulasthispictureis,asa"tourdeforce,"likehisVenusofthesameperiodintheNationalGallery,itisapainter'spicture,andmakesbutacoldimpressiononthosenotinterestedinthetechniqueofpainting.Withthecuttingawayoftheprimitivesupportoffine

outlinedesignandtheabsenceofthoseaccentsconveyingafineformstimulustothemind,arthaslostmuchofitsemotionalsignificance.

[Illustration:PlateXI.

LOSMENENAS.BYVELAZQUEZ(PRADO)

Probablythefirstpictureeverpaintedentirelyfromthevisualorimpressioniststandpoint.

_PhotoAnderson_]

[Sidenote:TheImpressionistPointofView.]

Butarthasgainedanewpointofview.Withthissubjectivewayofconsideringappearances--this"impressionistvision,"asithasbeencalled--manythingsthatweretoougly,eitherfromshapeorassociation,toyieldmaterialforthepainter,wereyetfound,whenviewedaspartofaschemeofcoloursensationsontheretinawhichtheartistconsidersemotionallyandrhythmically,tolendthemselvestonewandbeautifulharmoniesand"ensembles,"undreamtofbytheearlierformulae.Andfurther,manyeffectsoflightthatweretoohopelesslycomplicatedforpainting,consideredontheoldlightandshadeprinciples(forinstance,sunlightthroughtreesinawood),werefoundtobequitepaintable,consideredasanimpressionofvariouscolourmasses.Theearlyformulacouldneverfreeitselffromtheobjectasasolidthing,andhadconsequentlytoconfineitsattentiontobeautifulones.Butfromthenewpointofview,formconsistsoftheshapeandqualitiesofmassesofcolourontheretina;andwhatobjectshappentobetheoutsidecauseoftheseshapesmatterslittletotheimpressionist.Nothingisuglywhenseeninabeautifulaspectoflight,andaspectiswiththemeverything.Thisconsiderationofthevisualappearanceinthefirstplacenecessitatedanincreaseddependenceon

themodel.Ashedoesnotnowdrawfromhismentalperceptionstheartisthasnothingtoselectthematerialofhispicturefromuntilithasexistedasaseenthingbeforehim:untilhehasavisualimpressionofitinhismind.Withtheolderpointofview(therepresentationbyapictorialdescription,asitwere,basedonthementalideaofanobject),themodelwasnotsonecessary.InthecaseoftheImpressionistthementalperceptionisarrivedatfromthevisualimpression,andintheolderpointofviewthevisualimpressionistheresultofthementalperception.ThusithappensthattheImpressionistmovementhasproducedchieflypicturesinspiredbytheactualworldofvisualphenomenaaroundus,theolderpointofviewproducingmostofthepicturesderivingtheirinspirationfromthegloriesoftheimagination,thementalworldinthemindoftheartist.Andalthough

interestingattemptsarebeingmadetoproduceimaginativeworksfoundedontheimpressionistpointofviewoflightandair,thelossofimaginativeappealconsequentuponthedestructionofcontoursbyscintillation,atmosphere,&c.,andthelossoflinerhythmitentails,havesofarpreventedtheproductionofanyverysatisfactoryresults.Butundoubtedlythereismuchnewmaterialbroughttolightbythismovementwaitingtobeusedimaginatively;anditoffersanewfieldfortheselectionofexpressivequalities.

Thispointofview,althoughcontinuingtosomeextentintheSpanishschool,didnotcomeintogeneralrecognitionuntilthelastcenturyinFrance.ThemostextremeexponentsofitarethebodyofartistswhogroupedthemselvesroundClaudeMonet.Thisimpressionistmovement,as

thecriticshavelabelledit,wastheresultofafiercedeterminationtoconsidernaturesolelyfromthevisualpointofview,makingnoconcessionstoanyotherassociationsconnectedwithsight.Theresultwasanentirelynewvisionofnature,startlingandrepulsivetoeyesunaccustomedtoobservationfromapurelyvisualpointofviewandusedonlytoseeingthe"feelofthings,"asitwere.Thefirstresultswerenaturallyrathercrude.Butagreatamountofnewvisualfactswerebroughttolight,particularlythoseconnectedwiththepaintingofsunlightandhalflighteffects.Indeedthewholepaintingofstronglighthasbeenpermanentlyaffectedbytheworkofthisgroupof

painters.Emancipatedfromtheobjectiveworld,theynolongerdissectedtheobjecttoseewhatwasinsideit,butstudiedrathertheanatomyofthelightrefractedfromittotheireyes.Findingthistobecomposedofallthecoloursoftherainbowasseeninthesolarspectrum,andthatalltheeffectsnatureproducedaredonewithdifferentproportionsofthesecolours,theytookthem,orthenearestpigmentstheycouldgettothem,fortheirpalette,eliminatingtheearthcoloursandblack.Andfurther,findingthatnature'scolours(theraysofcolouredlight)whenmixedproduceddifferentresultsthantheircorrespondingpigmentsmixedtogether,theydeterminedtousetheirpaintsaspureaspossible,placingthemoneagainsttheothertobemixedastheycametotheeye,themixturebeingoneofpurecolourrays,notpigments,bythismeans.

Butwearehereonlyconcernedwiththemovementasitaffectedform,andmustavoidthefascinatingprovinceofcolour.

Thosewhohadbeenbroughtupintheoldschoolofoutlineformsaidtherewasnodrawingintheseimpressionistpictures,andfromthepointofviewofthementalideaofformdiscussedinthelastchapter,therewasindeedlittle,although,hadtheimpressionbeenrealisedtoasufficientlydefinitefocus,thesenseoftouchandsoliditywouldprobablyhavebeensatisfied.Buttheparticularfieldofthisnewpointofview,thebeautyoftoneandcolourrelationsconsideredasanimpressionapartfromobjectivity,didnottemptthemtocarrytheir

worksofarasthis,ortheinsistenceontheseparticularqualitieswouldhavebeenlost.

Butinterestingandalluringasisthenewworldofvisualmusicopenedupbythispointofview,itisbeginningtoberealisedthatithasfailedsomehowtosatisfy.Inthefirstplace,theimpliedassumptionthatoneseeswiththeeyealoneiswrong:

"Ineveryobjectthereisinexhaustiblemeaning;theeyeseesinitwhattheeyebringsmeansofseeing,"[2]

[Footnote2:Goethe,quotedinCarlyle's_FrenchRevolution_,chap.i.]

anditisthemindbehindtheeyethatsuppliesthismeansofperception:#oneseeswiththemind#.Theultimateeffectofanypicture,beitimpressionist,post,anti,orotherwise--isitspowertostimulatethesementalperceptionswithinthemind.

Butevenfromthepointofviewofthe_true_visualperception(ifthereissuchathing)thatmodernarthasheardsomuchtalkof,thecopyingoftheretinapictureisnotsogreatasuccess.Theimpressioncarriedawayfromascenethathasmovedusisnotitscompletevisualaspect.Onlythosethingsthataresignificanttothefeltimpressionhavebeenretainedbythemind;andifthepictureistobeatruerepresentationofthis,thesignificantfactsmustbesortedoutfromthemassofirrelevantmatterandpresentedinalivelymanner.The

impressionist'shabitofpaintingbeforenatureentirelyisnotcalculatedtodothis.Goingtimeaftertimetothesameplace,evenifsimilarweatherconditionsarewaitedfor,althoughwellenoughforstudies,isagainsttheproductionofafinepicture.Everytimetheartistgoestotheselectedspothereceivesadifferentimpression,sothathemusteitherpaintalloverhispictureeachtime,inwhichcasehisworkmustbeconfinedtoasmallscaleandwillbehurriedinexecution,orhemustpaintabitoftoday'simpressionalongsideofyesterday's,inwhichcasehisworkwillbedullandlackinginonenessofconception.

Andfurther,indecomposingthecolourraysthatcometotheeyeandpaintinginpurecolour,whilegreatadditionwasmadetothepowerofexpressinglight,yetbydestroyingthedefinitionsandenvelopingeverythinginascintillatingatmosphere,thepowertodesigninalargemannerwaslostwiththewealthofsignificancethatthemusicoflinecanconvey.

Butimpressionismhasopenedupaviewfromwhichmuchinterestingmatterforartistobegleaned.Andeverywherepaintersareselectingfromthis,andgraftingitontosomeofthemoretraditionalschoolsofdesign.

Ourconcernhereiswiththeinfluencethispointofviewhashadupondraughtsmanship.Theinfluencehasbeenconsiderable,particularlywiththosedraughtsmenwhoseworkdealswiththerenderingofmodernlife.Itconsistsindrawingfromtheobservationofthesilhouetteoccupiedbyobjectsinthefieldofvision,observingtheflatappearanceofthingsastheyareontheretina.Thisis,ofcourse,theonlyaccuratewayinwhichtoobservevisualshapes.Thedifferencebetweenthisandtheolderpointofviewisitsinsistenceontheobservationoftheflatvisualimpressiontotheexclusionofthetactileortouchsensethatbytheassociationofideaswehavecometoexpectinthingsseen.Anincreasedtruthtothecharacterofappearanceshasbeentheresult,

withacorrespondinglossofplasticformexpression.Onpages66and67areproductionofadrawingintheBritishMuseum,attributedtoMichaelAngelo,iscontrastedwithoneintheLouvrebyDegas.Theoneisdrawnfromthelinepointofviewandtheotherfromthemass.Theybothcontainlines,butintheonecasethelinesarethecontoursoffeltformsandintheothertheboundariesofvisualmasses.IntheMichaelAngelothesilhouetteisonlytheresultoftheoverlappingofrichformsconsideredintheround.Everymuscleandbonehasbeenmentallyrealisedasaconcretethingandthedrawingmadeasanexpressionofthisidea.Notethelinerhythmalso;thesenseofenergyandmovementconveyedbytheswingingcurves;andcomparewithwhatissaidlater(page162[TranscribersNote:Sidenote"Curved

Lines"])abouttherhythmicsignificanceofswingingcurves.

ThencompareitwiththeDegasandobservethetotallydifferentattitudeofmindinwhichthisdrawinghasbeenapproached.Insteadoftheoutlinesbeingtheresultofformsfeltasconcretethings,thesilhouetteiseverywhereconsideredfirst,theplasticsense(nowheresogreatasintheother)beingarrivedatfromtheaccurateconsiderationofthemassshapes.

NoticealsotheincreasedattentiontoindividualcharacterintheDegas,observethepathosofthoseunderfedlittlearms,andthehandholdingthetiredankle--howindividualitallis.Whatadifferenttalethislittlefiguretellsfromthatgivenbeforethefootlights!Seewith

whatsympathythecontourshavebeensearchedforthoseaccentsexpressiveofallthis.

[Illustration:PlateXII.

STUDYATTRIBUTEDTOMICHAELANGELO(BRITISHMUSEUM)

Notethedesiretoexpressformasafeltsolidthing,thecontoursresultingfromtheoverlappingforms.Thevisualappearanceisarrivedatasaresultofgivingexpressiontothementalideaofasolid

object.]

[Illustration:PlateXIII.

STUDYBYDEGAS(LUXEMBOURG)

IncontrastwithMichaelAngelo'sdrawing,notethepreoccupationwiththesilhouettethespacesoccupiedbythedifferentmassesinthefieldofvision;howtheappearancesolidformsistheresultofaccuratelyportrayingthisvisualappearance.

_PhotoLevi_]

HowremotefromindividualcharacteristheMichaelAngeloincontrastwiththis!Insteadofanindividualhegivesustheexpressionofaglowingmentalconceptionofmanasatypeofphysicalstrengthandpower.

Therhythmisdifferentalso,intheonecasebeingalinerhythm,andintheotheraconsiderationoftheflatpatternofshapesormasseswithaplayoflost-and-foundnessontheedges(seelater,pages192[TranscribersNote:Sidenote"VarietyofEdges."]_etseq._,varietyofedges).Itisthisfeelingforrhythmandthesympatheticsearchingfor

andemphasisofthosepointsexpressiveofcharacter,thatkeepthisdrawingfrombeingthemechanicalperformancewhichsomuchconcernwithscientificvisualaccuracymightwellhavemadeit,andwhichhasmademechanicalmanyofthedrawingsofDegas'sfollowerswhounintelligentlycopyhismethod.

THEACADEMICANDCONVENTIONAL

ThetermsAcademicandConventionalaremuchusedincriticismandgreatlyfearedbythecriticised,oftenwithouteitherpartyappearingtohavemuchideaofwhatismeant.Newso-calledschoolsofpaintingseemtoarriveannuallywiththespringfashions,andsoonerorlatertheoneoflastyeargetscalledoutofdate,ifnotconventionalandacademic.Andasstudents,forfearofhavingtheirworkcalledbyoneorotherofthesedreadterms,areinclinedtorushintoanynewextravagancethatcomesalong,someinquiryastotheirmeaningwillnotbeoutofplacebeforewepassintothechaptersdealingwithacademicstudy.

IthasbeenthecryforsometimethatSchoolsofArtturnedoutonly

academicstudents.Andonecertainlyassociatesadeadlevelofrespectablemediocritywithmuchschoolwork.Wecancalltomindalotofdull,lifeless,highly-finishedwork,imperfectlyperfect,thathaswontheprizeinmanyaschoolcompetition.Flaubertsays"aformdeadens,"anditdoesseemasifthenecessaryformalityofaschoolcoursehadsomedeadeninginfluenceonstudents;andthattherewassomeimportantpartoftheartist'sdevelopmentwhichithasfailedtorecogniseandencourage.

ThefreersystemoftheFrenchschoolshasbeeninmanycasesmore

successful.Buteachschoolwaspresidedoverbyanartistofdistinction,andthisputthestudentsintouchwithrealworkandthusintroducedvitality.InEngland,untilquitelately,artistswereseldomemployedinteaching,whichwaslefttomensetasideforthepurpose,withoutanytimetocarryonoriginalworkoftheirown.TheRoyalAcademySchoolsareanexceptiontothis.Therethestudentshavetheadvantageofteachingfromsomedistinguishedmemberorassociatewhohaschargeoftheupperschoolforamonthatatime.Butasthevisitorisconstantlychanged,thelessexperiencedstudentsarepuzzledbythedifferentmethodsadvocated,andflounderhopelesslyforwantofadefinitesystemtoworkon;althoughforastudentalreadyinpossessionofagoodgroundingthereismuchtobesaidforthesystem,ascontactwiththedifferentmasterswidenstheiroutlook.

ButperhapsthechiefmistakeinArtSchoolshasbeenthattheyhavetoolargelyconfinedthemselvestotrainingstudentsmechanicallytoobserveandportraythethingsetbeforethemtocopy,anantiquefigure,astill-lifegroup,alivingmodelsittingasstillandlifelessashecan.Nowthisisallverywellasfarasitgoes,buttherealmatterofartisnotnecessarilyinallthis.Andiftherealmatterofartisneglectedtoolongthestudentmayfinditdifficulttogetintouchwithitagain.

Theseaccurate,painstakingschoolstudiesareverynecessaryindeedas

atrainingfortheeyeinobservingaccurately,andthehandinreproducingtheappearancesofthings,becauseitisthroughthereproductionofnaturalappearancesandtheknowledgeofformandcolourderivedfromsuchstudythatthestudentwillafterwardsfindthemeansofgivingexpressiontohisfeelings.Butwhenvaluableprizesandscholarshipsaregivenforthem,and_not_forreallyartisticwork,theydotendtobecometheendinsteadofthemeans.

Itisofcourseimprobablethatevenschoolstudiesdonewiththesoleideaofaccuracybyayoungartistwillinallcasesbedevoidofartisticfeeling;itwillcreepin,ifhehastheartisticinstinct.Butitisnotenough#encouraged#,andtheprizeisgenerallygiventothedrawingthatismostcompleteandlikethemodelinacommonplaceway.

Ifastudent,movedbyastrongfeelingforform,letshimselfgoanddoesafinething,probablyonlyremotelylikethemodeltotheaverageeye,theauthoritiesarepuzzledanddon'tusuallyknowwhattomakeofit.

Thereareschoolswherethemostartisticqualitiesareencouraged,buttheygenerallyneglecttheacademicside;andthestudentleavesthempoorlyequippedforfinework.Surelyitwouldbepossibletomakeadistinction,givingprizesforacademicdrawingswhichshouldbeasthoroughlyaccurateinamechanicalwayasindustryandapplicationcanmakethem,andalsoforartisticdrawings,inwhichthestudentshouldbeencouragedtofollowhisbent,strivingfortheexpressionofanyqualitiesthatdelighthim,andtroublinglessaboutmechanical

accuracy.Theuseofdrawingasanexpressionofsomethingfeltissooftenleftuntilaftertheschooltrainingisdonethatmanystudentsfailtoachieveitaltogether.Androwsoflifelesspictures,madeupofmodelscopiedindifferentattitudes,withstudiopropertiesaroundthem,aretheresult,andpassforartinmanyquarters.Suchpicturesoftendisplayconsiderableability,forasBurne-Jonessaysinoneofhisletters,"Itisverydifficulttopaintevenabadpicture."Buthadtheabilitybeendifferentlydirected,thepicturesmighthavebeengood.

[Illustration:PlateXIV.

DRAWINGINREDCHALKBYERNESTCOLE

Exampleofunacademicdrawingmadeintheauthor'sclassattheGoldsmithsCollegeSchoolofArt.]

Itisdifficulttoexplainwhatiswrongwithanacademicdrawing,andwhatisthedifferencebetweenitandfafinedrawing.Butperhapsthisdifferencecanbebroughthomealittlemoreclearlyifyouwillpardonaratherfancifulsimile.Iamtoldthatifyouconstructaperfectlyfittedengine--thepistonfittingthecylinderwithabsoluteaccuracyandtheaxlestheirsocketswithnospacebetween,&c.--it#willnotwork#,butbealifelessmassofiron.Theremustbeenoughplaybetweenthevitalpartstoallowofsomemovement;"dither"is,Ibelieve,theScotchwordforit.Thepistonmustbeallowedsomeplayintheopeningofthecylinderthroughwhichitpasses,oritwillnotbeabletomoveandshowanylife.Andtheaxlesofthewheelsintheirsockets,and,infact,allpartsofthemachinewherelifeandmovementaretooccur,musthavethisplay,this"dither."Ithasalwaysseemedtomethattheaccuratelyfittingenginewaslikeagoodacademicdrawing,inawayaperfectpieceofworkmanship,butlifeless.Imperfectlyperfect,becausetherewasnoroomleftfortheplayoflife.Andtocarrythesimilefurther,ifyouallowtoogreataplaybetweentheparts,sothatthey

fitoneovertheothertooloosely,theenginewilllosepowerandbecomeapoorricketything.Theremustbethesmallestamountofplaythatwillallowofitsworking.Andthemoreperfectlymadetheengine,thelesswilltheamountofthis"dither"be.

Theword"dither"willbeausefulnametogivethatelusivequality,thatplayonmechanicalaccuracy,existinginallvitalart.#Itisthisvitalqualitythathasnotyetreceivedmuchattentioninarttraining.#

Itisherethatthephotographfails,itcanonlyatbestgivemechanicalaccuracy,whereasartgivestheimpressionofalive,individualconsciousness.Wheretherecordinginstrumentisaliveindividual,thereisnomechanicalstandardofaccuracypossible,as

everyrecordinginstrumentisadifferentpersonality.Anditisthesubtledifferencesintheindividualrenderingsofnaturethatarethelife-bloodofart.Thephotograph,onaccountofitsbeingchainedtomechanicalaccuracy,hasnoneofthisplayoflifetogiveitcharm.Itonlyapproachesartisticconditionswhenitisblurred,vague,andindefinite,asinso-calledartisticphotography,forthenonlycansomeamountofthisvitalisingplay,this"dither"beimaginedtoexist.

Itisthisperfectaccuracy,thislackofplay,ofvariety,thatmakesthemachine-madearticlesolifeless.Whereverthereislifethereisvariety,andthesubstitutionofthemachine-madeforthehand-madearticlehasimpoverishedtheworldtoagreaterextentthanweareprobablyyetawareof.Whereasformerly,beforetheadventofmachinery,

thecommonestarticleyoucouldpickuphadalifeandwarmthwhichgaveitindividualinterest,noweverythingisturnedouttosuchaperfectionofdeadnessthatoneisdriventopickupandcollect,insheerdesperation,thecommonestrubbishstillsurvivingfromtheearlierperiod.

Buttoreturntoourdrawings.Ifthevariationsfromstrictaccuracymadeundertheinfluenceoffeelingaretoogreat,theresultwillbeacaricature.Thevariationsinabeautifuldrawingaresosubtleasoftentodefydetection.ThestudiesofIngresareaninstanceofwhatI

mean.Howtrueandinstinctwithlifearehislines,andhoweasilyonemightassumethattheyweremerelyaccurate.Butnomerelyaccurateworkwouldhavetheimpellingqualitythesedrawingspossess.Ifthewritermayventureanopiniononsogreatanartist,thesubtledifferencewearetalkingaboutwassometimesmissedbyevenIngreshimself,whenhetransferredhisdrawingstothecanvas;andthepictureshaveinsomecasesbecomeacademicandlifeless.Withoutthestimulusofnaturebeforehimitwasdifficulttopreservethe"dither"inthedrawing,andthelifehasescaped.Thisisthegreatdifficultyofworkingfromstudies;itissoeasytolosethoselittlepointsinyourdrawingthatmakeforvitalityofexpression,intheprocessofcopyingincoldblood.

[Illustration:PlateXV.

FROMAPENCILDRAWINGBYINGRES

_PhotoBulloz_]

Thefactis:itisonlytheacademicthatcanbetaught.Anditisnosmallthingifthisiswelldoneinaschool.Thequalitiesthatgivevitalityanddistinctiontodrawingmustbeappreciatedbythestudenthimself,andmayoftenassertthemselvesinhisdrawingwithouthisbeingawarethatheisdoingaughtbuthonestlycopying.Andifhehas

trainedhimselfthoroughlyhewillnotfindmuchdifficultywhenheismovedtovitalexpression.Allthemastercandoistostandbyandencouragewheneverheseesevidenceoftherealthing.Butthereisundoubtedlythisdangeroftheschoolstudiesbecomingtheendinsteadofthemeans.

Adrawingisnotnecessarilyacademicbecauseitisthorough,butonlybecauseitisdead.Neitherisadrawingnecessarilyacademicbecauseitisdoneinwhatiscalledaconventionalstyle,anymorethanitisgoodbecauseitisdoneinanunconventionalstyle.Thetestiswhetherithaslifeandconveysgenuinefeeling.

Thereismuchfoolishtalkaboutconventionalart,asifartcouldevergetawayfromconventions,ifitwould.Theconventionwillbemorenaturalormoreabstractaccordingtothenatureofthethingtobeconveyedandthemediumemployedtoexpressit.Butnaturalismisjustasmuchaconventionasanyoftheotherismsthatarthaslatelybeensoassailedwith.ForareallyunconventionalartthereisMadameTussaud'sWaxworks.There,eventheconventionofaframeandflatsurfacearedoneawaywith,besidesthepaintedsymbolstorepresentthings.Theyhaverealnaturalchairs,tables,andfloors,realclothes,andevenrealhair.Realismeverywhere,butnolife.Andweallknowtheresult.Thereismoreexpressionoflifeinafewlinesscribbledonpaperbyagoodartistthaninalltherealityofthepopularshow.

Itwouldseemthat,afteracertainpoint,theneareryourpictureapproachestheactualillusionofnaturalappearance,thefurtheryouarefromtheexpressionoflife.Onecanneverhopetosurpasstheillusionaryappearanceofa#tableauvivant#.Thereyouhavereal,livingpeople.Butwhatanawfuldeathlikestillnessisfeltwhenthecurtainisdrawnaside.Theneareryouapproachtheactualinallitscompleteness,themoreevidentisthelackofthat#movement#whichalwaysaccompanieslife.Youcannotexpresslifebycopyinglaboriouslynaturalappearances.Thosethingsintheappearancethatconveyvital

expressionandarecapableofbeingtranslatedintothemediumheisworkingwith,havetobesoughtbytheartist,andthepaintedsymbolsofhispicturemadeaccordingly.Thislackofthemovementoflifeisnevernoticedinagoodpicture,ontheotherhandthefiguresareoftenfelttomove.

Picturesareblamedforbeingconventionalwhenitislackofvitalitythatisthetrouble.Iftheconventionadoptedhasnotbeenvitalisedbytheemotionthatisthereasonofthepainting,itwill,ofcourse,bealifelessaffair.Buthoweverabstractandunnaturalisticthemanneradopted,ifithasbeentrulyfeltbytheartistastherightmeansofexpressinghisemotionalidea,itwillhavelifeandshouldnotbecalledconventionalinthecommonlyacceptedoffensiveuseoftheterm.

Itisonlywhenapainterconsciouslychoosesamannernothisown,whichhedoesnotcomprehendandisincapableoffiringwithhisownpersonality,thathispictureisridiculousandconventionalinthedeadsense.

Buteveryagediffersinitstemperament,andtheartisticconventionsofoneageseldomfitanother.Theartisthastodiscoveraconventionforhimself,onethatfitshisparticularindividuality.Butthisisdonesimplyandnaturally--notbystartingoutwiththeintentionoffloutingalltraditionalconventionsonprinciple;nor,ontheother

hand,byacceptingthemallonprinciple,butbysimplyfollowinghisownbentandselectingwhatappealstohiminanythingandeverythingthatcomeswithintherangeofhisvision.Theresultislikelytobesomethingverydifferentfromtheviolentexploitsinpeculiaritythathavebeenmasqueradingasoriginalitylately.#Originalityismoreconcernedwithsinceritythanwithpeculiarity.#

Thestrugglingandfrettingafteroriginalitythatoneseesinmodernartiscertainlyanevidenceofvitality,butoneisinclinedtodoubtwhetheranythingreallyoriginalwaseverdoneinsoforcedaway.Theoldermasters,itseems,werecontentsincerelytotryanddothebesttheywerecapableofdoing.Andthiscontinualstrivingtodobetterledthemalmostunconsciouslytonewandoriginalresults.Originalityisa

qualityoverwhichanartisthasaslittleinfluenceasovertheshapeanddistinctionofhisfeatures.Allhecandoistobesincereandtryandfindoutthethingsthatreallymovehimandthathereallylikes.Ifhehasastrongandoriginalcharacter,hewillhavenodifficultyinthis,andhisworkwillbeoriginalinthetruesense.Andifhehasnot,itisamatterofopinionwhetherheisnotbetteremployedinworkingalongthelinesofsomewell-triedmannerthatwillatanyratekeephimfromdoinganythingreallybad,thaninstrugglingtocloakhisowncommonplacenessunderviolentessaysinpeculiarityandtheavoidanceoftheobviousatallcosts.

Butwhilespeakingagainstfrettingaftereccentricity,don'tletitbeassumedthatanydiscouragementisbeinggiventogenuinenewpointsof

view.Inart,whenathinghasoncebeenwelldoneandhasfoundembodimentinsomecompleteworkofart,ithasbeendoneonceforall.Thecircumstancesthatproduceditareneverlikelytooccuragain.Thatiswhythosepainterswhocontinuetoreproduceapictureoftheirs(wedonotmeanliterally)thathadbeenasuccessinthefirstinstance,neverafterwardsobtainthesuccessoftheoriginalperformance.Everybeautifulworkofartisanewcreation,theresultofparticularcircumstancesinthelifeoftheartistandthetimeofitsproduction,thathaveneverexistedbeforeandwillneverrecuragain.Wereanyofthegreatmastersofthepastalivenow,theywoulddoverydifferent

workfromwhattheydidthen,thecircumstancesbeingsoentirelydifferent.SothatshouldanybodyseektopaintlikeTitiannow,bytryingtopaintlikeTitiandidinhistime,hecouldnotattemptanythingmoreunlikethespiritofthatmaster;whichinitsday,likethespiritofallmasters,wasmostadvanced.Butitisonlybyascrupulouslysincereandtruthfulattitudeofmindthatthenewandoriginalcircumstancesinwhichwefindourselvescanbetakenadvantageoffortheproductionoforiginalwork.Andself-consciousseekingafterpeculiarityonlystopsthenaturalevolutionandproducesabortions.

Butdonotbefrightenedbyconventions,thedifferentmaterialsinwhichtheartistworksimposetheirconventions.Andasitisthroughthesematerialsthathehastofindexpression,whatexpressivequalitiestheypossessmustbestudied,andthosefactsinnatureselectedthatareinharmonywiththem.Thetreatmentofhairbysculptorsisanextremeinstanceofthis.Whatarethosequalitiesofhairthatareamenabletoexpressioninstone?Obviouslytheyarefew,andconfinedchieflytothemassformsinwhichthehairarrangesitself.Thefinestsculptorshaveneverattemptedmorethanthis,haveneverlostsightofthefactthatitwasstonetheywereworkingwith,andnevermadeanyattempttocreateanillusionofrealhair.Andinthesameway,whenworkinginbronze,thefineartistneverlosessightofthefactthatitisbronzewithwhichheisworking.Howsadlythedistinguishedpaintertowhomamisguidedadministrationentrustedthe

workofmodellingtheBritishemblemoverlookedthis,maybeseenanydayinTrafalgarSquare,thelionstherepossessingnoneofthesplendourofbronzebutlookingasiftheyweremodelledindough,andpossessinginconsequencenoneofthevitalqualitiesofthelion.ItisinterestingtocomparethemwiththelittlelionAlfredStevensmodelledfortherailingoftheBritishMuseum,andtospeculateonwhatathrillwemighthavereceivedeverytimewepassedTrafalgarSquare,hadhebeenentrustedwiththework,ashemighthavebeen.

Andinpainting,thegreatpaintersneverlosesightofthefactthatitispaintwithwhichtheyareexpressingthemselves.Andalthoughpaintiscapableofapproachingmuchneareranactualillusoryappearanceofnaturethanstoneorbronze,theyneverpushthistothepointwhereyou

forgetthatitispaint.Thishasbeenleftforsomeofthesmallermen.

Andwhenitcomestodrawing,thegreatartistshavealwaysconfinedthemselvestothequalitiesinnaturethatthetooltheyweredrawingwithwascapableofexpressing,andnoothers.Whetherworkingwithpen,pencil,chalk,orcharcoal,theyalwayscreatedaconventionwithinwhichunlimitedexpressionhasbeenpossible.

Tosumup,academicdrawingisallthatcanbereallytaught,andisasnecessarytothepainterasthepractisingofexercisesistothemusician,thathispowersofobservationandexecutionmaybetrained.Butthevitalmatterofartisnotinallthisnecessarytraining.Andthisfactthestudentshouldalwayskeepinmind,andbeeverreadyto

givereintothosenaturalenthusiasmswhich,ifheisanartist,hewillfindwellingupwithinhim.Thedangeristhattheabsorbinginterestinhisacademicstudiesmaytakeuphiswholeattention,totheneglectoftheinstinctivequalitiesthatheshouldpossessthepossessionofwhichalonewillentitlehimtobeanartist.

THESTUDYOFDRAWING

Wehaveseenthattherearetwoextremepointsofviewfromwhichtherepresentationofformcanbeapproached,thatofoutlinedirectlyrelatedtothementalideaofformwithitstouchassociationontheonehand,andthatofmassconnecteddirectlywiththevisualpictureontheretinaontheother.

Now,betweenthesetwoextremepointsofviewthereareaninfinitevarietyofstylescombiningthembothandleaningmoretotheonesideortheother,asthecasemaybe.Butitisadvisableforthestudenttostudybothseparately,fortherearedifferentthingstobelearntanddifferentexpressivequalitiesinnaturetobestudiedinboth.

Fromthestudyofoutlinedrawingtheeyeistrainedtoaccurateobservationandlearnstheexpressivevalueofaline.Andthehandisalsotrainedtodefinitestatement,thestudentbeingledonbydegreesfromsimpleoutlinestoapproachthefullrealisationofforminallthecomplexityoflightandshade.

Butatthesametimeheshouldstudymassdrawingwithpaintfromthepurelyvisualpointofview,inordertobeintroducedtotheimportant

studyoftonevaluesandtheexpressionofformbymeansofplanes.Andsobydegreeshewilllearnaccuratelytoobserveandportraythetonemasses(theirshapesandvalues)towhichallvisualappearancescanbereduced;andhewillgraduallyarriveatthefullrealisationofform--arealisationthatwillbringhimtoapointsomewhatsimilartothatarrivedatfromtheoppositepointofviewofanoutlinetowhichhasbeenaddedlightandshade,&c.

Butunlessbothpointsofviewarestudied,thestudent'sworkwillbeincomplete.Ifformbestudiedonlyfromtheoutlinepointofview,andwhathavebeencalledsculptor'sdrawingsaloneattempted,thestudentwilllackknowledgeofthetoneandatmospherethatalwaysenvelopforminnature.Andalsohewillbepoorlyequippedwhenhecomestoexchange

thepencilforabrushandendeavourstoexpresshimselfinpaint.

Andifhisstudiesbeonlyfromthemasspointofview,thetrainingofhiseyetotheaccurateobservationofallthesubtletiesofcontoursandtheconstructionofformwillbeneglected.Andhewillnotunderstandthementalformstimulusthatthedirectionandswingofabrushstrokecangive.Theseandmanythingsconnectedwithexpressioncanbestbestudiedinlinework.

Letthestudentthereforebeginontheprinciplesadoptedinmostschools,withoutlinestudiesofsimplecastsormodels,andgraduallyaddlightandshade.Whenhehasacquiredmoreproficiencyhemayapproachdrawingfromthelife.Thisissufficientlywelldoneinthe

numerousschoolsofartthatnowexistalloverthecountry.But,atthesametime(andthis,asfarasIknow,isnotdoneanywhere),thestudentshouldbeginsomesimpleformofmassdrawinginpaint,simpleexercises,asisexplainedlaterinthechapteronMassDrawing,Practical,beingatfirstattemptedandcriticisedsolelyfromthepointofviewoftonevalues.

[Illustration:DiagramII.

SHOWINGWHERESQUARENESSESMAYBELOOKEDFORINTHEDRAWINGONTHE

OPPOSITEPAGE]

[Illustration:PlateXVI.

STUDYBYRUBENSFROMTHECOLLECTIONOFCHARLESRICKETTSANDCHARLESSHANNON

AsplendidexampleofRubens'loveofrich,fullforms.Comparewiththediagramopposite,andnotetheflatnessesthatgivestrengthtotheforms.]

Fromlackofthiselementarytonestudy,thestudent,whenheapproachespaintingforthefirsttime,withonlyhisoutlineandlightandshadeknowledge,isentirelyatsea.Withbrushesandpaintheispresentedwithaproblemofformexpressionsentirelynew.Andheusuallybeginstoflounderabout,usinghispaintasmuchlikechalkonpaperaspossible.Andtimidoflosinghisoutlines,hefearstoputdownamass,ashehasnoknowledgeofreducingappearancestoastructureoftonemassesorplanes.

Iwouldsuggest,therefore,thatthestudentshouldstudysimultaneouslyfromthesetwopointsofview,beginningwiththeirmostextremepositions,thatis,bareoutlineontheonesideandontheothersidetonemassescriticisedfortheiraccuracyofvaluesonlyinthefirst

instance.Asheadvances,theonestudywillhelptheother.Thelineworkwillhelptheaccuracywithwhichheobservestheshapesofmasses,andwhenhecomestolightandshadehisknowledgeoftonevalueswillhelphimhere.Unitedatlast,whencompletelightandshadehasbeenaddedtohisoutlinedrawingsandtohismassdrawinganintimateknowledgeofform,theresultswillapproximateandthetwopathswillmeet.Butifthequalitiesappertainingtoeitherpointofviewarenotstudiedseparately,theresultisconfusionandthe"muddlingthrough"methodsocommoninourschoolsofart.

LINEDRAWING:PRACTICAL

Seeingthatthefirstconditionofyourdrawingisthatithastobemadeonaflatsurface,nomatterwhetheritistobeinlineormassyouintendtodraw,itisobviousthatappearancesmustbereducedtotermsofaflatsurfacebeforetheycanbeexpressedonpaper.Andthisisthefirstdifficultythatconfrontsthestudentinattemptingtodrawasolidobject.Hehassoacquiredthehabitofperceivingthesolidityofthings,aswasexplainedinanearlierchapter,thatnolittledifficultywillbeexperiencedinaccuratelyseeingthemasaflat

picture.

[Sidenote:ObservingSolidsasaFlatcopy.]

Asitisonlyfromonepointofviewthatthingscanbedrawn,andaswehavetwoeyes,thereforetwopointsofview,theclosingofoneeyewillbehelpfulatfirst.

Thesimplestandmostmechanicalwayofobservingthingsasaflatsubjectistohaveapieceofcardboardwitharectangularholecutout

ofthemiddle,andalsopiecesofcottonthreadedthroughitinsuchamannerthattheymakeapatternofsquaresacrosstheopening,asintheaccompanyingsketch.Tomakesuchaframe,getapieceofstiffcardboard,about12inchesby9inches,andcutarectangularholeinthecentre,7inchesby5inches,asinDiagramIII.Nowmarkofftheinchesonallsidesoftheopening,andtakingsomeblackthread,passitthroughthepointAwithaneedle(fixingtheendatthispointwithsealing-wax),andacrosstheopeningtothecorrespondingpointontheoppositeside.Takeitalongtothenextpoint,asshownbythedottedline,andpassitthroughandacrosstheopeningagain,andsoon,untilBisreached,whenthethreadshouldbeheldbysomesealing-waxquitetauteverywhere.Dothesamefortheotherside.Thisframeshouldbeheldbetweentheeyeandtheobjecttobedrawn(oneeyebeingclosed)inaperfectlyverticalposition,andwiththerectangularsidesoftheopeningverticalandhorizontal.Theobjectcanthenbeobservedasaflatcopy.Thetrellisofcottonwillgreatlyhelpthestudentinseeingthesubjecttobedrawnintwodimensions,andthisisthefirsttechnicaldifficultytheyoungdraughtsmanhastoovercome.Itisusefulalsointrainingtheeyetoseetheproportionsofdifferentpartsonetoanother,thesquaresofequalsizegivingoneaunitofmeasurementbywhichallpartscanbescaled.

[Illustration:DiagramIII.

ADEVICEFORENABLINGSTUDENTSTOOBSERVEAPPEARANCESASAFLATSUBJECT][Sidenote:FixingPositionsofSalientPoints]

Verticalandhorizontallinesarealsooftheutmostimportanceinthatfirstconsiderationforsettingoutadrawing,namelythefixingofsalientpoints,andgettingtheirrelativePositions.Fig.Z,onpage87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],willillustratewhatismeant.LetABCDEbeassumedtobepointsofsomeimportanceinanobjectyouwishtodraw.Unaided,theplacingofthesepointswouldbeamatterofconsiderabledifficulty.ButifyouassumeaverticallinedrawnfromA,thepositionsofB,C,D,andEcanbeobservedinrelationtoitbynotingtheheightandlengthofhorizontallinesdrawnfromthemtothis

verticalline.Thisverticalcanbedrawnbyholdingaplumblineatarm'slength(closingoneeye,ofcourse)andbringingittoapositionwhereitwillcoverthepointAonyoursubject.Thepositionoftheotherpointsoneithersideofthisverticallinecanthenbeobserved.Oraknitting-needlecanbeheldverticallybeforeyouatarm'slength,givingyoualinepassingthroughpointA.Theadvantageoftheneedleisthatcomparativemeasurementscanbetakenwithit.

[Illustration:DiagramIV.

SHOWINGTHREEPRINCIPLESOFCONSTRUCTIONUSEDINOBSERVINGFIG.X,MASSES;FIG.Y,CURVES;FIG.Z,POSITIONOFPOINTS]

Inmeasuringcomparativedistancestheneedleshouldalwaysbeheldatarm'slengthandtheeyekeptinonepositionduringtheoperation;and,whetherheldverticallyorhorizontally,alwayskeptinaverticalplane,thatis,eitherstraightupanddown,oracrossatrightanglestothelineofyourvision.Ifthesethingsarenotcarefullyobserved,yourcomparisonswillnotbetrue.Themethodemployedistorunthethumb-nailuptheneedleuntilthedistancefromthepointsoreachedtothetopexactlycorrespondswiththedistanceontheobjectyouwishtomeasure.Havingthiscarefullynotedonyourneedle,withoutmovingthepositionofyoureye,youcanmoveyouroutstretchedarmandcompareit

withotherdistancesontheobject.#Itisneveradvisabletocompareotherthanverticalandhorizontalmeasurements.#Inourdiagramthepointsweredrawnatrandomanddonotcomeinanyobviousmathematicalrelationship,andthisistheusualcircumstanceinnature.ButpointCwillbefoundtobealittleabovethehalf,andpointDalittlelessthanathirdofthewayuptheverticalline.Howmuchabovethehalfandlessthanthethirdwillhavetobeobservedbyeyeandacorrespondingamountallowedinsettingoutyourdrawing.Inthehorizontaldistances,Bwillbefoundtobeone-fourththedistancefromXtotheheightofContherightofourverticalline,andCalittlemorethanthisdistancetotheleft,whilethedistanceontherightofDisalittlelessthanone-fifthofthewholeheight.TheheightofBissonearthetopastobebestjudgedbyeye,anditsdistancetotherightisthesameasB.Thesemeasurementsarenevertobetakenasabsolutelyaccurate,butareagreathelptobeginnersintrainingtheeye,andareattimesusefulineveryartist'swork.

[Illustration:PlateXVII.

DEMONSTRATIONDRAWINGMADEBEFORETHESTUDENTSOFTHEGOLDSMITHSCOLLEGESCHOOLOFART

Illustratinghowdifferentdirectionsoflinescanhelpexpressionofform.]

Itisusefulifonecanestablishaunitofmeasurement,someconspicuousdistancethatdoesnotvaryintheobject(ifalivingmodelagreatmanydistanceswillbeconstantlyvarying),andwithwhichalldistancescanbecompared.

Insettingoutadrawing,thisfixingofcertainsalientpointsisthefirstthingforthestudenttodo.Thedrawingreproducedonpage90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII]hasbeenmadetoillustratethemethodofprocedureitisadvisabletoadoptintrainingtheeyetoaccurateobservation.Itwasfeltthataverticallinedrawnthroughthepitofthearmwouldbethemostusefulfortakingmeasurementson,andthiswasfirstdrawnanditslengthdecidedupon.Trainyourselftodraw

betweenlimitsdecideduponatthestart.Thispowerwillbeofgreatusetoyouwhenyouwishtoplaceafigureinanexactpositioninapicture.Thenextthingtodoistogettherelativeheightsofdifferentpointsmarkeduponthisline.Thefoldatthepitofthestomachwasfoundtobeexactlyinthecentre.Thiswasausefulstart,anditisgenerallyadvisabletonotewherethehalfcomesfirst,andveryusefulifitcomesinsomeobviousplace.OthermeasurementsweretakeninthesamewayasourpointsABCDEinthediagramonpage87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],andhorizontallinesdrawnacross,andthetransversedistancesmeasuredinrelationtotheheights.Ihavelefttheselinesonthedrawing,andalsodifferentpartsofitunfinished,soastoshowthedifferentstagesofthework.Theseguidelinesaredonementallylateron,whenthestudentismoreadvanced,and

withmoreaccuracythantheclumsyknitting-needle.Butbeforethehabitofhavingconstantlyinmindaverticalandhorizontallinewithwhichtocomparepositionsisacquired,theyshouldbeputinwithasmuchaccuracyasmeasuringcangive.

[Sidenote:BlockinginyourDrawing.]

Thenextthingtodoistoblockoutthespacescorrespondingtothoseoccupiedbythemodelinthefieldofyourvision.Themethodemployedtodothisissomewhatsimilartothatadoptedbyasurveyorindrawing

theplanofafield.Assuminghehadanirregularshapedone,suchasisdrawninFig.X,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],hewouldproceedtoinvestitwithstraightlines,takingadvantageofanystraightnessintheboundary,notingthelengthandtheanglesatwhichthesestraightlinescuteachother,andthenreproducingthemtoscaleonhisplan.Oncehavinggotthisscaffoldingaccuratelyplaced,hecandrawtheirregularitiesoftheshapeinrelationtotheselineswithsomecertaintyofgettingthemright.

Youshouldproceedinverymuchthesamewaytoblockoutthespacesthattheformsofyourdrawingaretooccupy.Ihaveproducedtheseblocking-outlinesbeyondwhatwasnecessaryintheaccompanyingdrawing(page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV]),inordertoshowthemmoreclearly.

[Sidenote:HowtoobservetheShapeofCurves.]

Thereisyetanothermethodofconstructionusefulinnotingaccuratelytheshapeofacurvedline,whichisillustratedinFig.Y,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV].Firstofall,fixthepositionsoftheextremitiesofthelinebymeansoftheverticalandhorizontal.Andalso,asthisisadoublecurve,thepointatwhichthecurvaturechangesfromonedirectiontotheother:pointC.BydrawinglinesCA,CBandnotingthedistancesyourcurvestravelfromthesestraight

lines,andparticularlytherelativepositionofthefarthestpointsreached,theircurvaturecanbeaccuratelyobservedandcopied.Innotingthevaryingcurvatureofforms,thisconstructionshouldalwaysbeinyourmindtoenableyoutoobservethemaccurately.Firstnotethepointsatwhichthecurvaturebeginsandends,andthenthedistancesittravelsfromalinejoiningthesetwopoints,holdingupapencilorknitting-needleagainstthemodelifneedbe.

[Illustration:PlateXVIII.

STUDYILLUSTRATINGMETHODOFDRAWING

Notethedifferentstages.1st.Centrelineandtransverselinesfor

settlingpositionofsalientpoints.2nd.Blockingin,asshowninfurtherleg.3rd.Drawingintheformsandshading,asshowninfrontleg.4th.Rubbingwithfingers(givingafaintmiddletoneoverthewhole),andpickingouthighlightswithbread,asshownonbackandarms.]

[Sidenote:TheDrawingproper.]

Adrawingbeingblockedoutinsuchastateasthefurtherlegandfootofourdemonstrationdrawing(page90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII]),itistimetobeginthedrawingproper.Sofaryouhaveonlybeenpeggingoutthegrounditisgoingtooccupy.Thisinitial

scaffolding,sonecessarytotraintheeye,shouldbedoneasaccuratelyaspossible,butdon'tletitinterferewithyourfreedominexpressingtheformsafterwards.Theworkuptothispointhasbeenmechanical,butitistimetoconsiderthesubjectwithsomefeelingforform.Hereknowledgeofthestructureofbonesandmusclesthatunderlietheskinwillhelpyoutoseizeonthosethingsthataresignificantandexpresstheformofthefigure.AndthestudentcannotdobetterthanstudytheexcellentbookbySirAlfredD.Fripponthissubject,entitledHumanAnatomyforArtStudents.Noticeparticularlytheswingoftheaction,suchthingsasthepulloccasionedbythearmrestingonthefarther

thigh,andtheprominencegiventotheformsbythestrainingoftheskinattheshoulder.Alsothefirmlinesofthebentbackandthecrumpledformsofthefrontofthebody.Noticetheoverlappingofthecontours,andwheretheyareaccentuatedandwheremorelost,&c.,drawingwithasmuchfeelingandconvictionasyouarecapableof.Youwillhaveforsometimetoworktentatively,feelingforthetrueshapesthatyoudonotyetrightlysee,butassoonasyoufeelanyconfidence,rememberitshouldbeyouraimtoexpressyourselffreelyandswiftly.

Thereisatendencyinsomequarterstodiscouragethisblockinginoftheformsinstraightlines,andcertainlyithasbeenharmfultothefreedomofexpressionintheworkofsomestudents.Theynotonlybeginthedrawingwiththismechanicalblockingin,butcontinueitinthesamemechanicalfashion,cuttingupalmostalltheircurvesintoflatnesses,andneveroncebreakingfreefromthisscaffoldingtoindulgeintheenjoymentoffreelineexpression.This,ofcourse,isbad,andyetthecharacterofacurvedlineishardlytobeaccuratelystudiedinanyotherwaythanbyobservingitsrelationtostraightlines.Theinclinationandlengthofstraightlinescanbeobservedwithcertainty.Butacurvehasnotthisdefiniteness,andisaveryunstablethingtosetaboutcopyingunaided.WhobutthehighlyskilleddraughtsmancouldattempttocopyourrandomshapeatFig.X,page87[TranscribersNote:DiagramIV],withoutanyguidingstraightlines?Andeventhehighlyskilleddraughtsmanwoulddrawsuchstraightlines

mentally.Sothatsomeblockingoutofthecurvedforms,eitherdonepracticallyorinimagination,mustbeadoptedtorightlyobserveanyshapes.Butdonotforgetthatthisisonlyascaffolding,andshouldalwaysberegardedassuchandkickedawayassoonasrealformexpressionwithanyfeelingbegins.

Butitwillbesomeyearsbeforethebeginnerhasgothiseyetrainedtosuchaccuracyofobservationthathecandispensewithit.

[Sidenote:InBlocking-inobserveShapeoftheBackgroundasmuchastheObject.]

Inthecaseofforeshortenings,theeye,unaidedbythisblockingout,

isalwaysapttobeledastray.Andheretheobservationoftheshapeofthebackgroundagainsttheobjectwillbeofgreatassistance.Theappearanceoftheforeshortenedobjectissounlikewhatyouknowittobeasasolidthing,thatmuchasitisaswelltoconcentratetheattentiononthebackgroundratherthanontheforminthisblocking-outprocess.Andinfact,inblockingoutanyobject,whetherforeshortenedornot,theshapeofthebackgroundshouldbeobservedascarefullyasanyothershape.Butinmakingthedrawingproper,theformsmustbeobservedintheirinnerrelations.Thatistosay,thelinesboundingonesideofaformmustbeobservedinrelationtothelinesboundingtheotherside;asthetrueexpressionofform,whichistheobjectofdrawing,dependsonthetruerelationshipoftheseboundaries.Thedrawingofthetwosidesshouldbecarriedonsimultaneously,sothat

onemayconstantlycomparethem.

[Sidenote:BoundariesaseriesofOverlappings.]

Theboundariesofformswithanycomplexity,suchasthehumanfigure,arenotcontinuouslines.Oneformoverlapsanother,likethelinesofarangeofhills.Andthisoverlappingshouldbesoughtforandcarefullyexpressed,theoutlinesbeingmadeupofaseriesofoverlappings.

[Sidenote:Shading.]

InLineDrawingshadingshouldonlybeusedtoaidtheexpressionofform.Itisnotadvisabletoaimatrepresentingthetruetonevalues.

Indirectlightitwillbeobservedthatasolidobjecthassomeportionofitssurfaceinlight,whileotherportions,thoseturnedawayfromthelight,areinshadow.Shadowsarealsocastonthegroundandsurroundingobjects,calledcastshadows.Thepartsofanobjectreflectingthemostdirectlightarecalledthehighlights.Iftheobjecthaveashinysurfacetheselightsareclearanddistinct;ifadullsurface,softanddiffused.Inthecaseofaveryshinysurface,suchasaglazedpot,thelightmaybereflectedsocompletelythatapictureofthesourceoflight,usuallyawindow,willbeseen.

Inthediagramonpage95[TranscribersNote:DiagramV],letArepresenttheplanofacone,BCtheopeningofawindow,andDtheeyeofthespectator,andEFGthewallofaroom.Lighttravelsinstraightlinesfromthewindow,strikesthesurfaceofthecone,andisreflectedtotheeye,makingtheangleofincidenceequaltotheangleofreflection,theangleofincidencebeingthatmadebythelightstrikinganobject,andtheangleofreflectionthatmadebythelightinleavingthesurface.

ItwillbeseenthatthelinesB1D,C2Darethelimitsofthedirect

raysoflightthatcometotheeyefromthecone,andthatthereforebetweenpoints1and2willbeseenthehighestlight.Iftheconehaveaperfectreflectingsurface,suchasalooking-glasshas,thiswouldbeallthedirectlightthatwouldbereflectedfromtheconetotheeye.Butassumingittohavewhatiscalledadullsurface,lightwouldbereflectedfromotherpartsalso,althoughnotinsogreataquantity.Ifwhatiscalledadullsurfaceislookedatunderamicroscopeitwillbefoundtobequiterough,_i.e._madeupofmanyfacetswhichcatchlightatdifferentangles.

[Illustration:DiagramV.

PLANOFCONEA,LITBYWINDOWBC;POSITIONOFEYED.ILLUSTRATING

PRINCIPLESOFLIGHTANDSHADE]

LinesB4,C3representtheextremelimitsoflightthatcanbereceivedbythecone,andthereforeatpoints3and4theshadowwillcommence.Thefactthatlightisreflectedtotheeyerightuptothepoint3doesnotupsetthetheorythatitcanonlybereflectedfrompointswheretheangleofincidencecanequaltheangleofreflection,asitwouldseemtodo,becausethesurfacebeingroughpresentsfacetsatdifferentangles,fromsomeofwhichitcanbereflectedtotheeyerightuptopoint3.Thenumberofthesefacetsthatcansoreflectisnaturallygreatestnearthehighlights,andgetsgraduallylessasthesurfaceturnsmoreaway;untilthepointisreachedwheretheshadowsbegin,atwhichpointthesurfacepositivelyturnsawayfromthelightandthe

reflectionofdirectlightceasesaltogether.Afterpoint3therewouldbenolightcomingtotheeyefromtheobject,wereitnotthatitreceivesreflectedlight.Now,thegreatestamountofreflectedlightwillcomefromthedirectionoppositetothatofthedirectlight,asallobjectsinthisdirectionarestronglylit.ThesurfaceofthewallbetweenpointsEandH,beingdirectlyoppositethelight,willgivemostreflection.Andbetweenpoints5and6thislightwillbereflectedbytheconetotheeyeinitsgreatestintensity,sinceatthesepointstheanglesofincidenceequaltheanglesofreflection.Theotherpartsoftheshadowwillreceiveacertainamountofreflectedlight,

lesseninginamountoneithersideofthesepoints.Wehavenowraysoflightcomingtotheeyefromtheconebetweentheextremepoints7and8.From7to3wehavethelight,includingthehalftones.Between1and2thehighlight.Between3and8theshadows,withthegreatestamountofreflectedlightbetween5and6.

[Illustration:PlateXIX.

ILLUSTRATINGCURVEDLINKSSUGGESTINGFULLNESSANDFORESHORTENING]

Ishouldnothavetroubledthereaderwiththistediousdiagramwereitnotthatcertainfactsaboutlightandshadecanbelearnedfromit.Thefirstisthatthehighlightscomemuchmorewithintheedgeoftheobjectthanyouwouldhaveexpected.Withthelightdirectlyoppositepoint7,onemighthavethoughtthehighestlightwouldhavecomethere,andthatiswheremanystudentsputit,untilthelossofroundnessintheappearanceoftheirworkmakesthemlookmorecarefullyforitsposition.Sorememberalwaystolookoutforhighlightswithinthecontoursofforms,notontheedges.

Thenextthingtonoticeisthat#thedarkestpartoftheshadowwillcomenearestthelightsbetweenpoints3and5#.Thisisthepartturnedmostawayfromthedirectionofthegreatestamountofreflectedlight,andthereforereceivingleast.Thelightestpartoftheshadowwillbe

inthemiddle,rathertowardsthesideawayfromthelight,generallyspeaking.Theshadowcastonthegroundwillbedark,likethedarkestpartoftheshadowonthecone,asitssurfaceisalsoturnedawayfromthechiefsourceofreflectedlight.

Althoughtheartistwillveryseldombecalledupontodrawacone,thesameprinciplesoflightandshadethataresoclearlyseeninsuchasimplefigureobtainthroughoutthewholeofnature.Thisiswhythemuchabuseddrawingandshadingfromwhitenedblocksandpotsissouseful.Nothingsoclearlyimpressesthegenerallawsoflightandshadeasthisso-calleddullstudy.

Thislighteningofshadowsinthemiddlebyreflectedlightand

darkeningtowardstheiredgesisaveryimportantthingtoremember,theheavy,smokylookstudents'earlyworkissoproneto,beingalmostentirelyduetotheirneglectthroughignoranceofthisprinciple.Nothingismoreawfulthanshadowsdarkerinthemiddleandgraduallylightertowardstheiredges.Ofcourse,wherethereisadeephollowintheshadowparts,asatthearmpitandthefoldatthenavelinthedrawingonpage90[TranscribersNote:PlateXVIII],youwillgetadarkertone.Butthisdoesnotcontradicttheprinciplethatgenerallyshadowsarelighterinthemiddleanddarkertowardstheedges.Notetheluminousqualitytheobservationofthisprinciplegivestheshadowonthebodyofourdemonstrationdrawing.

Thisisacrudestatementofthegeneralprinciplesoflightandshade

onasimpleroundobject.Inonewithcomplexsurfacesthevarietiesoflightandshadeareinfinite.Butthesameprinciplesholdgood.Thesurfacesturnedmoretothesourceoflightreceivethegreatestamount,andarethelightest.Andfromthesepartstheamountoflightlessensthroughwhatarecalledthehalftonesasthesurfaceturnsmoreaway,untilapointisreachedwherenomoredirectlightisreceived,andtheshadowsbegin.Andintheshadowsthesamelawapplies:thosesurfacesturnedmosttowardsthesourceofreflectedlightwillreceivethemost,andtheamountreceivedwillgraduallylessenasthesurfaceturnsaway,untilatthepointimmediatelybeforewherethehalftonesbeginthe

amountofreflectedlightwillbeverylittle,andinconsequencethedarkestpartoftheshadowsmaybelookedfor.Theremay,ofcourse,beothersourcesofdirectlightontheshadowsidethatwillentirelyalterandcomplicatetheeffect.Oronemaydrawinawide,diffusedlight,suchasisfoundintheopenaironagreyday;inwhichcasetherewillbelittleornoshadow,themodellingdependingentirelyondegreesoflightandhalftone.

Instudyingtheprinciplesofsimplelightandshadeitisadvisabletodrawfromobjectsofonelocalcolour,suchaswhitecasts.Inparti-colouredobjectstheproblemiscomplicatedbythedifferenttonesofthelocalcolour.Inlinedrawingitisaswelltotakeaslittlenoticeaspossibleofthesevariationswhichdisturbthecontemplationofpureformanddonotbelongtotheparticularprovinceofformexpressionwithwhichdrawingisconcerned.

Althoughonehasselectedastronghalflightandhalfshadeeffecttoillustratethegeneralprinciplesoflightandshade,itisnotadvisableinmakinglinedrawingstoselectsuchaposition.Apointofviewwithafairlywidelightatyourbackisthebest.Inthispositionlittleshadowwillbeseen,mostoftheformsbeingexpressedbytheplayoflightandhalftone.Thecontours,astheyareturnedawayfromthelight,willnaturallybedarker,andagainstalightbackgroundyoursubjecthasanappearancewithdarkedgesthatiseasilyexpressedbya

linedrawing.Stronglightandshadeeffectsshouldbeleftformassdrawing.YouseldomseeanyshadowsinHolbein'sdrawings;heseemstohaveputhissittersnearawidewindow,closeagainstwhichheworked.Selectalsoabackgroundasnearthetoneofthehighestlightontheobjecttobedrawnaspossible.Thiswillshowupclearlythecontour.Inthecaseofaportraitdrawing,anewspaperhungbehindtheheadanswersverywellandisalwayseasilyobtained.Thetoneofitcanbevariedbythedistanceatwhichitisplacedfromthehead,andbytheangleatwhichitisturnedawayfromortowardsthelight.

Don'tburdenalinedrawingwithheavyhalftonesandshadows;keepthemlight.Thebeautythatistheparticularprovinceoflinedrawingisthebeautyofcontours,andthisismarredbyheavylightandshade.Great

draughtsmenuseonlyjustenoughtoexpresstheform,butnevertoattempttheexpressionoftone.Thinkofthehalftonesaspartofthelightsandnotaspartoftheshadows.

Therearemanydifferentmethodsofdrawinginline,andastudentofanyoriginalitywillfindonethatsuitshistemperament.ButIwilltryandillustrateonethatisatanyratelogical,andthatmayserveasafairtypeoflinedrawinggenerally.

Theappearanceofanobjectisfirstconsideredasaseriesofcontours,someformingtheboundariesoftheformagainstthebackground,andotherstheboundariesofthesubordinateformswithintheseboundinglines.Thelightandshadeanddifferencesoflocalcolour(likethe

lips,eyebrows,andeyesinahead)areconsideredtogetherastonesofvaryingdegreesoflightnessanddarkness,andsuggestedbymeansoflinesdrawnparallelacrossthedrawingfromlefttoright,andfrombelowupwards,orviceversa,darkerandclosertogetherwhendepthiswanted,andfainterandfurtherapartwheredelicacyisdemanded,andvaryinginthicknesswhengradationisneeded.Thisruleofparallelshadingisbrokenonlywhenstronglymarkedforms,suchastheswinglinesofhair,aprominentboneorstrainingmuscles,&c.,demandit.Thisparallelshadinggivesagreatbeautyofsurfaceandfleshinesstoadrawing.Thelinesfollowing,asitwere,thedirectionofthe

lightacrosstheobjectratherthantheform,giveaunitythathasagreatcharm.Itismoresuitedtodrawingswhereextremedelicacyofformisdesired,andisusuallyusedinsilverpointwork,amediumcapableoftheutmostrefinement.

[Illustration:PlateXX.

STUDYFORTHEFIGUREOFLOVEINTHEPICTURE"LOVELEAVINGPSYCHE"ILLUSTRATINGAMETHODOFDRAWING

Thelinesofshadingfollowingaconvenientparalleldirectionunlessprominentformsdemandotherwise.]

Inthismethodthelinesofshadingnotbeingmuchvariedindirectionorcurvedatall,aminimumamountofthat"formstimulus"isconveyed.Thecurvingofthelinesinshadingaddsconsiderablytotheforceoftherelief,andsuggestsmuchstrongermodelling.Inthecaseofforeshortenedeffects,wheretheformsareseenattheirfullest,archingoneovertheother,somecurvatureinthelinesofshadingisofconsiderableadvantageinaddingtotheforeshortenedlook.

Linesdrawndowntheformsgiveanappearanceofgreatstrengthandtoughness,atenselook.Andthisqualityisveryusefulinsuggestingsuchthingsasjointsandsinews,rocks,hardground,orgnarled

tree-trunks,&c.Infiguredrawingitisaninterestingqualitytousesparingly,withtheshadingdoneontheacross-the-formprinciple;andtosuggestadifferenceoftextureorastrainingoftheform.Linesofshadingdrawnineverydirection,crossingeachotherandresolvingthemselvesintotoneeffects,suggestatmosphereandtheabsenceofsurfaceform.Thisismoreoftenusedinthebackgroundsofpenandinkworkandisseldomnecessaryinpencilorchalkdrawing,astheyaremoreconcernedwithformthanatmosphere.Penandinkismoreoftenusedforelaboratepictorialeffectsinillustrationwork,owingtotheeasewithwhichitcanbereproducedandprinted;anditisherethatonemoreoftenfindsthismuddledqualityoflinespotsbeingusedtofillupintersticesandmakethetoneeven.

Speakinggenerally,#linesofshadingdrawnacrosstheformssuggestsoftness,linesdrawnincurvesfulnessofform,linesdrawndowntheformshardness,andlinescrossinginalldirectionssothatonlyamysteryoftoneresults,atmosphere#.Andifthesefourqualitiesoflinebeusedjudiciously,agreatdealofexpressivepowerisaddedtoyourshading.And,aswillbeexplainedinthenextchapter,somewhatthesameprincipleappliestothedirectionoftheswingofthebrushinpainting.

Shadinglinesshouldneverbedrawnbackwardsandforwardsfromlefttoright(scribbled),exceptpossiblywhereamysteryofshadowiswantedandthelinesarebeingcrossedineverydirection;butneverwhenlinesarebeingusedtoexpressform.Theyarenotsufficientlyundercontrol,

andalsothelittleextrathicknessthatoccursattheturnisanuisance.

Thecrossingoflinesinshadinggivesamoreopaquelook.Thisisusefultosuggesttheopaqueappearanceofthedarkerpassagethatoccursinthatpartofashadownearestthelights;anditissometimesusedinthehalftonesalso.

Draughtsmenvaryverymuchintheirtreatmentofhair,anddifferentqualitiesofhairrequiredifferenttreatment.Theparticularbeautyof

itthatbelongstopointdrawingistheswingandflowofitslines.Theseareespeciallyapparentinthelights.Intheshadowstheflowoflineoftenstops,tobereplacedbyamysteryofshadow.Sothataplayofswinginglinesalternatingwithshadowpassages,drawnlikealltheothershadowswithparallellinesnotfollowingtheform,isofteneffective,andsuggeststhequalityofhairinnature.Theswinginglinesshouldvaryinthicknessalongtheircourse,gettingdarkerastheypasscertainparts,andgradatingintolighterlinesatotherpartsaccordingtotheeffectdesired.(Seeillustration,page102[TranscribersNote:PlateXXI].)

[Illustration:PlateXXI.

STUDYINREDCHALK

Illustratingatreatmentofhairinline-work.]

Tosumup,inthemethodoflinedrawingwearetryingtoexplain(themethodemployedformostofthedrawingsbytheauthorinthisbook)thelinesofshadingaremadeparallelinadirectionthatcomeseasytothehand,unlesssomequalityintheformsuggeststheirfollowingotherdirections.Sothatwhenyouareindoubtastowhatdirectiontheyshouldfollow,drawthemontheparallelprinciple.Thispreservesaunityinyourwork,andallowsthelinesdrawninotherdirectionsfor

specialreasonstotellexpressively.Ashasalreadybeenexplained,itisnotsufficientindrawingtoconcentratetheattentiononcopyingaccuratelythevisualappearanceofanything,importantasthefacultyofaccurateobservationis.Formtobeexpressedmustfirstbeappreciated.Andherethescienceofteachingfails."Youcantakeahorsetothefountain,butyoucannotmakehimdrink,"andinartyoucantakethestudenttothepointofviewfromwhichthingsaretobeappreciated,butyoucannotmakehimsee.How,then,isthisappreciationofformtobedeveloped?Simplybyfeeding.Familiariseyourselfwithallthebestexamplesofdrawingyoucanfind,tryingtoseeinnaturethesamequalities.StudythesplendiddrawingbyPuvisdeChavannesreproducedonpage104[TranscribersNote:Plate

XXII].Notethewaythecontourshavebeensearchedforexpressivequalities.Lookhowtheexpressivelineofthebackoftheseatedfigurehasbeen"felt,"thepowerfulexpressionoftheupraisedarmwithitsrightangle(seelaterpage155[TranscribersNote:DiagramXII],chapteronlinerhythm).Andthenobservethedifferenttypesofthetwostandingfigures;thepracticalvigouroftheoneandthesoftgraceoftheother,andhowtheircontourshavebeenstudiedtoexpressthisfeeling,&c.Thereisamineofknowledgetobeunearthedinthisdrawing.

Thereneverwasanagewhensuchanamountofartisticfoodwasatthedisposalofstudents.Cheapmeansofreproductionhavebroughtthetreasuresoftheworld'sgalleriesandcollectionstoourverydoorsin

convenientformsforafewpence.Thedangerisnotfromstarvation,butindigestion.Studentsaresosurfeitedwithgoodthingsthattheyoftenfailtodigestanyofthem;butrushonfromoneexampletoanother,takingbutsnapshotviewsofwhatisoffered,untiltheirnaturalpowersofappreciationareinaperfectwhirlwindofconfusedideas.Whatthenistobedone?Youcannotavoidthegoodthingsthatarehurledatyouinthesedays,butwhenyoucomeacrossanythingthatstrikesyouasbeingaparticularlyfinething,feeddeeplyonit.Hangitupwhereyouwillseeitconstantly;inyourbedroom,forinstance,whereitwillentertainyoursleeplesshours,ifyouareunfortunateenoughtohave

any.Youwillprobablylikeveryindifferentdrawingsatfirst,thepretty,thepicturesqueandthetrickywillpossiblyattractbeforethesublimityoffinerthings.Butbequitehonestandfeedonthebestthatyougenuinelylike,andwhenyouhavethoroughlydigestedandcomprehendedthat,youwillwearyofitandlongforsomethingbetter,andso,gradually,beledontoappreciatethebestyouarecapableofappreciating.

[Illustration:PlateXXII.

STUDYFORDECORATIONATAMIENS"REPOSE"BYPEUVISDECHAVANNES

Notehowthecontoursaresearchedforexpressiveforms,thepowergiventotheseatedfigurebytherightangleoftheraisedarm,andthecontrastbetweentheuprightvigouroftheright-handfigurewiththesofterlinesofthemiddleone.

_PhotoNeurdein_]

Beforeclosingthischapterthereareoneortwopointsconnectedwiththedrawingofaheadthatmightbementioned,asstudentsarenotalwayssufficientlyonthelookoutforthem.

Inourdiagramonpage107[TranscribersNote:DiagramVI],letFig.1

representanormaleye.AtFig.2wehaveremovedtheskinandmusclesandexposedthetwomainstructuralfeaturesintheformoftheeye,namelythebonyringofthesocketandtheglobecontainingthelensesandretina.Examiningthisopening,wefindfromAtoBthatitrunssmoothlyintothebonyprominenceatthetopofthenose,andthattherestoftheedgeissharp,andfrompointCtoEquitefree.ItisatpointA,startingfromalittlehole,thatthesharpedgebegins;andnearthispointthecorneroftheeyeissituated:A,Figs.1,2,3.FrompointsAtoFthebonyedgeoftheopeningisverynearthesurfaceandshouldbelookedfor.

ThenextthingtonoteisthefactthattheeyebrowatfirstfollowstheupperedgeofthebonyopeningfromBtoC,butthatfrompointCit

crossesthefreearchbetweenCandDandsoonends.Sothatconsideringtheundersideoftheeyebrow,whereasfrompointCtowardsBthereisusuallyacavernoushollow,fromCtowardsDthereisaprominence.Thecharacterofeyesvariesgreatly,andthiseffectisoftenmodifiedbythefleshyfulnessthatfillsinthespacebetweentheeyelidandthebrow,butsomeindicationofachangeisalmostalwaystobeobservedatapointsomewhereaboutC,andshouldbelookedoutfor.AnybonyprominencefromthispointtowardsDshouldbecarefullyconstructed.Lookoutforthebone,therefore,betweenthepointsCDandAF.

Neverforgetwhenpaintinganeyethatwhatwecallthewhiteoftheeyeispartofasphereandwillthereforehavethelightandshadeofasphere.Itwillseldombethesametoneallover;ifthelightiscoming

fromtheright,itwillbeinshadetowardstheleftandviceversa.Alsotheeyelidsarebandsoffleshplacedonthissphericalsurface.Theywillthereforepartakeofthemodellingofthesphereandnotbethesametoneallacross.Noteparticularlythesuddenchangeofplaneusuallymarkedbyafold,wheretheundereyelidmeetsthesurfacecomingfromthecheekbone.Theneglecttoconstructtheseplanesoftheundereyelidisaverycommonfaultinpoorlypaintedeyes.Notealsowheretheuppereyelidcomesagainstthefleshundertheeyebrow(usuallyastronglymarkedfold)andthedifferencesofplanesthatoccuratthisjuncture.Insomeeyes,whenthereislittlelooseflesh

abovetheeyelid,thereisadeephollowhere,theeyelidrunningupunderthebonyprominence,CD.Thisisanimportantstructuralline,markingasitdoesthelimitofthesphericalsurfaceoftheeyeball,onwhichsurfacetheeyelidsareplaced.

Fig.4isaroughdiagramofthedirectionitisusualforthehairsformingtheeyebrowtotake.FromAafewscanthairsstartradiatingabovethenoseandquitesuddenlyreachtheirthickestandstrongestgrowthbetweenBandE.Theycontinue,stillfollowingaslightlyradiatingcourseuntilD.Thesehairsarenowmetbyanotherlot,startingfromabovedownwards,andgrowingfrom.BtoC.Aneyebrowisconsideredbythedraughtsmanasatoneofacertainshapeandqualitiesofedge.Andwhatinterestsushereistonotetheeffectofthisorderofgrowthuponitsappearanceastone.ThemeetingofthestronggrowthofhairupwardswiththedownwardgrowthbetweenpointsBandEcreateswhatisusuallythedarkestpartoftheeyebrowatthispoint.AndthecomingtogetherofthehairstowardsDoftenmakesanotherdarkpartinthisdirection.TheedgefromCtoBisnearlyalwaysasoftone,thetonemeltingintotheflesh,andthisshouldbelookedoutfor,givingasitdoesaprettyvarietytotherunoftheline.Anotherthingthattendstomakethisedgesoftisthefactthatabonyprominenceissituatedhereandhasusuallyahighlightuponitthatcrossestheeyebrow.FromCtoDyouusuallyfindasharperedge,thehairsrunningparalleltothelineoftheeyebrow,whilefromDtoB

andAtoBasofterboundarycanbelookedfor.ThechiefaccentwillgenerallybefoundatB,whereadarkmassoftencomessharplyagainstthetoneoftheforehead.

[Illustration:DiagramVI.

ILLUSTRATINGSOMEPOINTSCONNECTEDWITHTHEEYESNOTALWAYSOBSERVEDINDRAWINGAHEAD]

Theeyelashesdonotcountformuchindrawingahead,exceptinsofarastheyaffectthetoneimpression.Inthefirstplacetheyshadethewhiteoftheeyewhenthelightisabove,asisusuallythecase.Theyaremuchthickerontheouterthanontheinnersideoftheeyelids,and

haveatendencytogrowinanoutwarddirection,sothatwhenthelightcomesfromtheleft,asisshownbyarrow,Fig.5,thewhiteoftheeyeatA1willnotbemuchshaded,andthelighttonewillrunnearlyuptothetop.ButatB4,whichshouldbethelightsideofthiseye,thethickcropofeyelasheswillshadeitsomewhatandthelightwillnotrunfarupinconsequence,whileB3,A2willbeintheshadefromtheturningawayfromthedirectionofthelightofthesphericalsurfaceofthewhitesoftheeyes.

Thesemayseemsmallpointstomention,buttheobservanceofsuchsmallpointsmakesagreatdifferencetotheconstructionofahead.

Fig.6givesaseriesofblocksallexactlyalikeinoutline,withlines

showinghowthedifferentactionsoftheheadaffecttheguidelinesonwhichthefeatureshang;andhowtheseactionscanbesuggestedevenwhenthecontoursarenotvaried.Thesearchingsovershouldbecarefullylookedoutforwhentheheadisinanybutasimplefullfaceposition.

MASSDRAWING:PRACTICAL

Thisistheformofdrawingwithwhichpaintingintheoilmediumisproperlyconcerned.Thedistinctionbetweendrawingandpaintingthatissometimesmadeisawrongoneinsofarasitconveysanyideaofpaintingbeingdistinctfromdrawing.Paintingisdrawing(_i.e._theexpressionofform)withtheaddedcomplicationofcolourandtone.Andwithabrushfullofpaintasyourtool,someformofmassdrawingmustbeadopted,sothatatthesametimethatthestudentisprogressingwithlinedrawing,heshouldbegintoaccustom,himselftothisothermethodofseeing,byattemptingverysimpleexercisesindrawingwiththebrush.

Mostobjectscanbereducedbroadlyintothreetonemasses,thelights(includingthehighlights),thehalftones,andtheshadows.Andthehabitofreducingthingsintoasimpleequationofthreetonesasafoundationonwhichtobuildcomplexappearancesshouldearlybesoughtfor.

[Sidenote:ExerciseinMassDrawing.]

Hereisasimpleexerciseinmassdrawingwiththebrushthatis,asfar

asIknow,neverofferedtotheyoungstudent.Selectasimpleobject:someofthosecastsoffruithangingupthatarecommoninartschoolswilldo.Placeitinastronglightandshade,preferablybyartificiallight,asitisnotsosubtle,andthereforeeasier;thelightcomingfromeithertherightorlefthand,butnotfrominfront.Tryandarrangeitsothatthetoneofthegroundofyourcastcomesaboutequaltothehalftonesintherelief.

[Illustration:PlateXXIII.

SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMEPAINTINGFROMACASTINDIFFERENTSTAGES

No.1.Blockingouttheshapeofspacestobeoccupiedbymasses.

No.2.Amiddletonehavingbeenscumbledoverthewhole,thelightsarenowpainted.Theirshapesandtheplayoflost-and-foundnessontheiredgesbeingobserved.Gradationsaregotbythinnerpaint,whichismixedwiththewetmiddletoneoftheground,andisdarkened.]

[Illustration:PlateXXIV.

SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMEPAINTINGFROMACASTINDIFFERENTSTAGES

No.3.Thesameasthelast,withtheadditionofthedarks;variety

beinggotinthesamewayasinthecaseofthelights,onlyherethethinnerpartislighter,whereasinthecaseofthelightsitwasdarker.

No.4.Thefinishedwork,refinementsbeingaddedandmistakescorrected.]

Firstdrawintheoutlinesofthe#masses#stronglyincharcoal,notingtheshapesoftheshadowscarefully,takinggreatcarethatyougettheirshapesblockedoutinsquarelinesintrueproportionrelativeto

eachother,andtroublingaboutlittleelse.Letthisbeasettingoutofthegrounduponwhichyouwillafterwardsexpresstheform,ratherthanadrawing--thesamescaffolding,infact,thatyouwereadvisedtodointhecaseofalinedrawing,only,inthatcase,thedrawingproperwastobedonewithapoint,andinthiscasethedrawingproperistobedonewithabrushfullofpaint.Fixthecharcoal#well#withaspraydiffuserandtheusualsolutionofwhiteshellacinspiritsofwine.

Takingrawumberandwhite(oilpaint),mixupatonethatyouthinkequaltothehalftonesofthecastbeforeyou.Extremecareshouldbetakeninmatchingthistone.Nowscumblethiswithabigbrushequallyoverthewholecanvas(orwhateveryouaremakingyourstudyon).Don'tusemuchmedium,butifitistoostifftogoonthinlyenough,putalittleoilwithit,butnoturpentine.Byscumblingismeantrubbingthecolourintothecanvas,workingthebrushfromsidetosiderapidly,andlayingjustthe#thinnestsolidtone#thatwillcoverthesurface.Ifthisisproperlydone,andyourdrawingwaswellfixed,youwilljustbeabletoseeitthroughthepaint.Nowmixupatoneequaltothehighestlightsonthecast,andmapoutsimplytheshapesofthelightmassesonyourstudy,leavingthescumbledtoneforthehalftones.Notecarefullywherethelightmassescomesharplyagainstthehalftonesandwheretheymergesoftlyintothem.

Youwillfindthatthescumbledtoneofyourgroundwillmixwiththe

toneofthelightswithwhichyouarepainting,anddarkenitsomewhat.Thiswillenableyoutogettheamountofvarietyyouwantinthetoneofthelights.Thethickeryoupaintthelighterwillbethetone,whilethethinnerpaintwillbemoreaffectedbytheoriginalhalftone,andwillconsequentlybedarker.Whenthisisdone,mixupatoneequaltothedarkestshadow,andproceedtomapouttheshadowsinthesamewayasyoudidthelights;notingcarefullywheretheycomesharplyagainstthehalftoneandwheretheyarelost.Inthecaseoftheshadowsthethickeryoupaintthedarkerwillbethetone;andthethinner,thelighter.

Whenthelightsandshadowshavebeenmappedout,ifthishasbeendonewithanyaccuracy,yourworkshouldbewelladvanced.Anditnowremains

tocorrectandrefineithereandthere,asyoufeelitwantsit.Placeyourworkalongsidethecast,andwalkbacktocorrectit.Faultsthatarenotapparentwhenclose,areeasilyseenatalittledistance.

Idon'tsuggestthatthisistherightoronlywayofpainting,butIdosuggestthatexercisesofthisdescriptionwillteachthestudentmanyoftherudimentaryessentialsofpainting,suchelementarythingsashowtolayatone,howtomanageabrush,howtoresolveappearancesintoasimplestructureoftones,andhowtomanipulateyourpaintsoastoexpressthedesiredshape.Thiselementarypaintdrawingis,asfarasIknow,nevergivenasanexercise,thestudyofdrawingatpresentbeingconfinedtopaperandcharcoalorchalkmediums.Drawingincharcoalisthenearestthingtothis"paintdrawing,"itbeingasortofmixed

method,halflineandhalfmassdrawing.Butalthoughalliedtopainting,itisaverydifferentthingfromexpressingformwithpaint,andnosubstituteforsomeelementaryexercisewiththebrush.Theuseofcharcoaltotheneglectoflinedrawingoftengetsthestudentintoasloppymannerofwork,andisnotsogoodatrainingtotheeyeandhandinclear,definitestatement.Itspopularityisnodoubtduetothefactthatyoucangetmucheffectwithlittleknowledge.Althoughthispaintingintoamiddletoneisnotbyanymeanstheonlymethodofpainting,Idofeelthatitisthebestmethodforstudyingformexpressionwiththebrush.

But,whenyoucometocolour,thefactoftheopaquemiddletone(orhalftone)beingfirstpaintedoverthewholewillspoiltheclearnessandtransparencyofyourshadows,andmayalsointerferewiththebrilliancyofthecolourinthelights.Whencolourcomestobeconsidereditmaybenecessarytoadoptmanyexpedientsthatitisaswellnottotroubletoomuchaboutuntilafurtherstageisreached.Butthereisnonecessityforthehalftonetobepaintedovertheshadows.Inworkingincolourthehalftoneormiddletoneofthelightscanbemade,andamiddletoneoftheshadows,andthesetwofirstpaintedseparately,theedgeswheretheycometogetherbeingcarefullystudiedandfinished.Afterwardsthevarietyoftoneinthelightsandtheshadowscanbeadded.Bythismeansthedifferenceinthequalityofthecolourbetweenlightsandshadowsispreserved.Thisisanimportantconsideration,asthereisgenerallyastrongcontrastbetweenthem,theshadowsusuallybeingwarmifthelightsarecoolandviceversa;andsuchcontrastsgreatlyaffectthevitalityofcolouring.

Tryalwaystodoasmuchaspossiblewithonestrokeofthebrush;painthasavitalitywhenthetouchesaredeft,thatmuchhandlingandcontinualtouchingkills.Lookcarefullyattheshapeandvarietyofthetoneyouwishtoexpress,andtryandmanipulatetheswingofyourbrushinsuchawayastogetinonetouchasnearthequalityofshapeandgradationyouwant.Rememberthatthelightestpartofyourtouchwill

bewherethebrushfirsttouchesthecanvaswhenyouarepaintinglightsintoamiddletone;andthatastheamountofpaintinthebrushgetsless,sothetonewillbemoreaffectedbywhatyouarepaintinginto,andgetdarker.Andinpaintingtheshadows,thedarkestpartofyourstrokewillbewherethebrushfirsttouchesthecanvas;anditwillgraduallylightenasthepaintinyourbrushgetslessandthereforemoreaffectedbythetoneyouarepaintinginto.Ifyourbrushisveryfullitwillnotbeinfluencednearlysomuch.Andifonewantsatouchthatshallbedistinct,aswouldbethecaseinpaintingtheshinylightonaglazedpot,averyfullbrushwouldbeused.Butgenerallyspeaking,getyoureffectswithaslittlepaintaspossible.Thinnerpaintiseasiertorefineandmanipulate.Therewillbenofearofitsnotbeingsolidifyouarepaintingintoasolidlyscumbledmiddletone.

Manycharmingthingsaretobedonewithamixtureofsolidandtransparentpaint,butitiswellatfirstnottocomplicatetheproblemtoomuch,andthereforetoleavethisuntillateron,whenyouarecompetenttoattackproblemsofcolour.Keepyourearlyworkbothinmonochromeandcolour#quitesolid#,butasthinasyoucan,reservingthickerpaintforthoseoccasionswhenyouwishtoputatouchthatshallnotbeinfluencedbywhatyouarepaintinginto.

[Illustration:PlateXXV.

ILLUSTRATINGSOMETYPICALBRUSHSTROKESMADEWITHFOURCLASSESOFBRUSH

ClassA,round;ClassB,flat;ClassC,fullflatbrushwithroundedcorners;ClassD,filbertshape.]

Itwillperhapsbeaswelltoillustrateafewofthedifferentbrushstrokes,andsaysomethingaboutthedifferentqualitiesofeach.Theseareonlygivenastypicalexamplesoftheinnumerablewaysabrushmaybeusedasanaidtoveryelementarystudents;everyartistwill,ofcourse,developwaysofhisown.

Thetouchwillofnecessitydependinthefirstinstanceupontheshape

ofthebrush,andtheseshapesareinnumerable.Buttherearetwoclassesintowhichtheycanroughlybedivided,flatandround.Theroundbrushesusuallysold,whichwewillcallClassA,haveratherasharppoint,andthis,althoughhelpfulincertaincircumstances,isagainsttheirgeneralusefulness.Butaroundbrushwitharoundpointisalsomade,andthisismuchmoreconvenientformassdrawing.Wherethereisasharppointthecentralhairsaremuchlonger,andconsequentlywhenthebrushisdrawnalongandpressedsothatallthehairsaretouchingthecanvas,thepressureinthecentre,wherethelonghairsaresituated,isdifferentfromthatatthesides.Thishastheeffectofgivingatouchthatisnotequalinqualityallacross,andthevarietythusgivenisdifficulttomanipulate.Ishouldthereforeadvisethestudenttotrytheblunt-endedroundbrushesfirst,astheygiveamuchmoreeventouch,andonemuchmoresuitedtopaintinginplanesoftone.

Themostextremeflatbrushes(ClassB)arethinandrathershort,withsharpsquareends,andhavebeenverypopularwithstudents.Theycanbereliedupontogiveaperfectlyflat,eventone,butwitharatherhardsharpedgeatthesides,andalsoatthecommencementofthetouch.Infact,theymaketoucheslikelittlesquarebricks.Butasthevarietythatcanbegotoutofthemislimited,andtheamountofpainttheycancarrysosmallthatonlyshortstrokescanbemade,theyarenotthebestbrushforgeneraluse.Theyareattimes,whengreatrefinementand

delicacyarewanted,veryuseful,butare,onthewhole,poortoolsforthedraughtsmaninpaint.Somevarietycanbegotbyusingoneorotheroftheirsharpcorners,bywhichmeansthesmallestpossibletouchcanbemadetobeginwith,whichcanbeincreasedinsizeasmorepressureisbroughttobear,untilthewholesurfaceofthebrushisbroughtintoplay.Theyarealsooftenusedtopaintacrosstheform,amannerillustratedinthesecondtouch,columns1and2oftheillustrationonpage114[TranscribersNote:PlateXXVI].

Amoreusefulbrush(ClassC)partakesofthequalitiesofbothflatandround.Itismadewithmuchmorehairthanthelast,islonger,andhasasquaretopwithroundedcorners.Thisbrushcarriesplentyofpaint,willlayaneventone,and,fromthefactthatthecornersarerounded

andthepressureconsequentlylessenedatthesides,doesnotleavesohardanedgeoneithersideofyourstroke.

Anotherbrushthathasrecentlycomeintofashioniscalledafilbertshape(ClassD)bythemakers.Itisafinebrushtodrawwith,asbeingflatitpaintsinplanes,andhavingaroundedtopiscapableofgettinginandoutofavarietyofcontours.Theyvaryinshape,somebeingmorepointedthanothers.Theblunt-endedformisthebestforgeneraluse.EitherthisclassofbrushorClassCareperhapsthebestfortheexercisesinmassdrawingwehavebeendescribing.ButClassAshouldalsobetried,andevenClassB,tofindoutwhichsuitstheparticularindividualityofthestudent.

Onpage114[TranscribersNote:PlateXXVI]avarietyoftoucheshavebeenmadeinturnbythesedifferentshapedbrushes.

Inallthestrokesillustrateditisassumedthatthebrushismoderatelyfullofpaintofaconsistencyalittlethinnerthanthatusuallyputupbycolourmen.Tothinit,mixalittleturpentineandlinseedoilinequalpartswithit;andgetitintoeasyworkingconsistencybeforebeginningyourwork,soasnottoneedanymedium.

Inthefirstcolumn(No.1),atouchfirmlypaintedwithanequal

pressureallalongitscourseisgiven.Thisgivesyouaplaneoftonewithfirmedgesthewidthofyourbrush,gettinggraduallydarkerorlighterasyourbrushempties,accordingtothelengthofthestrokeandtowhetheryouarepaintingintoalighterordarkerground.

IncolumnNo.2adragtouchisillustrated.Thisisaveryusefulone.Thebrushisplacedfirmlyonthecanvasandthendraggedfromthepointlightlyaway,leavingagradatedtone.Agreatdealofthemodellinginroundobjectsistobeexpressedbythisvarietyofhandling.Thedangeristhatitsuseisapttoleadtoatoodexterousmannerofpainting;adexteritymoreconcernedwiththeclevermannerinwhichathingispaintedthanwiththetruthexpressed.

ColumnNo.3.Thisisastrokelightlyandquicklypainted,wherethebrushjustgrazesthesurfaceofthecanvas.Thepaintisputoninamannerthatisverybrilliant,andatthesametimeofasoftquality.Ifthebrushisonlymoderatelyfull,suchtoucheswillnothaveanyhardedges,butbeofalight,featherynature.Itisamostusefulmannerofputtingonpaintwhenfreshnessofcolouriswanted,asitpreventsonetonebeingchurnedupwithanotherandlosingitspurity.Andinthepaintingofhair,wherethetonesneedtobekeptveryseparate,andatthesametimenothard,itisveryuseful.Butinmonochromepaintingfromthecastitisofverylittleservice.

Anothermethodofusingabrushishatching,thedrawingofrowsofparallellinesineitherequalorvaryingthicknesses.Thismethodwilllightenordarkenatoneinvaryingdegree,accordingtowhetherthelinesarethick,thin,orgradated--somewhatinthesamewaythatlinesofshadingaredrawninlinework.Incaseswherethecorrectionofintricatemodellingisdesiredandwhereitwouldbeverydifficulttoalterapartaccuratelybyadeftstrokeofthebrush,thismethodisusefultoemploy.Adrybrushcanbedrawnacrossthelinestounitethemwiththerestoftheworkafterwards.Thismethodofpaintinghaslatelybeenmuchusedbythoseartistswhohaveattemptedpaintinginseparate,purecolours,aftertheso-calledmannerofClaudeMonet,althoughsomechanicalamethodisseldomusedbythatmaster.

Asyourpowerofdrawingincreases(fromthelinedrawingyouhavebeendoing),castsofhandsandheadsshouldbeattemptedinthesamemannerashasbeendescribed.Illustrationsaregivenofexercisesofthisdescriptiononpages110and122.Unfortunatelythephotographs,whichweretakenfromthesamestudyatdifferentstagesduringthepainting,arenotallalike,thefirstpaintingofthelightsbeingtoodarklyprintedinsomecases.Buttheyshowhowmuchcanbeexpressedwiththeonetone,whenvarietyisgotbyusingthemiddletonetopaintinto.Thetwotonesusedarenotedintheright-handlowercorner.

Trytotrainyourselftodothesestudiesatonesitting.Butifyoufindyoucannotmanagethis,useslowerdryingcolours,saybonebrownandzincwhite,whichwillkeepwetuntilthenextday.

Whenyoubeginstudyingfromthelife,proceedinthesamewaywithmonochromestudiespaintedintoamiddletone.

Andwhatareyoutodoifyoufind,whenyouhavefinished,thatitisallwrong?Ishouldadviseyoutoletitdry,andthenscumbleamiddletonerightoverthewholething,asyoudidatfirst,whichwillshowtheoldworkthrough,andyoucanthencorrectyourdrawingandproceedtopaintthelightsandshadowsasbefore.Andifonlyapartofitiswrong,whenitisquitedryrubalittle,poppyoilthinnedwith

turpentineoverthework,aslittleaswillservetocoverthesurface.Ifitisfounddifficulttogetittocover,breatheonthecanvas,theslightestmoisturewillhelpittobite.Whenthisisdone,wipeitoffwiththepalmofyourhandoranoldpieceofcleanlinen.Nowpaintamiddletonerightoverthepartyouwishtoretouch,beingcarefulaboutjoiningituptothesurroundingwork,andproceedasbefore,drawinginthelightandshadowmasses.

Thisformofdrawingyouwillprobablyfindmoredifficultatfirst.Forthereasonalreadyexplaineditseemsnaturaltoobserveobjectsasmadeupofoutlines,notmasses.Theframewithcottonsacrossitshouldbeusedtoflattentheappearance,asinmakingoutlinedrawings.Andbesidesthisablackglassshouldbeused.Thiscaneasilybemadebygettingasmallpieceofglass--aphotographicnegativewilldo--andstickingsomeblackpaperontheback;turningitoverthefronttokeeptherawedgesoftheglassfromcuttingthefingers.Ortheglasscanbepaintedonthebackwithblackpaint.Standingwithyourbacktotheobjectandyourpainting,holdthisglasscloseinfrontofoneofyoureyes(theotherbeingclosed),sothatyoucanseebothyourpaintingandtheobject.Seeingthetonesthusreducedandsimplified,youwillbeenabledmoreeasilytocorrectyourwork.

Ishouldliketoemphasisetheimportanceofthesetting-outworknecessaryforbrush-drawing.Whileitisnotnecessarytoputexpressive

workintothispreparatorywork,theutmostcareshouldbetakentoensureitsaccuracyasfarasitgoes.Itisagreatnuisanceif,afteryouhaveputupsomeofyourfairstructure,youfindthefoundationsareinthewrongplaceandthewholethinghastobetorndownandshifted.Itisoftheutmostnecessitytohavetheproportionsandthemainmassessettledatthisearlystage,andeverydeviceofblockingoutwithsquarelinesandmeasuringwithyourknitting-needle,&c.,shouldbeadoptedtoensuretheaccuracyoftheselargeproportions.Thevariationsandemphasesthatfeelingmaydictatecanbedoneinthepaintingstage.Thisinitialstageisnotreallyadrawingatall,butaspeciesofmappingout,andassuchitshouldberegarded.Theonlyexcuseformakingtheelaboratepreparatorydrawingsoncanvasstudentssometimesdo,isthatitenablesthemtolearnthesubject,sothatwhen

theycometopaintit,theyalreadyknowsomethingaboutit.Butthedangerofmakingthesepreparatorydrawingsinterestingisthatthestudentfearstocoverthemupandloseanoutlinesocarefullyandlovinglywrought;andthisalwaysresultsinapoorpainting.Whenyoutakeupabrushtoexpressyourself,itmustbewithnofearofhurtingacarefuldrawing.Yourdrawingisgoingtobedonewiththebrush,andonlythegeneralsettingoutofthemasseswillbeofanyusetoyouintheworkofthisinitialstage.Neverpaintwiththepoorspiritofthestudentwhofearstolosehisdrawing,oryouwillneverdoanyfinethingsinpainting.Drawing(expressingform)isthethingyoushouldbedoingallthetime.Andinart,"hethatwouldsavehisworkmustoftenloseit,"ifyouwillexcusetheparaphraseofaprofoundsayingwhich,likemostprofoundsayings,isapplicabletomanythingsinlifebesides

whatitoriginallyreferredto.Itisoftennecessarywhenapaintingis#nearly#righttodestroythewholethinginordertoaccomplishtheapparentlylittlethatstilldividesitfromwhatyouconceiveitshouldbe.Itislikeamanrushingahillthatisjustbeyondthepowerofhismotor-cartoclimb,hemusttakealongrunatit.Andifthefirstattemptlandshimnearlyupatthetopbutnot#quite#,hehastogobackandtakethelongrunalloveragain,togivehimtheimpetusthatshallcarryhimrightthrough.

Anothermethodofjudgingtonedrawingisouroldmethodofhalfclosing

theeyes.This,byloweringthetoneandwideningthefocus,enablesyoutocorrecttheworkmoreeasily.

Intonedrawingthereisnotonlytheshapeofthemassestobeconsidered,buttheirvalues--thatis,theirpositioninanimaginedscalefromdarktolight.Therelationofthedifferenttonesinthisway--thevalues,asitiscalled--isanextremelyimportantmatterinpainting.Butitmoreproperlybelongstotheotherdepartmentofthesubject,namelyColour,andthisneedsavolumetoitself.ButsomethingmorewillbesaidonthissubjectwhentreatingofRhythm.

Wesaw,inspeakingoflinedrawing,howthecharacterofalinewasfoundbyobservingitsflatnessesanditsrelationtostraightlines.Inthesameway#thecharacterofmodellingisfoundbyobservingitsplanes#.Sothatinbuildingupacomplicatedpieceofform,likeaheadorfigure,theplanes(orflattones)shouldbesoughtforeverywhere.Asacarverinstoneblocksouthisworkinsquaresurfaces,themodellingofafigureoranycomplexsurfacethatisbeingstudiedshouldbesetoutinplanesoftone,paintinginthefirstinstancethelargerones,andthen,tothese,addingthesmaller;whenitwillbeseenthattheroundnesseshave,withalittlefusingofedgeshereandthere,beenarrivedat.Goodmodellingisfulloftheseplanessubtlyfusedtogether.Nothingissocharacteristicofbadmodellingas"grossroundnesses."Thesurfaceofasphereisthesurfacewiththeleast

character,likethecurveofacircle,andtheonemosttobeavoidedingoodmodelling.

Inthesearchforformtheknowledgeofanatomy,andparticularlythebonystructures,isoftheutmostimportance.Duringtherageforrealismandnaturalismmanyhardthingsweresaidaboutthestudyofanatomy.Andcertainly,wereittobeusedtooverstepthemodestyofnatureintheserespectsandtobeparadedtotheexclusionofthecharmandcharacteroflife,itwouldbeaswellleftalone.Butifwearetomakeadrawingthatshallexpresssomethingconcrete,wemustknowsomethingofitsstructure,whateveritis.Inthecaseofthehumanfigureitisimpossibleproperlytounderstanditsactionanddrawitinawaythatshallgiveapowerfulimpressionwithoutaknowledgeof

themechanicsofitsconstruction.ButIhardlythinkthecaseforanatomyneedsmuchstatingatthepresenttime.Neverletanatomicalknowledgetemptyouintoexaggeratedstatementsofinternalstructure,unlesssuchexaggerationhelpstheparticularthingyouwishtoexpress.Indrawingafigureinviolentactionitmight,forinstance,beessentialtothedrawing,whereasindrawingafigureatrestoraportrait,itwouldcertainlybeoutofplace.

[Illustration:PlateXXVI.

SETOFFOURPHOTOGRAPHSOFTHESAMESTUDYFROMTHELIFEINDIFFERENTSTAGES

No.1.Blockingoutthespacesoccupiedbydifferentmassesincharcoal.]

[Illustration:PlateXXVII.

No.2.Amiddletonehavingbeenscumbledoverthewhole,thelightsarepaintedintoit;varietybeinggotbyvaryingthethicknessofthe

paint.Thedarksareduetothecharcoallinesofinitialdrawingshowingthroughmiddletone.]

[Illustration:PlateXXVIII.

No.3.Thesameasthelast,butwiththeshadowsadded;varietybeinggotbyvaryingthicknessofpaintasbefore.]

[Illustration:PlateXXIX.

No.4.Thecompletedhead.]

Inthechapteronlineworkitwasstatedthat:"Linesofshadingdrawnacrosstheformssuggestsoftness,linesdrawnincurvesfulnessofform,linesdrawndowntheformshardness,andlinescrossingineverydirectionatmosphere,"andtheserulesapplyequallywelltothedirectionofthebrushstrokes(thebrushwork)inapainting.

#Thebrushswingingroundtheformssuggestsfore-shortening,andfulnessofformgenerally,andacrosstheformssoftness,whilethebrushfollowingdowntheformssuggeststoughnessandhardness,andcrossingineverydirectionatmosphere#.Agreatdealofaddedforcecanbegiventoformexpressioninthisway.IntheforeshortenedfigureonthegroundattheleftofTintoretto's"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark,"theforeshortenedeffecthelpedbythebrushworkswingingroundcanbeseen(seeillustration,page236[TranscribersNote:PlateXLIX]).TheworkofHennerinFranceisanextremeinstanceofthequalityofsoftnessandfleshinessgotbypaintingacrosstheform.ThelookoftoughnessandhardnessgivenbythebrushworkfollowingdowntheformsiswellillustratedinmuchoftheworkofJamesWard,theanimalpainter.InhispictureintheNationalGallery,"Harlech

Castle,"No.1158,thiscanbeseeninthepaintingofthetree-trunks,&c.

Thecrossingofthebrushworkineverydirection,givingalookofatmosphere,isnaturallyoftenusedinpaintingbackgroundsandalsosuchthingsastheplanesurfacesofskyandmist,&c.

Itisofteninconvenienttopaintacrosstheformwhensoftnessiswanted.Itisonlypossibletohaveonecolourinyourbrushsweep,andthecolourchangesacross,muchmorethandowntheformasarule.Fortheshadows,halftonesandlights,besidesvaryingintone,varyalsoincolour;sothatitisnotalwayspossibletosweepacrossthemwithonecolour.Itisusuallymoreconvenienttopaintdownwherethe

colourscanbelaidinoverlappingbandsofshadow,halftoneandlight,&c.Nevertheless,ifthisparticularlookofsoftnessandfleshinessisdesired,eitherthepaintingmustbesothinorthetonessofusedtogetherthatnobrushstrokesshow,oradryflatbrushmustafterwardsbedrawnlightlyacrosswhenthepaintingisdone,todestroythedownwardbrushstrokesandsubstituteothersgoingacross,greatcarebeingtakentodragonlyfromlighttodark,andtowipethebrushcarefullyaftereachtouch;andalsonevertogooverthesameplacetwice,orthepaintwilllosevitality.Thisisamethodmuchemployedbyartistswhodelightinthisparticularquality.

Butwhenastrong,toughlookisdesired,suchasoneseeswhenamuscleisinviolentaction,orinthetendonabovethewristorabovetheheelintheleg,orgenerallywhereabonecomestothesurface,inallthesecasesthebrushworkshouldfollowdowntheforms.Itisnotnecessaryandisofteninadvisableforthebrushworktoshowatall,inwhichcasetheseprincipleswillbeoflittleaccount.Butwheninvigorouslypaintedworktheydo,Ithinkitwillgenerallybefoundtocreatetheeffectsnamed.

DrawingontonedpaperwithwhitechalkorChinesewhiteandblackorredchalkisanotherformofmassdrawing.Andforstudiesitisintendedtopaintfrom,thisisaquickandexcellentmanner.Therapiditywithwhichthefactsofanappearancecanbenotedmakesitaboveallothersthemethodfordraperystudies.Thelightsaredrawnwithwhite,thetonedpaperbeingallowedtoshowthroughwhereadarkertoneisneeded,thewhite(eitherchalkorChinesewhite)beingputonthicklywhenabrightlightiswantedandthinlywhereaquieterlightisneeded.Sowiththeshadows,thechalkisputonheavilyinthedarksandlessheavilyinthelightershadows.SincethedaysoftheearlyItaliansthishasbeenafavouritemethodofdrawingdraperystudies(seeillustrations,page260[TranscribersNote:PlateLIV]).

Someartistshaveshadedtheirlightswithgoldandsilverpaint.The

lateSirEdwardBurne-Joneswasveryfondofthis,anddrawingswithmuchdecorativecharmhavebeendonethisway.Theprincipleisthesameasindrawingwithwhitechalk,thehalftonebeinggivenbythepaper.

Keepthelightsseparatefromtheshadows,letthehalftonepaperalwayscomeasabufferstatebetweenthem.Getasmuchinformationintothedrawingofyourlightsandshadowsaspossible;don'tbesatisfiedwithasmudgeeffect.Usethesideofyourwhitechalkwhenyouwantamass,orworkinparallellines(hatching)ontheprincipledescribedinthechapteronlinedrawing.

RHYTHM

ThesubjectofRhythminwhatarecalledtheFineArtsissovague,andhasreceivedsolittleattention,thatsomecourage,orperhapsfoolhardiness,isneededtoattackit.Andinofferingthefollowingfragmentaryideasthathavebeenstumbledoninmyownlimitedpractice,Iwantthemtobeacceptedonlyforwhattheyareworth,asIdonotknowofanyproperauthorityforthem.Buttheymayserveasastimulus,andoffersomelinesonwhichthestudentcanpursuethesubjectfor

himself.

Thewordrhythmishereusedtosignifythepowerpossessedbylines,tones,andcolours,bytheirorderingandarrangement,toaffectus,somewhatasdifferentnotesandcombinationsofsounddoinmusic.Andjustasinmusic,wheresoundsaffectuswithouthavinganydirectrelationwithnature,butappealdirectlytoourowninnerlife;soinpainting,sculpture,andarchitecture#thereisamusicthatappealsdirectlytousapartfromanysignificancethatmaybeassociatedwiththerepresentationofnaturalphenomena#.Thereis,asitwere,an

abstractmusicofline,tone,andcolour.

Thedangerofthenaturalisticmovementinpaintinginthenineteenthcenturyhasbeenthatithasturnedourattentionawayfromthisfundamentalfactofarttothecontemplationofinterestingrealisationsofappearances--realisationsoftenfullofpoeticsuggestivenessduetoassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectspaintedasconcretethings,butnotalwaysmadedirectlysignificantasartisticexpression;whereas#itisthebusinessoftheartisttorelatetheform,colour,andtoneofnaturalappearancestothisabstractmusicalquality,withwhichheshouldneverlosetoucheveninthemosthighlyrealiseddetailofhiswork#.Foronlythus,whenrelatedtorhythm,dotheform,tone,andcolourofappearancesobtaintheirfullexpressivepowerandbecomeameansofvitallyconveyingthefeelingoftheartist.

Inquiryastotheoriginofthispowerandofrhythmgenerallyisaprofoundlyinterestingsubject;andnowthatrecentadvancesinsciencetendtoshowthatsound,heat,light,andpossiblyelectricityandevennerveforcearebutdifferentrhythmicformsofenergy,andthatmatteritselfmaypossiblyberesolvedeventuallyintodifferentrhythmicmotions,itdoeslookasifrhythmmayyetbefoundtocontaineventhesecretoflifeitself.Atanyrateitisveryintimatelyassociatedwithlife;andprimitivemanearlybegantogiveexpressioninsomeformofarchitecture,sculpture,orpaintingtothedeeperfeelingsthatwere

movinghim;foundsomecorrespondencebetweenthelinesandcoloursofarchitecture,sculpture,andpaintingandtheemotionallifethatwasawakeningwithinhim.Thus,lookingbackattheremainsoftheirworkthathavecomedowntous,weareenabledtojudgeofthenatureofthepeoplefromtheexpressionwefindinhewnstoneandonpaintedwalls.

Itisinprimitiveartgenerallythatweseemoreclearlythedirectemotionalsignificanceoflineandform.Artappearstohavedevelopedfromitsmostabstractposition,towhichbitbybithavebeenaddedthetruthsandgracesofnaturalappearance,untilasmuchofthisnaturalistictruthhasbeenaddedastheabstractsignificanceatthebaseoftheexpressioncouldstandwithoutlossofpower.Atthispoint,ashasalreadybeenexplained,aschoolisattheheightofits

development.Theworkafterthisusuallyshowsanincreasedconcernwithnaturalistictruth,whichisalwaysverypopular,tothegradualexclusionofthebackboneofabstractlineandformsignificancethatdominatedtheearlierwork.Andwhentheseprimitiveconditionsarelosttouchwith,adecadencesetsin.Atleast,thisisroughlythetheorytowhichastudyofthetwogreatartdevelopmentsofthepast,inGreeceandItaly,wouldseemtopoint.Andthistheoryistheexcuseforalltheattemptsatprimitivismofwhichwehavelatelyseensomuch.

Arthavinglosttouchwithitsprimitivebaseowingtotheover-dosesofnaturalismithashad,wemust,thesenewapostlessay,findanewprimitivebaseonwhichtobuildthenewstructureofart.Thetheoryhasitsattractions,butthereisthisdifferencebetweentheprimitive

archaicGreekorearlyItalianandthemodernprimitive;theearlymenreverentlyclothedtheabstractideatheystartedwithinthemostnaturalandbeautifulformwithintheirknowledge,everseekingtodiscovernewtruthsandgracesfromnaturetoenrichtheirwork;whilethemodernartist,withthearttreasuresofallperiodsoftheworldbeforehim,canneverbeinthepositionofthesesimple-mindedmen.Itisthereforeunlikelythatthefuturedevelopmentofartwillbeonlinessimilartothatofthepast.Thesameconditionsofsimpleignoranceareneverlikelytooccuragain.Meansofcommunicationandprolificreproductionmakeitveryunlikelythattheartoftheworld

willagainbelostforaseason,aswasGreekartintheMiddleAges.Interestingintellectuallyasisthetheorythattheimpressionistpointofview(theacceptingoftheflatretinapictureasapatternofcoloursensations)offersanewfieldfromwhichtoselectmaterialforanewbasisofartisticexpression,sofartheevidenceofresultshasnotshownanythinglikelyseriouslytothreatentheestablishedprinciplesoftraditionaldesign.Andanythingmoredifferentinspiritfromthegenuineprimitivethantheirreverentanarchyandfloutingofallrefinementintheworkofsomeofthesenewprimitives,itwouldbedifficulttoimagine.Butmuchoftheworkofthemovementhasundoubtedartisticvitality,andinitsinsistenceondesignandselectionshoulddomuchtokill"realism"andthe"copyingnature"theoryofafewyearsback.

Althoughitisperfectlytruethatthefeelingsandideasthatimpeltheartistmaysoonerorlaterfindtheirownexpression,thereareagreatmanyprinciplesconnectedwiththearrangingoflines,tones,andcoloursinhispicturethatitisdifficulttotransgresswithoutcalamity.Atanyratetheknowledgeofsomeofthemwillaidtheartistingainingexperience,andpossiblysavehimsomeneedlessfumbling.

Butdon'tforonemomentthinkthatanythinginthenatureofrulesisgoingtotaketheplaceoftheinitialartisticimpulsewhichmustcomefromwithin.Thisisnotamatterforteaching,arttrainingbeingonly

concernedwithperfectingthemeansofitsexpression.[Illustration:PlateXXX.

ASTUDYFORAPICTUREOF"ROSALINDANDORLANDO"

_Ros._"Hecallsusback;mypridefellwithmyfortunes."]

Itisproposedtotreatthesubjectfromthematerialsideoflineandtoneonly,withoutanyreferencetosubjectmatter,withtheideaoftryingtofindoutsomethingabouttheexpressivequalitieslineandtonearecapableofyieldingunassociatedwithvisualthings.Whatusecanbemadeofanysuchknowledgetogiveexpressiontotheemotional

lifeoftheartistisnotourconcern,andisobviouslyamatterfortheindividualtodecideforhimself.

Thereisatthebasisofeverypictureastructureoflinesandmasses.Theymaynotbeveryobvious,andmaybehiddenunderthemostbrokenoftechniques,buttheywillalwaysbefoundunderlyingtheplanningofanypainting.Somemaysaythatthelinesareonlytheboundariesofthemasses,andothersthatthemassesareonlythespacesbetweenthelines.Butwhicheverwayyoucaretolookatit,thereareparticularemotionalqualitiesanalogoustomusicthataffectusinlinesandlinearrangementsandalsointoneormassarrangements.Andanypowera

picturemayhavetomoveuswillbelargelyduetotherhythmicsignificanceofthisoriginalplanning.Thesequalities,ashasalreadybeenstated,affectusquiteapartfromanyassociationtheymayhavewithnaturalthings:arrangementsofmeregeometricallinesaresufficienttosuggestthem.Butofcourseotherassociationsconnectedwiththeobjectsrepresentedwilllargelyaugmenttheimpression,whenthelineandtonearrangementsandthesentimentoftheobjectareinsympathy.Andiftheyarenot,itmayhappenthatassociationsconnectedwiththerepresentationwillcutinandobscureorentirelydestroythislineandtonemusic.Thatistosay,ifthelineandtonearrangement

intheabstractisexpressiveofthesublime,andtheobjectswhoserepresentationtheysupportsomethingridiculous,sayadonkeybraying,theassociationsarousedbysoridiculousanappearancewilloverridethoseconnectedwiththelineandtonearrangement.Butitisremarkablehowseldomthisoccursinnature,thesentimentofthelineandtonearrangementsthingspresentbeingusuallyinharmonywiththesentimentoftheobjectitself.Asamatteroffact,thelineeffectofadonkeyinreposeismuchmoresublimethanwhenheisbraying.

[Sidenote:UnityandVariety.]

Therearetwoqualitiesthatmaybeallowedtodividetheconsiderationofthissubject,twopointsofviewfromwhichthesubjectcanbeapproached:#Unity#and#Variety#,qualitiessomewhatopposedtoeachother,asareharmonyandcontrastintherealmofcolour.Unityisconcernedwiththerelationshipofallthepartstothatonenessofconceptionthatshouldcontroleverydetailofaworkofart.Allthemoreprofoundqualities,thedeeperemotionalnotes,areonthissideofthesubject.Ontheotherhand,varietyholdsthesecretsofcharm,vitality,andthepicturesque,itisthe"dither,"theplaybetweenthelargerparts,thatmakesforlifeandcharacter.#Withoutvarietytherecanbenolife#.

Inanyconceptionofaperfectunity,liketheperfectedlifeofthe

Buddhist,NirvanaorNibbana(literally"dyingout"or"extinction"asofanexpiringfire),thereisnoroomforvariety,fortheplayoflife;allsuchfretfulnessceases,tobereplacedbyanall-pervadingcalm,beautiful,ifyoulike,butlifeless.Thereisthisdeadnessaboutanyconceptionofperfectionthatwillalwaysmakeitanunattainableidealinlife.Thosewho,liketheIndianfakirorthehermitsoftheMiddleAges,havestakedtheirallonthisidealofperfection,havefounditnecessarytosuppresslifeineverywaypossible,thefakirsoftenremainingmotionlessforlongperiodsatatime,andoneofthemediaevalsaintsgoingsofarastoliveonthetopofahighcolumnwherelifeandmovementwerewell-nighimpossible.

Andinartitisthesame;allthosewhohaveaimedatanabsolute

perfectionhaveusuallyendedinadeadness.TheGreeksknewbetterthanmanyoftheirimitatorsthisvitalnecessityinart.Intheirmostidealworkthereisalwaysthatvarietythatgivescharacterandlife.Noformulaorcanonofproportionsorothermechanicaldevicefortheattainmentofperfectionwasallowedbythisvitalpeopleentirelytosubduetheirloveoflifeandvariety.Andhoweverneartheymightgotowardsaperfecttypeintheiridealheadsandfigures,theyneverwentsofarastokilltheindividualinthetype.Itisthelackofthissubtledistinctionthat,Ithink,hasbeenthecauseofthefailureofsomuchartfoundedonso-calledGreekideals.MuchRomansculpture,ifyouexcepttheirportraitbusts,illustratesthis.ComparedwithGreekworkitlacksthatsubtlevarietyinthemodellingthatgivesvitality.Thedifferencecanbefeltinstinctivelyinthemerestfragmentofa

brokenfigure.ItisnotdifficulttotellGreekfromRomanfragments,theypulsatewithalifethatitisimpossibletodescribebutthatoneinstinctivelyfeels.Andthisvitalitydepends,Ithinkitwillbefound,onthegreateramountoflife-givingvarietyinthesurfacesofthemodelling.Intheirarchitecturalmouldings,thedifferenceofwhichwearespeakingcanbemoreeasilytraced.ThevivacityandbrilliancyofaGreekmouldingmakesaRomanworklookheavyanddull.AnditwillgenerallybefoundthattheRomansusedthecurveofthecircleinthesectionsoftheirmouldings,acurvepossessingtheleastamountofvariety,asisexplainedlater,wheretheGreeksusedthelinesofconic

sections,curvespossessedofthegreatestamountofvariety.

Butwhileunitymustneverexistwithoutthislife-givingvariety,varietymustalwaysbeunderthemoralcontrolofunity,oritwillgetoutofhandandbecomeextravagant.Infact,themostperfectwork,likethemostperfectengineofwhichwespokeinaformerchapter,hastheleastamountofvariety,astheenginehastheleastamountof"dither,"thatiscompatiblewithlife.Onedoesnothearsomuchtalkinthesedaysaboutaperfecttypeaswasthefashionatonetime;andcertainlythepursuitofthisidealbyaprocessofselectingthebestfeaturesfrommanymodelsandconstructingafigureoutofthemasanidealtype,wasproductiveofverydeadandlifelesswork.Noaccountwastakenofthevarietyfromacommontypenecessaryinthemostperfectwork,iflifeandindividualinterestarenottobelost,andthethingisnottobecomeadeadabstraction.Butthedangerisrathertheotherwayatthemoment.Artistsrevelintheoddestofindividualforms,andthetypeideaisfloutedonallhands.Ananarchyofindividualismisuponus,andthevitalityofdisorderedvarietyismorefashionablethanthecalmbeautyofanorderedunity.

ExcessofvariationsfromacommontypeiswhatIthinkwerecogniseasuglinessintheobjectiveworld,whereasbeautyisonthesideofunityandconformitytotype.Beautypossessesbothvarietyandunity,andisneverextreme,erringratheronthesideofunity.

Burkeinhisessayon"TheSublimeandtheBeautiful"wouldseemtousethewordbeautifulwhereweshouldusethewordpretty,placingitattheoppositepolefromthesublime,whereasIthinkbeautyalwayshassomeelementsofthesublimeinit,whilethemerelyprettyhasnot.Mereprettinessisalittledifficulttoplace,itdoesnotcomebetweeneitherofourextremes,possessinglittlecharacterortype,varietyorunity.Itisperhapscharmwithouteitherofthesestrengtheningassociates,andinconsequenceisalwaysfeeble,andthefavouritedietofweakartisticdigestions.

ThesculptureofancientEgyptisaninstanceofgreatunityinconception,andthesuppressionofvarietytoapointatwhichlife

scarcelyexists.ThelinesoftheEgyptianfiguresaresimpleandlong,thesurfacessmoothandunvaried,noactionisallowedtogivevarietytothepose,theplacingofonefootalittleinfrontoftheotherbeingalonepermittedinthestandingfigures;thearms,whennothangingstraightdownthesides,areflexedstifflyattheelbowatrightangles;theheadsstarestraightbeforethem.Theexpressionofsublimityiscomplete,andthiswas,ofcourse,whatwasaimedat.Buthowcoldandterribleisthelackofthatplayandvarietythataloneshowlife.Whatareliefitis,attheBritishMuseum,togointotheElginMarbleroomandbewarmedbythenoblelifepulsatingintheGreekwork,aftervisitingthecoldEgyptianrooms.

Inwhatwecallaperfectfaceitisnotsomuchtheperfectregularity

ofshapeandbalanceinthefeaturesthatcharmsus,notthethingsthatbelongtoanidealtype,butratherthesubtlevariationsfromthistypethatareindividualtotheparticularheadweareadmiring.Aperfecttypeofhead,ifsuchcouldexist,mightexciteourwonder,butwouldleaveuscold.Butitcanneverexistinlife;theslightestmovementofthefeatures,whichmustalwaysaccompanylifeandexpression,willmarit.Andtheinfluenceofthesehabitualmovementsontheformofthefeaturesthemselveswillinvariablymouldthemintoindividualshapesawayfromtheso-calledperfecttype,whatevermayhavebeennature'sintentioninthefirstinstance.

Ifwecallthesevariationsfromacommontypeinthefeaturesimperfections,asitisusualtodo,itwouldseemtobetheimperfectionsofperfectionthatcharmandstirus;andthatperfectionwithouttheseso-calledimperfectionsisacold,deadabstraction,devoidoflife:thatunitywithoutvarietyislifelessandincapableoftouchingus.

Ontheotherhand,varietywithoutunitytogovernitisariotousexuberanceoflife,lackingallpowerandrestraintandwastingitselfinamadnessofexcess.

Sothatinartabalancehastobestruckbetweenthesetwoopposingqualities.Ingoodworkunityisthedominatingquality,allthevarietybeingdoneinconformitytosomelargeideaofthewhole,whichisneverlostsightof,eveninthesmallestdetailofthework.Goodstyleinarthasbeendefinedas"varietyinunity,"andHogarth'sdefinitionofcompositionastheartof"varyingwell"issimilar.AndIamnotsurethat"contrastsinharmony"wouldnotbeasuggestivedefinitionofgoodcolour.

Letusconsiderfirstvarietyandunityastheyarerelatedtolinedrawing,andafterwardstomassdrawing.

RHYTHM:VARIETYOFLINE

Linerhythmormusicdependsontheshapeofyourlines,theirrelationtoeachotherandtheirrelationtotheboundariesofyourpanel.Inallgoodworkthismusicoflineisinharmonywiththesubject(theartisticintention)ofyourpictureordrawing.

Thetwolineswiththeleastvariationareaperfectlystraightlineandacircle.Aperfectlystraightlinehasobviouslynovarietyatall,whileacircle,bycurvingatexactlythesameratioallalong,hasnovariationofcurvature,itisofallcurvestheonewiththeleastpossiblevariety.Thesetwolinesare,therefore,twoofthedullest,andareseldomusedinpicturesexcepttoenhancethebeautyandvarietyofothers.Andeventhen,subtlevariations,someamountofplay,isintroducedtorelievetheirbaldness.Butusedinthisway,verticalandhorizontallinesareoftheutmostvalueinrectangularpictures,unitingthecompositiontoitsboundinglinesbytheirparallelrelationshipwiththem.Andfurther,asacontrasttotherichnessandbeautyofcurvestheyareofgreatvalue,andareconstantlyusedforthispurpose.Thegroupofmouldingscuttingagainsttheheadina

portrait,orthelinesofacolumnusedtoaccentuatethecurvedformsofafaceorfigure,arewell-knowninstances;andtheportraitpainterisalwaysonthelookoutforanobjectinhisbackgroundthatwillgivehimsuchstraightlines.Youmaynotice,too,howthelinesdrawnacrossastudyinordertocopyit(squaringitout,asitiscalled)improvethelookofadrawing,givingagreaterbeautytothevarietyofthecurvesbycontrastwiththevarietylackinginstraightlines.

Theperfectcurveofthecircleshouldalwaysbeavoidedinthedrawingofnaturalobjects(evenafullmoon),andinvitaldrawingsofanysort

somevarietyshouldalwaysbelookedfor.Neithershouldthemodellingofthesphereeveroccurinyourwork,thedullestofallcurvedsurfaces.

Althoughthecurveoftheperfectcircleisdullfromitslackofvariety,itisnotwithoutbeauty,andthisisduetoitsperfectunity.Itisofallcurvesthemostperfectexampleofstaticunity.Withouttheexcitementoftheslightestvariationitgoesonandonforever.Thisis,nodoubt,thereasonwhyitwasearlychosenasasymbolofEternity,andcertainlynomoreperfectsymbolcouldbefound.

Thecircleseeninperspectiveassumesthemorebeautifulcurveoftheellipse,acurvehavingmuchvariety;butasitsfourquartersarealike,notsomuchasasymmetricalfigurecanhave.

Perhapsthemostbeautifulsymmetricallycurvedfigureofallistheso-calledeggofthewell-knownmouldingfromsuchatempleastheErechtheum,calledtheegganddartmoulding.Herewehaveaperfectbalancebetweenvarietyandunity.Thecurvatureisvariedtoaninfinitedegree,atnopointisitscurvingatthesameratioasatanyotherpoint;perhapsthemaximumamountofvarietythatcanbegotinasymmetricalfigure,preserving,asitdoes,itsalmostperfectcontinuity,foritapproachesthecircleintheevenflowofitscurvature.Thisis,roughly,thelineofthecontourofaface,andyou

maynotehowmuchpainterswhohaveexcelledingracehaveinsistedonitintheirportraits.GainsboroughandVandykearestriking,instances.

[Illustration:DiagramVII.

EGGANDDARTMOULDINGFROMONEOFTHECARYATIDESFROMTHEERECHTHEUMINTHEBRITISHMUSEUM]

Thelineofaprofileisoftenoneofgreatbeauty,onlyherethevarietyisapttooverbalancetheunityorrunoftheline.Themostbeautifulprofilesareusuallythoseinwhichvarietyissubordinatedtotheunityofthecontour.IfancytheGreeksfeltthiswhentheydidawaywiththehollowabovethenose,makingthelineoftheforehead

run,withbutlittleinterruption,tothetipofthenose.Theunityoflineisincreased,andthevarietymademoreinteresting.TheideathatthiswasthecommonGreektypeis,Ishouldimagine,untrue,fortheirportraitstatuesdonotshowit.Itdoesoccurinnatureatrareintervals,andinmostWesternnationalities,butIdonotthinkthereismuchevidenceofitseverhavingbeenacommontypeanywhere.

[Illustration:DiagramVIII.

ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRY

NotehowthehollowsmarkedAareopposedbyfullnessesmarkedB.]

Indrawingorpaintingaprofilethisrunorunityofthelineisthethingtofeel,ifyouwouldexpressitsparticularbeauty.Thisisbestdoneinthecaseofapaintingbyfinallydrawingitwiththebrushfromthebackgroundside,afterhavingpaintedallthevarietythereisoftoneandcolouronthefacesideoftheline.Asthebackgroundusuallyvarieslittle,theswingofthebrushisnothamperedonthissideasitisontheother.Ihaveseenstudentsworriedtodistractiontryingtopainttheprofilelinefromthefaceside,fearingtolosethedrawingbygoingovertheedge.Withtheedgeblurredoutfromthefaceside,itiseasytocomewithabrushfullofthecolourthebackgroundis

immediatelyagainsttheface(adifferentcolourusuallyfromwhatitisfurtheraway),anddrawitwithsomedecisionandconviction,carebeingtakentonoteallthevariationsontheedge,wherethesharpnessescomeandwheretheedgeismorelost,&c.

[Sidenote:VarietyinSymmetry.]

Thecontoursofthelimbsillustrateanotherformoflinevariety--whatmaybecalled"VarietyinSymmetry."Whileroughlyspeakingthelimbsaresymmetrical,eachsidenotonlyhasvarietyinitself,butthereisusuallyvarietyofopposition.Supposingthereisaconvexcurveontheoneside,youwilloftenhaveaconcaveformontheother.Alwayslookoutforthisindrawinglimbs,anditwilloftenimproveapoorlydrawnpartifmoreofthisvariationonsymmetryisdiscovered.

Thewholebody,youmaysay,issymmetrical,butevenherenaturalconditionsmakeforvariety.Thebodyisseldom,exceptinsoldiering,heldinasymmetricalposition.Theslightestactionproducesthevarietywearespeakingabout.Theaccompanyingsketcheswillindicatewhatismeant.

[Illustration:DiagramIX.

ILLUSTRATINGVARIETYINSYMMETRY

NotehowthehollowsmarkedAareopposedbythefullnessesmarkedB.]

Ofcoursethestudent,ifhehasanynaturalability,instinctivelylooksoutforallthesevariationsthatgivetheplayoflifetohisdrawing.Itisnotforhiminthefullvigourofinspirationthatbookssuchasthisarewritten.Buttheremaycomeatimewhenthings"won'tcome,"anditisthenthatitisusefultoknowwheretolookforpossibleweakspotsinyourwork.

[Sidenote:VarietyofThicknessandAccent.]

Alineofequalthicknessisaverydeadandinexpressivethingcompared

withonevariedandstressedatcertainpoints.Ifyouobserveanyoftheboundariesinnatureweusealinetoexpress,youwillnoticesomepointsareaccentuated,attracttheattention,morethanothers.Theonlymeansyouhavetoexpressthisinalinedrawingisbydarkeningandsharpeningtheline.Atotherpoints,wherethecontourisalmostlost,thelinecanbesoftandblurred.

Itisimpossibletowriteoftheinfinitequalitiesofvarietythatafinedraughtsmanwillgetintohislinework;theymustbestudiedfirsthand.Butonthisplayofthicknessandqualityoflinemuchofthevitalityofyourdrawingwilldepend.

RHYTHM:UNITYOFLINE

Unityoflineisabiggerqualitythanvariety,andasitrequiresalargermentalgrasp,ismorerarelymetwith.Thebiggerthingsindrawinganddesigncomeunderitsconsideration,including,asitdoes,

therelationofthepartstothewhole.ItsproperconsiderationwouldtakeusintothewholefieldofComposition,asubjectneedingfarmoreconsiderationthanitcanbegiveninthisbook.

Inalmostallcompositionsarhythmicflowoflinescanbetraced.Notnecessarilyaflowofactuallines(althoughtheseoftenexist);theymaybeonlyimaginarylineslinkingupormassingcertainparts,andbringingthemintoconformitywiththerhythmicconceptionofthewhole.Oragain,onlyacertainstressandflowintheforms,suggestinglinemovements.Buttheselinemovementsflowingthroughyourpanelareoftheutmostimportance;theyarelikethemelodiesandsubjectsofamusicalsymphony,weavingthroughandlinkingupthewholecomposition.

Often,thelineofacontouratonepartofapictureispickedupagainbythecontourofsomeobjectatanotherpartofthecomposition,andalthoughnoactuallineconnectsthem,aunityisthussetupbetweenthem.(Seediagrams,pages166and168,illustratinglinecompositionsofpicturesbyBotticelliandPaoloVeronese).Thisimaginaryfollowingthroughofcontoursacrossspacesinacompositionshouldalwaysbelookedoutforandsoughtafter,asnothingservestouniteapicturelikethisrelationshipofremoteparts.Theflowoftheselineswilldependonthenatureofthesubject:theywillbemoregraciousandeasy,ormorevigorousandpowerful,accordingtothedemandsofyoursubject.

Thislinkingupofthecontoursappliesequallywelltothedrawingofasinglefigureorevenaheadorhand,andthestudentshouldalwaysbeonthelookoutforthisunitingquality.Itisaqualityofgreatimportanceingivingunitytoacomposition.

[Sidenote:Parallelism]

Whengroupsoflinesinapictureoccurparalleltoeachothertheyproduceanaccentuationoftheparticularqualitythelinemaycontain,asortofsustainedeffect,likeasustainedchordonanorgan,theeffectofwhichismuchbiggerthanthatofthesamechordstruckstaccato.Thissustainedqualityhasawonderfulinfluenceinsteadying

andunitingyourwork.

Thisparallelismcanonlybeusedsuccessfullywiththesimplestlines,suchasastraightlineorasimplecurve;itisneveradvisableexceptindecorativepatternstobeusedwithcomplicatedshapes.Blakeisveryfondofthesustainedeffectparallelismgives,andusestherepetitionofcurvedandstraightlinesveryofteninhiscompositions.NoteinPlateIoftheJobseries,page146[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXI],theusemadeofthissustainingqualityintheparallelismofthesheep'sbacksinthebackgroundandtheparallelupwardflowofthelinesofthefigures.InPlateIIyouseeitusedinthecurvedlinesofthefiguresoneithersideofthethroneabove,andinthetwoangelswiththescrollattheleft-handcorner.Behindthesetwofiguresyou

againhaveitsuseaccentuatingbyrepetitionthepeacefullineofthehacksofthesheep.ThesamethingcanbeseeninPlateXXXI,B,wheretheparallelismofthebacklinesofthesheepandthelegsoftheseatedfiguresgivesalookofpeacecontrastingwiththeviolenceofthemessengercometotellofthedestructionofJob'ssons.TheemphasisthatparallelismgivestothemusicofparticularlinesiswellillustratedinallBlake'swork.Heisamineofinformationonthesubjectoflinerhythm.CompareAwithPlateXXXI,C;notehowtheemotionalqualityisdependentinbothcasesontheparallelismoftheupwardflowofthelines.HowalsoinPlateIhehascarriedthe

verticalfeelingevenintothesheepinthefront,introducinglittlebandsofverticalshadingtocarrythroughtheverticallinesmadebythekneelingfigures.Andinthelastplate,"SotheLordblessedthelatterendofJobmorethanthebeginning,"notehowthegreatercompletenesswithwhichtheparallelismhasbeencarriedouthasgivenamuchgreateremphasistotheeffect,expressingagreaterexaltationandpeacethaninPlateXXXI,A.NoticeinPlateXXXI,D,where"Thejust,uprightmanislaughedtoscorn,"howthispowerofemphasisisusedtoincreasethelookofscornhurledatJobbythepointingfingersofhisthreefriends.

Oftheuseofthisprincipleincurvedforms,therepetitionofthelineofthebackinstoopingfiguresisafavouritedevicewithBlake.TherewillbefoundinstancesofthisinPlateXXXII,EandG.(FurtherinstanceswillbefoundonreferencetoPlatesVII,VIII,XIII,andXVII,inBlake'sJob.)Inthelastinstanceitisinterestingtonotehowhehasbalancedthecomposition,whichhasthreefigureskneelingontherightandonlyoneontheleft.Bylosingtheoutlineofthethirdfigureontherightandgettingadoublelineoutofthesinglefigureontheleftbymeansoftheoutlineofthemassofhair,andalsobyshadingthissinglefiguremorestrongly,hehascontrivedtokeepaperfectbalance.TheheadofJobisalsoturnedtotheleft,whilehestandsslightlyonthatside,stillfurtherbalancingthethreefiguresontheright.(Thisdoesnotshowsowellintheillustrationhere

reproducedasintheoriginalprint.)[Illustration:PlateXXXI.

ThusdidJobcontinually.(_PlateI,Blake'sJob_)

AndIonlyamescapedalonetotellthee.(_PlateIV,Blake'sJob_)

SotheLordblessedthelatterendofJobmorethanthebeginning.(_PlateXXI,Blake'sJob_)

Thejustuprightmanislaughedtoscorn.(_PlateX,Blake'sJob_)]

Somerudethingsweresaidaboveaboutthestraightlineandthecircle,onaccountoftheirlackofvariety,anditistruethatamathematicallystraightline,oramathematicallyperfectcircle,areneverfoundingoodartisticdrawing.Forwithoutvarietyisnocharmorlife.Buttheselinespossessotherqualities,duetotheirmaximumamountofunity,thatgivethemgreatpowerinacomposition;andwheretheexpressionofsublimityoranyofthedeeperandmoreprofoundsentimentsareinevidence,theyareoftentobefound.

TherowsofcolumnsinaGreektemple,theclustersofverticallinesinaGothiccathedralinterior,areinstancesofthesublimityandpowertheypossess.Thenecessaryplaythatmakesforvitality--the"dither"aswecalledthisqualityinaformerchapter--isgiveninthecaseof

theGreektemplebythesubtlecurvingofthelinesofcolumnsandsteps,andbytherichvarietyofthesculpture,andinthecaseoftheGothiccathedralbyaroughercuttingofthestoneblocksandthevarietyinthecolourofthestone.Butgenerallyspeaking,inGothicarchitecturethisparticularqualityof"dither"ortheplayoflifeinallthepartsisconspicuous,thebalancebeingonthesideofvarietyratherthanunity.Theindividualworkmanwasgivenalargeamountoffreedomandallowedtoexercisehispersonalfancy.Thecapitalsofcolumns,thecuspingofwindows,andtheornamentswereseldomrepeated,butvariedaccordingtothetasteofthecraftsman.Veryhighfinishwas

seldomattempted,themarksofthechiseloftenbeingleftshowinginthestonework.AllthisgaveawarmthandexuberanceoflifetoafineGothicbuildingthatmakesaclassicalbuildinglookcoldbycomparison.ThefreedomwithwhichnewpartswerebuiltontoaGothicbuildingisanotherproofofthefactthatitisnotintheconceptionoftheunityofthewholethattheirchiefcharmconsists.

Ontheotherhand,afineclassicbuildingistheresultofonelargeconceptiontowhicheveryparthasrigorouslytoconform.Anyadditiontothisinafteryearsisusuallydisastrous.Ahighfinishisalwaysattempted,notoolmarksnoranyindividualityofthecraftsmanisallowedtomartheperfectsymmetryofthewhole.Itmaybecolder,buthowperfectinsublimity!Thebalancehereisonthesideofunityratherthanvariety.

ThestrengthandsublimityofNormanarchitectureisduetotheuseofcircularcurvesinthearches,combinedwithstraightlinesandtheuseofsquareformsintheornaments--linespossessedofleastvariety.

Allobjectswithwhichoneassociatesthelookofstrengthwillbefoundtohavestraightlinesintheircomposition.Thelookofstrengthinastrongmanisduetothesquarelinesofthecontours,sodifferentfromtheroundedformsofafatman.Andeveryoneknowsthelookofmentalpowerasquareforeheadgivestoaheadandthelookofphysical

powerexpressedbyasquarejaw.Thelookofpowerinarockylandscapeorrangeofhillsisduetothesamecause.

[Illustration:PlateXXXII.

WhentheAlmightywasyetwithme,whenmychildrenwereaboutme.(_PlateII,Blake'sJob_)

WithdreamsuponmybedThouscarestme,andaffrightestmewithvisions.(_PlateXI,Blake'sJob_)

Printedthewrongwayupinordertoshowthatthelookofhorrorisnotsolelydependentonthethingsrepresentedbutbelongsto

therhythm,thepatternofthecomposition.

AndmyservantJobshallprayforyou.(_PlateXVIII,Blake'sJob_)

Whenthemorning-starssangtogether,andallthesonsofGodshoutedforjoy.(_PlateXIV,Blake'sJob_)]

[Sidenote:TheHorizontalandtheVertical]

Thehorizontalandtheverticalaretwoveryimportantlines,thehorizontalbeingassociatedwithcalmandcontemplationandtheverticalwithafeelingofelevation.Aswassaidabove,theirrelationtothesidesofthecompositiontowhichtheyareparallelinrectangular

picturesisofgreatimportanceinunitingthesubjecttoitsboundinglinesandgivingitawell-knitlook,conveyingafeelingofgreatstabilitytoapicture.

Howimpressiveandsuggestiveofcontemplationisthelonglineofthehorizononacalmdayatsea,orthelong,horizontallineofadesertplain!Thelackofvariety,withalltheenergyandvitalitythataccompanyit,givesoneasenseofpeaceandrest,atouchofinfinitythatnootherlinescanconvey.Thehorizontallineswhichthebreezemakesonstillwater,andwhichtheskyoftenassumesatsunset,affect

usfromthesameharmoniccause.

Thestonepineandthecypressaretypicalinstancesofthesublimeassociatedwiththeverticalinnature.Evenafactorychimneyrisingaboveadistanttown,inspiteofitsunpleasantassociations,isimpressive,nottospeakofthebeautifulspiresofsomeofourGothiccathedrals,pointingupwards.HowwellConstablehasusedtheverticalsublimityofthespireofSalisburyCathedralcanbeseeninhispicture,attheVictoriaandAlbertMuseum,wherehehascontrasteditwiththegaytraceryofanarchofelmtrees.Gothiccathedralsgenerallydependmuchonthisverticalfeelingoflinefortheirimpressiveness.

TheRomansknewtheexpressivepoweroftheverticalwhentheysetupalonelycolumnasamonumenttosomegreatdeedorperson.Andasenseofthissublimitymaybeanunconsciousexplanationofthecrazeforputtingtowersandobelisksonhighplacesthatonecomesacrossindifferentpartsofthecountry,usuallycalledsomeone's"folly."

Intheaccompanyingdiagrams,A,B,CandD,E,F,pages152[TranscribersNote:DiagramX]and153[TranscribersNote:DiagramXI],areexamplesoftheinfluencetobeassociatedwiththehorizontalandverticallines.Aisnothingbutsixstraightlinesdrawnacrossarectangularshape,andyetIthinktheyconveysomethingofthe

contemplativeandpeacefulsensegivenbyasunsetovertheseaonacalmevening.Andthisisentirelyduetotheexpressivepowerstraightlinespossess,andthefeelingstheyhavethepowertocallupinthemind.InBalittlemoreincidentandvarietyhasbeenintroduced,andalthoughthereisacertainlossofcalm,itisnotyetenoughtodestroytheimpression.Thelinesuggestingafigureisverticalandsoplaysuptothesamecalmfeelingasthehorizontallines.Thecirculardiscofthesunhasthesamestaticquality,beingthecurvemostdevoidofvariety.Itisthelinesofthecloudsthatgivesomeexcitement,buttheyareonlyenoughtosuggestthedyingenergyofdepartingday.

Nowletusbutbendthefigureinaslightcurve,asatC,anddestroyitsverticaldirection,partlycoverthediscofthesunsoasto

destroythecompletecircle,andallthisisimmediatelyaltered,ourcalmeveninghasbecomeawindyone,ourlinesnowbeingexpressiveofsomeenergy.

[Illustration:PLATEXXXIII.

FÃTECHAMPÃTRE.GIORGIONI(LOUVRE)

Notethestraightlineintroducedinseatedfemalefigurewithflutetocounteractrichforms.]

Totakeasimilarinstancewithverticallines.LetDrepresentarowofpinetreesinawideplain.Suchlinesconveyasenseofexaltationand

infinitecalm.Nowifsomefoliageisintroduced,asatE,givingaswingingline,andifthisswinginglineiscarriedonbyacorrespondingoneinthesky,wehaveintroducedsomelifeandvariety.Ifweentirelydestroytheverticalfeelingandbendourtrees,asatF,theexpressionofmuchenergywillbetheresult,andafeelingofthestressandstruggleoftheelementsintroducedwheretherewasperfectcalm.

Itisthealoofnessofstraightlinesfromallthefussandflurryofvarietythatgivesthemthiscalm,infiniteexpression.Andtheirvalue

asasteadyinginfluenceamongthemoreexuberantformsofacompositionisverygreat.TheVenetiansknewthisandmadegreatuseofstraightlinesamongthericherformstheysodelightedin.

ItisinterestingtonotehowGiorgioneinhis"FÃªteChampÃªtre"oftheLouvre(seeillustration,page151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII]),wentoutofhiswaytogetastraightlinetosteadyhispictureandcontrastwiththecurves.Notwantingitinthelandscape,hehasboldlymadethecontouroftheseatedfemaleconformtoarigidstraightline,accentuatedstillfurtherbythefluteinherhand.Ifitwerenotforthisandotherstraightlinesinthepicture,andacertainsquarenessofdrawinginthedraperies,therichnessofthetreesinthebackground,thefullformsofthefleshanddraperywouldbetoomuch,andtheeffectbecomesickly,ifnotpositivelysweet.VanDyck,also,usedtogooutofhiswaytointroduceahardstraightlineneartheheadinhisportraitsforthesamereason,oftenendingabruptly,withoutanyapparentreason,adarkbackgroundinahardline,andshowingadistantlandscapebeyondinordertogetalightmasstoaccentuatethestraightline.

[Illustration:DiagramX.

ILLUSTRATING,A,CALMRHYTHMICINFLUENCEOFHORIZONTALLINESSUCHASASUNSETOVERTHESEAMIGHTGIVE;B,INTRODUCTIONOFLINESCONVEYINGSOME

ENERGY;C,SHOWINGDESTRUCTIONOFREPOSEBYFURTHERCURVINGOFLINES.THECALMEVENINGHASBECOMEAWINDYONE.]

[Illustration:DiagramXI.

ILLUSTRATING,D,RHYTHMICINFLUENCEOFVERTICALLINES;E,THEINTRODUCTIONOFSOMEVARIETY;F,THEDESTRUCTIONOFTHEVERTICALANDCONSEQUENTLOSSOFREPOSE.]

Therichmodellingandswinginglinesofthe"BacchusandAriadne"ofTitianintheNationalGallery,herereproduced,page154[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIV],wouldbetoogross,wereitnotforthesteadyinginfluenceofthehorizontallinesintheskyandtheverticallinesof

thetree-trunks.

Whilespeakingofthispicture,itmightnotbeoutofplacetomentionanideathatoccurredtomeastothereasonforthesomewhataggressivestandinglegofthefemalefigurewiththecymbalsleadingtheprocessionofrevellers.Iwillnotattemptanyanalysisofthiscomposition,whichisablygoneintoinanotherbookofthisseries.Butthestandinglegofthisfigure,givensuchprominenceinthecomposition,hasalwaysratherpuzzledme.IknewTitianwouldnothavegivenitthatvigorousstandwithoutagoodreason.Itcertainlydoesnothelptherunofthecomposition,althoughitmaybeusefulinsteadyingit,anditisnotaparticularlybeautifulthinginitself,asthepositionisonebettersuitedtoaman'slegthantoawoman's.But

ifyoucoveritoverwithyourfingerandlookatthecompositionwithoutit,Ithinkthereasonofitsprominencebecomesplainer.Titianevidentlyhadsometrouble,aswellhemighthave,withtheforwardlegoftheBacchus.Hewishedtogivethelookofhissteppingfromthecarlightlytreadingtheair,asgodsmaybepermittedtodo.Butthewheelofthecarthatcomesbehindthefootmadeitdifficulttoevadetheideathathewassteppingonit,whichwouldbethewayanordinarymortalwouldalight.IthinkthedutyoftheaggressivestandinglegoftheleadingBacchante,withitsgreatlookofweight,istogivealookoflightnesstothisforwardlegofBacchus,bycontrast--whichit

certainlydoes.Onexaminingthepicturecloselyinagoodlight,youwillseethathehashadthefootofBacchusinseveralpositionsbeforehegotitright.Anotherfootcandistinctlybeseenaboutacoupleofinchesorsoabovethepresentone.Thegeneralverticaldirectionofthislegisalsoagainstitslookoflightnessandmotion,tendingrathertogiveitastationary,staticlook.Icouldnotatfirstseewhyhedidnotbringthefootfurthertotheright,whichwouldhaveaidedthelightnessofthefigureandincreaseditsmovement.Butyouwillobservethatthiswouldhavehurledthewholeweightofthemassoffiguresontheright,forwardontothesinglefigureofAriadne,andupsetthebalance;asyoucanseebycoveringthislegwithyourfingerandimaginingitswingingtotheright.SothatTitian,havingtoretaintheverticalpositionforBacchus'forwardleg,usedtheaggressivestandinglegofthecymballadytoaccentuateitsspringandlightness.

[Illustration:PlateXXXIV.

BACCHUSANDARIADNE.TITIAN

_PhotoHanfstaengl_]

Afeelingofstraight-up-nessinafigureorofthehorizontalplaneinanythingwillproducethesameeffectasaverticalorhorizontallinewithoutanyactuallinebeingvisible.Blake's"MorningStarsSinging

Together"isaninstanceoftheverticalchord,althoughthereisnoactualuprightlineinthefigures.Buttheyallhaveavigorousstraight-up-nessthatgivesthemthefeelingofpeaceandelevationcoupledwithaflame-likelinerunningthroughthemthatgivesthemtheirjoyousenergy.

[Illustration:DiagramXII.

A,B,C]

[Sidenote:TheRightAngle]

Thecombinationoftheverticalwiththehorizontalproducesoneofthe

strongestandmostarrestingchordsthatyoucanmake,anditwillbefoundtoexistinmostpicturesanddrawingswherethereistheexpressionofdramaticpower.Thecrossisthetypicalexampleofthis.Itisacombinationoflinesthatinstantlyrivetstheattention,andhasprobablyamorepowerfuleffectuponthemind--quiteapartfromanythingsymbolisedbyit--thananyothersimplecombinationsthatcouldhavebeendevised.Howpowerfulistheeffectofaverticalfigure,orevenapost,seencuttingthelonghorizontallineofthehorizononthesea-shore.Oratelegraphpostbythesideoftheroad,seenagainstthelonghorizontallineofahillatsunset.Thelookofpowergivenbytheverticallinesofacontractedbrowisduetothesamecause.Theverticalfurrowsofthebrowcontinuingthelinesofthenose,makeacontinuousverticalwhichthehorizontallinesofthebrowcross(see

Fig.Aintheillustration).Thesamecausegivestheprofileapowerfullookwhentheeyebrowsmakeahorizontallinecontrastingwiththeverticallineoftheforehead(Fig.B).Everybodyknowsthelookofpowerassociatedwithasquarebrow:itisnotthatthesquareforeheadgivesthelookofalargerbraincapacity,foriftheforeheadprotrudesinacurvedline,asatC,thelookofpowerislost,althoughthereisobviouslymoreroomforbrains.

ThispoweroftherightangleiswellexemplifiedinWatts'"LoveandDeath,"herereproduced,page158[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXV].In

thisnoblecomposition,inthewriter'sopiniononeofthemostsublimeexpressionsproducedbynineteenth-centuryart,theirresistiblepowerandmajestyoftheslowlyadvancingfigureofDeathislargelyduetotherightanglefeltthroughthepose.Notgettingitinthecontour,Wattshasboldlyintroduceditbymeansofshadingthefartherarmandinsistingonthelightupperedgeoftheoutstretchedarmandhand,whilelosingsomewhatthe,outlineoftheheadbeyond.Notealsothelookofpowertheinsistenceonsquareformsinthedraperygivesthisfigure.Theexpressionisstillfurtheremphasisedbythehardsquareformsofthesteps,andparticularlybythestronghorizontallineofthefirststepsoinsistedon,atrightanglestotheverticalstandofthefigure;andalsotheuprightlinesofthedoorwayabove.IncontrastwiththeawfulsublimityofthisfigureofDeath,howtouchingistheexpressionofthelittlefigureofLove,tryingvainlytostoptheinevitableadvance.Andthisexpressionisduetothecurvedlinesonwhichtheactionofthefigureishung,andthesoftundulatingformsofitsmodelling.WhereasthefigureofDeathisallsquarelinesandflatcrispplanes,thewholehangingonadramaticrightangle;thisfigureisallsubtlefullnessbothofcontourandmodellingmeltingoneintotheother,thewholehunguponarichfullcurvestartingatthestandingfootoftheadvancingfigure.AndwhereastheexpressionofDeathissupportedandemphasisedbythehard,squareformsandtextureofthestonesteps,theexpressionofLoveissupportedandemphasisedbytheroundedformsandsofttextureoftheclusteringroses.Onthis

contrastoflineandform,soinsympathywiththeprofoundsentimenttowhichthispictureowesitsorigin,theexpressivepowerofthiscompositionwillbefoundtodepend.

[Illustration:DiagramXIII.

ILLUSTRATINGSOMEOFTHELINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICPOWEROFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]

[Illustration:PlateXXXV.

LOVEANDDEATH.BYG.F.WATTS

Anoblecomposition,foundedonthepoweroftherightangleinthefigureofDeath,incontrastwiththecurvedlinesinthefigureofLove.(Seediagramopposite.)

_PhotoHollyer_]

InthediagramaccompanyingthereproductionofthispictureIhavetriedtoindicateindiagrammaticalformsomeofthechieflinesofitsanatomy.

Inthesediagramsoftheanatomyofcompositionsthelinesselectedarenotalwaysveryobviousintheoriginalsandarejustlymuchbrokenintobytruthsofnaturalappearance.Butanemotionalsignificancedepending

onsomearrangementofabstractlinesistobefoundunderlyingtheexpressionineverygoodpicture,carefullyhiddenasitisbyallgreatartists.Andalthoughsomeapologyisperhapsnecessaryfortheuglinessofthesediagrams,itisanuglinessthatattendsallanatomydrawings.Ifthestudentwilltracethemandputhistracingoverthereproductionsoftheoriginals,theywillhelphimtoseeonwhatthingsinthearrangementtherhythmicforceofthepicturedepends.

Otherlines,asimportantasthoseselected,mayhavebeenoverlooked,buttheoneschosenwillsufficetoshowthegeneralcharacterofthem

Thereisoneconditioninacomposition,thatislaiddownbeforeyoubegin,andthatistheshapeofyourpanelorcanvas.Thisisusuallyarectangularform,andallthelinesofyourdesignwillhavetobeconsideredinrelationtothisshape.Verticalandhorizontallinesbeingparalleltotheboundariesofrectangularpictures,arealwaysrightandimmediatelysetuparelationship,aswehaveseen.

Thearrestingpoweroftherightangleexistsateachcornerofarectangularpicture,wheretheverticalsidesmeetthehorizontalbase,andthispresentsadifficulty,becauseyoudonotwishthespectator'sattentiondrawntothecorners,andthisdramaticcombinationoflinesalwaysattractstheeye.Afavouritewayofgettingridofthisistofillthemwithsomedarkmass,orwithlinesswingingroundandcarryingtheeyepastthem,sothattheattentioniscontinuallyswungtothecentreofthepicture.Forlineshaveapowerofdirectingtheattention,theeyeinstinctivelyrunningwiththem,andthispowerisofthegreatestserviceindirectingthespectatortotheprincipalinterest.

Itisthistroublewiththecornersthatmakestheproblemoffillinga

squaresoexacting.Inanordinaryrectangularpanelyouhaveacertainamountoffreespaceinthemiddle,andthedifficultyoffillingthecornerscomfortablydoesnotpresentitselfuntilthisspaceisarrangedfor.Butinasquare,themomentyouleavethecentreyouareinoneorotherofthecorners,andthefillingofthemgovernstheproblemmuchmorethaninthecaseofothershapes.Itisagoodexerciseforstudentstogivethemselvesasquaretofill,inordertounderstandthisdifficultyandlearntoovercomeit.

Otherlinesthatpossessadirectrelationtoarectangularshapearethediagonals.Manycompositionsthatdonothangonaverticalorhorizontalbasisarebuiltonthisline,andarethusrelatedtotheboundingshape.

[Illustration:PlateXXXVI.

THESURRENDEROFBREDAVELAZQUEZ(PRADO)

_PhotoAnderson_]

Whenvertical,horizontal,ordiagonallinesarereferredto,itmustnotbeassumedthatonemeansinallcasesnakedlines.Thereisnopureverticallineinastonepineorcypresstree,norpurehorizontallineinastretchofcountry,butthewholeswingoftheirlinesisverticalorhorizontal.Andinthesameway,whenonespeaksofacompositionbeinghunguponadiagonal,itisseldomthatanaked

diagonallineexistsinthecomposition,butthegeneralswingisacrossthepanelinharmonywithoneorotherdiagonal.Andwhenthisisso,thereisaunitysetupbetweenthedesignanditsboundaries.Agoodinstanceofvertical,horizontal,anddiagonallinestouniteapictureisVelazquez's"TheSurrenderofBreda,"herereproduced.Notetheverticalchordinthespearsontheleft,continuedinthelegofthehorseandfrontlegofthefigurereceivingthekey,andthehorizontallinemadebythedarkmassofdistantcity,tobecontinuedbytheguncarriedovertheshoulderofthefigurewiththeslouchhatbehindtheprincipalgroup.Velazquezhasgoneoutofhiswaytogetthisline,as

itcouldhardlyhavebeenthefashiontocarryaguninthisposition,pointingstraightattheheadofthemanbehind.Horizontallinesalsooccurintheskyanddistantlandscape,onerunningrightthroughthegroupofspears.Theuseofthediagonalisanotherremarkablethinginthelinesofthispicture.Ifyouplacearulerontheslantinglineoftheflagbehindthehorse'sheadtotheright,youfinditisexactlyparalleltoadiagonaldrawnfromthetopright-handcornertothelowerleft-handcorner.Anotherlinepracticallyparalleltothisdiagonalisthelineoftheswordbelongingtothefigureofferingthekey,thefeelingofwhichiscontinuedinthehandandkeyofthissamefigure.Itmaybenotedalsothatthebackrightlegofthehorseinthefrontisparalleltotheotherdiagonal,theundersideofitbeingactuallyonthediagonalandthusbroughtintorelationwiththeboundinglinesofthepicture.Andalltheselines,withouttheartificebeingtooapparent,givethatwell-knit,dignifiedlooksoinharmonywiththenatureofthesubject.

[Sidenote:CurvedLines]

Curvedlineshavenotthemoralintegrityofstraightlines.Theirsisnotsomuchtoministertotheexpressionofthesublimeastowooustothebeauteousjoysofthesenses.Theyholdthesecretsofcharm.Butwithoutthesteadyingpowerofstraightlinesandflatnesses,curvesgetoutofhandandlosetheirpower.Inarchitecturetherococostyleisan

exampleofthisexcess.Whileallexpressionsofexuberantlifeandenergy,ofcharmandgracedependoncurvedlinesfortheireffect,yetintheirmostrefinedandbeautifulexpressiontheyerronthesideofthesquareformsratherthanthecircle.Whentheuncontrolleduseofcurvesapproachingthecircleandvoluteareindulgedin,unrestrainedbythesteadyinginfluenceofanystraightlines,theeffectisgross.Thefinestcurvesarefullofrestraint,andexcessivecurvatureisathingtobeavoidedingooddrawing.Werecognisethisintegrityofstraightlineswhenwesayanybodyis"anuprightman"oris"quitestraight,"wishingtoconveytheimpressionofmoralworth.

Rubenswasapainterwhogloriedintheunrestrainedexpressionofthezealtoliveanddrinkdeeplyoflife,andgloriousasmuchofhiswork

is,andwonderfulasitallis,theexcessiveuseofcurvesandroundedformsinhislaterworkrobsitofmuchofitspowerandoffendsusbyitsgrossness.Hisbestworkisfullofsquarerdrawingandplanes.

#Alwaysbeonthelookoutforstraightnessesincurvedformsandforplanesinyourmodelling.#

Letustakeoursimplestformofcompositionagain,astretchofseaandsky,andapplycurvedlineswhereweformerlyhadstraightlines.YouwillseehowthelinesatA,page164[TranscribersNote:DiagramXIV],althoughbutslightlycurved,expresssomeenergy,wherethestraightlinesofourformerdiagramexpressedrepose,andthenhowinBandCtheincreasingcurvatureofthelinesincreasestheenergyexpressed,

untilinD,wherethelinessweeproundinonevigorousswirl,aperfecthurricaneisexpressed.Thislast,isroughlytherhythmicbasisofTurner's"HannibalCrossingtheAlps"intheTurnerGallery.

Oneofthesimplestandmostgracefulformsthetyinglinesofacompositionmaytakeisacontinuousflow,onelineevolvingoutofanotheringracefulsequence,thusleadingtheeyeonfromoneparttoanotherandcarryingtheattentiontotheprincipalinterests.

TwogoodinstancesofthisarrangementareBotticelli's"BirthofVenus"

andthe"RapeofEuropa,"byPaoloVeronese,reproducedonpages166[TranscribersNote:DiagramXV,PlateXXXVII]and168[TranscribersNote:DiagramXVI,PlateXXXVIII].TheVenetianpicturedoesnotdependsomuchontheclarityofitslinebasisastheFlorentine.AnditisinterestingtonotehowmuchnearertothecurvesofthecirclethelinesofEuropaapproachthandothoseoftheVenuspicture.WerethesameprimitivetreatmentappliedtothelaterworkpaintedintheoilmediumashasbeenusedbyBotticelliinhistemperapicture,therobustnessofthecurveswouldhaveoffendedandbeentoogrossforthesimpleformula;whereasoverlaidandhiddenundersucharichabundanceofnaturaltruthasitisinthisgorgeouspicture,wearetoomuchdistractedandentertainedbysuchwealthtohavetimetodwellonthepurityofthelinearrangementatitsbase.Andtherichfullnessoflinearrangement,althoughratherexcessive,seendetached,isinkeepingwiththesumptuousluxuriancetheVenetianlovedsowelltoexpress.ButforpurelinebeautythegreaterrestraintofthecurvesinBotticelli'spictureisinfinitelymoresatisfying,thoughherewehavenotanythinglikethesamewealthandrichnessofnaturalappearancetoengageourattention,andtheinnocentsimplicityofthetechniqueleavesmuchmoreexposedthestructureoflines,whichinconsequenceplayagreaterpartintheeffectofthepicture.

[Illustration:DiagramXIV.

ILLUSTRATINGPOWEROFCURVEDLINESTOCONVEYENERGY.A,B,C,D.][Illustration:DiagramXV.

ILLUSTRATINGTHEFLOWOFLINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICUNITYOFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]

[Illustration:PlateXXXVII.

THEBIRTHOFVENUS.BOTTICELLI(FLORENCE)

AbeautifulexampleofBotticelli'srefinedlinerhythm.(Seediagramonoppositepageforanalysis.)

_PhotoAnderson_]

Inbothcasesnotethewaythelinesleaduptotheprincipalsubject,andthesteadyingpowerintroducedbymeansofhorizontal,vertical,andotherstraightlines.Veronesehascontentedhimselfwithkeepingacertainhorizontalfeelinginthesky,culminatinginthestraightlinesofthehorizonandoftheseaedge.Andhehasalsointroducedtwopyramids,givingstraightlinesinamongthetrees,themostpronouncedofwhichleadstheeyestraightontotheprincipalhead.

Botticellihasfirstthelonglineofthehorizonechoedinthegroundattheright-handlowercorner.Andthenhehasmadeadeterminedstand

againsttheflowoflinescarryingyououtofthepictureontheright,byputtingstraight,uprighttreesandinsistingupontheirstraightness.

[Illustration:DiagramXVI.

ILLUSTRATINGSOMEOFTHEMAINLINESONWHICHTHERHYTHMICUNITYOFTHISPICTUREDEPENDS.]

[Illustration:PlateXXXVIII.

THERAPEOFEUROPA.BYPAOLOVERONESE(VENICE)

Acompositionofrichfullformsandrichfullcolour.(Seethediagramonoppositepageforanalysisoflinerhythm.)

_PhotoAnderson_]

Anotherrhythmicformthelinesatthebasisofacompositionmaytakeisaflame-likeflowoflines;curvedlinesmeetingandpartingandmeetingagain,orevencrossinginonecontinualmovementonwards.AstrikinginstanceoftheuseofthisqualityistheworkoftheremarkableSpanishpainterusuallycalledElGreco,twoofwhoseworksarehereshown(page172[TranscribersNote:PlateXL]).Whatevermaybesaidbytheacademicallymindedastotheincorrectnessofhisdrawing,therecanbenotwoopinionsastotheremarkablerhythmicvitalityofhiswork.Theupwardflowofhislinesandtheflame-likeflickerofhislightmassesthrillsoneinmuchthesamewayaswatchingaflaringfire.Thereissomethingexaltingandstimulatinginit,although,usedtoexcessashesometimesusesit,itisapttosufferfromlackofrepose.Twoexamplesofhispicturesarereproducedhere,andillustratehisuseofthisformofmovementinthelinesandmassesofhiscompositions.Nowheredoeshelettheeyerest,butkeepsthesameflickeringmovementgoingthroughoutallhismassesandedges.The

extraordinarythingaboutthisremarkablepainteristhatwhilethisrestless,unrestrainedformofcompositionmakeshisworkakintotherococoworkofalaterperiod,thereisafieryearnestnessandsincerityinallhedoes,onlytobematchedamongtheprimitivepaintersofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,andverydifferentfromthefalsesentimentofthelaterschool.

Blakewasalsofondofthisflameline,butusuallyuseditincombinationwithmorestraightlinesthantheenergeticSpaniardallowedhimself.PlatesIIIandVintheJobseriesaregoodexamplesofhisuseofthisform.Inbothcasesitwillbeseenthatheusesitincombinationwiththesteadyinginfluenceofstraightlines,whichhelptokeepthebalanceandreposenecessaryinthetreatmentofeventhe

mostviolentsubjectsinart.

Acontinualinterruptionintheflowoflines,andaharshjarringofoneagainstanotherinanangular,jaggedfashion,producesafeelingofterrorandhorror.Astreakofforklightningisanaturalexampleofthis.TheplateofBlake'sNo.XI,p.148[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXII],reproducedhere,isalsoagoodexample.Ihavehaditputsidewaysonsothatyoumayseethatthelookofhorrorisnotonlyinthesubjectbutbelongstotheparticularmusicoflineinthepicture.Theeffectoftheharshcontrastsinthelinesisfurtheraddedtobytheharshcontrastsoftone:everywherehardlightsarebroughtupagainstharddarks.Harshcontrastsoftoneproducemuchthesamelookofterrorasharshcontrastsofline.Battlepicturesareusually,when

good,fulloftheseclashesoflineandtone,andthrillingdramaticeffectsinwhichatouchofhorrorentersareusuallyfoundedonthesameprinciple.InthepicturebyPaoloUccellointheNationalGallery,reproducedonpage170[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIX],amildereditionofthiseffectisseen.Theartisthasbeenmoreinterestedinthepageantryofwarandadesiretoshowoffhisnewly-acquiredknowledgeofperspective,thananythingveryterrible.Thecontrastsoflineareherebutconfinedtothesmallerparts,andtherearenocontrastsoflightandshade,chiaroscuronotbeingyetinvented.However,itwillbeseenbytheaccompanyingdiagramhowconsistently

theharshcontrastsoflinewerecarriedoutintheplanningofthispicture.Noticetheunconscioushumouroftheforeshortenedspearsandfigurecarefullyarrangedonthegroundtovanishtotherecentlydiscoveredvanishingpoint.

[Illustration:DiagramXVII.

SHOWINGTHECLASHOFLINESINSYMPATHYWITHTHEMARTIALNATUREOFTHISSUBJECT.]

[Illustration:PlateXXXIX.

BATTLEOFST.EGIDIO.PAOLOUCCELLO(NATIONALGALLERY)

Illustratingtheeffectofjarringlinesincomposition.(Seediagramonoppositepage.)

_PhotoMorelli_]

Linesradiatinginsmoothcurvesfromacommoncentreareanotherformemployedtogiveunityinpictorialdesign.Thepointfromwhichtheyradiateneednotnecessarilybewithinthepicture,andisoften

considerablyoutsideit.Butthefeelingthattheywouldmeetifproducedgivesthemaunitythatbringsthemintoharmoniousrelationship.

Thereisalsoanotherpointaboutradiatinglines,andthatistheirpowerofsettinguparelationshipbetweenlinesotherwiseunrelated.Letustryandexplainthis.InPanelA,page174[TranscribersNote:DiagramXVIII],aredrawnsomelinesatrandom,withtheideaoftheirbeingaslittlerelatedtoeachotheraspossible.InB,bytheintroductionofradiatinglinesinsympathywiththem,theyhavebeenbroughtintosomesortofrelationship.Theline1-2hasbeenselectedasthedominatingline,andanassortmentofradiatingonesdrawnaboutit.Now,bydrawing7-8,wehavesetuparelationshipbetweenlines

3-4,5-6,and1-2,forthislineradiateswithallofthem.Line9-10accentuatesthisrelationshipwith1-2.Theothersechothesamething.Itisthisechoingoflinesthroughacompositionthatunitesthedifferentpartsandgivesunitytothewhole.

Thecrossingoflinesatanglesapproachingtherightangleisalwaysharshandsomewhatdiscordant,usefulwhenyouwanttodrawattentiondramaticallytoaparticularspot,buttobeavoidedorcoveredupatothertimes.Thereisanuglyclashofcrossinglinesinouroriginalscribble,andatCwehaveintroducedamasstocoverthisup,andalsotheanglesmadebyline3-4asitcrossestheradiatinglinesabove1-2.Withasmallmassat11tomakethebalanceright,youhaveabasisforacomposition,DiagramC,notatallunpleasinginarrangement,although

basedonagroupofdiscordantlinesdrawnatrandom,butbroughtintoharmonybymeansofsympatheticradiation.

[Illustration:PlateXL.

THEASCENSIONOFCHRIST.BYDOMINICOTHEOTOCOPULICALLEDELGRECO.

Notetheflame-likeformandflowofthelightmasses,andtheexaltedfeelingthisconveys.

_PhotoAnderson_]

[Illustration:PlateXLI.

THEBAPTISMOFCHRIST.BYDOMINICOTHEOTOCOPULICALLEDELGRECO

Anotherexampleofhisrestless,flame-likecomposition.

_PhotoAnderson_]

InPanelDthesamegroupistaken,butthistimeline3-4isusedasthedominantone.Line7-8introduces3-4to1-2,asitisrelatedtoboth.Lines9-10and11-12introduce3-4to5-6,astheyarerelatedtoboth,andtheothersfollowonthesameprinciple.Byintroducingsomemassescoveringupthecrossings,arhythmicbasisforacomposition(DiagramE)entirelydifferentfromCisobtained,basedonthesamerandomgroup.

InPanelF,1-2hasbeentakenasthedominantline,andsympatheticlinesdrawnonthesameprincipleasbefore.Byagaincoveringthecrossingsandintroducingbalancingmassesweobtainyetanotherarrangementfromthesamerandomscribble.

Iwouldsuggestthisasanewgametostudents,onegivinganothertwo

orthreelinesdrawninapanelatrandom,theproblembeingtomakeharmoniousarrangementsbytheintroductionofothersradiatinginsympathy.

Ofteninapicturecertainconditionsarelaiddowntostartwith;somethingasuglyasouroriginalgroupoflinesdrawnatrandomhastobetreatedpictorially,anditisbymeanssuchasheresuggestedthatitsdiscordancycanbesubduedandthewholebroughtintoharmonywiththeshapeofyourpanel.Thesameprinciplesapplyincolour,discordantnotescanbebroughtintoharmonybytheintroductionofothersrelatedtoboththeoriginalcolours,thusleadingtheeyefromonetotheotherbyeasystagesanddestroyingtheshock.Somewhatinthewayamusicianwilltakeyoufromonekeyintoanotherveryremotebymeansofafew

chordsleadingfromtheonetotheother;whereas,hadhetakenyoustraightthere,theshockwouldhavebeenterrible.Asitis,thesetransitionsfromonekeyintoanotherpleaseandsurpriseone,andareveryeffective.

[Illustration:DiagramXVIII.

SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYBYTHEINTRODUCTIONOFOTHERSINSYMPATHYWITHTHEM.

A.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.

B.TAKINGLINE1-2ASDOMINANTLINE.

C.ASATBBUTWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSINGANDRESTOREBALANCE

D.TAKINGLINE3-4ASDOMINANTLINE

E.ASATDBUTWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSINGANDGIVEBALANCE

F.TAKINGLINE5-6ASDOMINANTLINE

G.ASATFBUTWITHMASSESTOCOVERLINESCROSSING&TOGIVEBALANCE]

[Illustration:DiagramXIX.

SHOWINGHOWLINESUNRELATEDCANBEBROUGHTINTOHARMONYBYTHEINTRODUCTIONOFOTHERSINSYMPATHYWITHTHEM.

H.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.

I.LINESDRAWNATRANDOM.

J.ADDITIONALLINESDRAWNTORELATEORIGINALLINESANDBRINGTHEWHOLEINTOHARMONYTAKINGLINE1-2,ASDOMINANT.

K.ADDITIONALLINESDRAWNTORELATEORIGINALLINESTAKING1-2ASDOMINANT.

L.THESAMEASJWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERCROSSINGOFLINES.

M.THESAMEASATKWITHADDITIONOFMASSESTOCOVERCROSSINGLINES.]

InH,Ihaveintroducedastraightlineintoourinitialscribble,andthissomewhatincreasesthedifficultiesofrelatingthem.Butby

drawing7-8and9-10radiatingfrom1-2,wehaveintroducedthisstraightlineto5-6.Foralthough5-6and9-10donotradiatefromthesamepoint,theyareobviouslyinsympathy.Itisonlyashortpartofthelineattheendmarked5thatisoutofsympathy,andhad5-6takenthecourseofthedottedline,itwouldhaveradiatedfromthesamepointas9-10.Westillhaveline3-4toaccountfor.Butbydrawing11-12webringitintorelationshipwith5-6,andsobystagesthrough9-10and7-8totheoriginalstraightline1-2.Line13-14,bybeingrelatedto3-4,11-12,andalso5-6,stillfurtherharmonisesthegroup,andtheremainderecho5-6andincreasethedominantswing.AtLmasseshavebeenintroduced,coveringcrossinglines,andwehaveabasisforacomposition.

InDiagramIlineshavebeendrawnasbefore,atrandom,buttwoofthemarestraightandatrightangles,thelongerbeingacrossthe-centreofthepanel.Thefirstthingtodoistotricktheeyeoutofknowingthatthislineisinthecentrebydrawingothersparalleltoit,leadingtheeyedownwardstoline9-10,whichisnowmuchmoreimportantthan1-2andinbetterproportionwiththeheightofthepanel.Theverticalline3-4isratherstarkandlonely,andsowe'introducetwomoreverticalsat11-12and13-14,whichmodifythis,andwithanothertwolinesinsympathywith5-6andleadingtheeyebacktothehorizontaltopofthepanel,somesortofunityissetup,theintroductionofsomemassescompletingtheschemeatM.

Thereisaqualityofsympathysetupbycertainlinerelationships

aboutwhichitisimportanttosaysomething.Ladieswhohavetheinstinctforchoosingahatordoingtheirhairtosuittheirfaceinstinctivelyknowsomethingofthis;knowthatcertainthingsintheirfaceareemphasisedbycertainformsintheirhatsorhair,andthecarethathastobetakentoseethatthethingsthusdrawnattentiontoaretheirbestandnottheirworstpoints.

Theprincipleismoregenerallyunderstoodinrelationtocolour;everybodyknowshowthebluenessofblueeyesisemphasisedbyasympatheticbluedressortouchofblueonahat,&c.Butthesame

principleappliestolines.Thequalitiesoflineinbeautifuleyesandeyebrowsareemphasisedbythelongsympatheticcurveofapicturehat,andthebecomingeffectofanecklaceispartlyduetothesamecause,thelinesbeinginsympathywiththeeyesortheovaloftheface,accordingtohowloworhightheyhang.Theinfluenceoflonglinesisthusto"pickout"fromamongthelinesofafacethosewithwhichtheyareinsympathy,andthustoaccentuatethem.

Toillustratethis,onpage178[TranscribersNote:PlateXLII]isreproduced"ThePortraitoftheArtist'sDaughter,"bySirEdwardBurne-Jones.

Thetwothingsthatarebroughtoutbythelinearrangementinthisportraitarethebeautyoftheeyesandtheshapeoftheface.Insteadofthepicturehatyouhavethemirror,thewideningcirclesofwhichswingroundinsympathywiththeeyesandconcentratetheattentiononthem.Thatontheleft(lookingatthepicture)beingnearestthecentre,hasthegreatestattentionconcentrateduponit,thelinesofthemirrorbeingmoreinsympathywiththisthantheothereye,asitisnearerthecentre.Ifyoucaretotakethetrouble,cutaholeinapieceofopaquepaperthesizeoftheheadandplacingitovertheillustrationlookatthefacewithouttheinfluenceoftheseoutsidelines;andnotehowmuchmoreequallydividedtheattentionisbetweenthetwoeyeswithouttheemphasisgiventotheonebythemirror.This

helpstheunityofimpression,whichwithbotheyesrealisedtosointenseafocusmighthavesuffered.Thismirrorformsasortofechoofthepupiloftheeyewithitsreflectionofthewindowintheleft-handcornercorrespondingtothehighlight,greatlyhelpingthespelltheseeyeshold.

[Illustration:DiagramXX.

INDICATINGTHESYMPATHETICFLOWOFLINESTHATGIVEUNITYTOTHISCOMPOSITION.]

[Illustration:PlateXLII.

PORTRAITOFTHEARTIST'SDAUGHTERSIREDWARDBURNE-JONES,BART.

Anexampleofsympatheticrhythm.(Seediagramonoppositepage.)

_PhotoHollyer_]

Theotherformaccentuatedbythelinearrangementistheovaloftheface.Thereisthenecklacethelinesofwhichleadontothoseontherightinthereflection.Itisnomereaccidentthatthischainissoinsympathywiththelineoftheface:itwouldhardlyhaveremainedwhereitisforlong,andmusthavebeenputinthispositionbytheartistwiththeintention(consciousorinstinctive)ofaccentuatingthefaceline.Thelineofthereflectionontheleftandthelinesofthemirror

arealsosympathetic.Othersinthefoldsofthedress,andthoseformingthemassofthehandsandarms,echostillfurtherthislineofthefaceandbringthewholecanvasintointensesympatheticunityofexpression.

Theinfluencethatdifferentwaysofdoingthehairmayhaveonafaceisillustratedintheaccompanyingscribbles.Thetwoprofilesareexactlyalike--Itookgreattroubletomakethemso.Itisquiteremarkablethedifferencethetwowaysofdoingthehairmaketothelookofthefaces.TheupwardswingofthelinesinAsympathisewith

thelineofthenoseandthesharperprojectionsofthefacegenerally(seedottedlines),whilethefulldownwardcurvesofBsympathisewiththefullercurvesofthefaceandparticularlyemphasisethefullnessunderthechinsodreadedbybeautypastitsfirstyouth(seedottedlines).Itisonlyaverysharply-cutfacethatcanstandthislowknotatthebackofthehead,inwhichcaseitisoneofthesimplestandmostbeautifulwaysofdoingthehair.Thehairdraggeduphighatthebacksharpensthelinesoftheprofileasthelowknotbluntsthem.

[Illustration:DiagramXXI.

ILLUSTRATINGTHEEFFECTONTHEFACEOFPUTTINGTHEHAIRUPATTHEBACK.HOWTHEUPWARDFLOWOFLINESACCENTUATESTHESHARPNESSESOFTHEFEATURES.]

[Illustration:DiagramXXII.

ILLUSTRATINGTHEEFFECTONTHESAMEFACEASDIAGRAMXXI,OFPUTTINGTHEHAIRLOWATTHEBACK.HOWTHEFULLERLINESTHUSGIVENACCENTUATETHEFULLNESSESOFTHEFEATURES.]

Theillustrationstothischapterhavebeendrawnindiagrammaticalforminordertotryandshowthatthemusicalqualityoflinesandtheemotionstheyarecapableofcallinguparenotdependentupontruthto

naturalformsbutareinherentinabstractarrangementsthemselves.Thatistosay,wheneveryougetcertainarrangementsoflines,nomatterwhattheobjectsinnaturemaybethatyieldthem,youwillalwaysgettheparticularemotionalstimulusbelongingtosucharrangements.Forinstance,wheneveryougetlonguninterruptedhorizontallinesrunningthroughapicturenotopposedbyanyviolentcontrast,youwillalwaysgetanimpressionofintensequietandrepose;nomatterwhetherthenaturalobjectsyieldingtheselinesareawidestretchofcountrywithlonghorizontalcloudsinthesky,apoolwithagentlebreezemakinghorizontalbarsonitssurface,orapileofwoodinatimberyard.Andwheneveryougetlongverticallinesinacomposition,nomatterwhetheritbeacathedralinterior,apineforest,orarowofscaffoldpoles,youwillalwayshavetheparticularfeelingassociatedwithrowsof

verticallinesintheabstract.Andfurther,wheneveryougettheswinginglinesofthevolute,animpressionofenergywillbeconveyed,nomatterwhetheritbeabreakingwave,rollingclouds,whirlingdust,oronlyamassoftangledhoopironinawheelwright'syard.Aswassaidabove,theseeffectsmaybegreatlyincreased,modified,orevendestroyedbyassociationsconnectedwiththethingsrepresented.Ifinpaintingthetimberyardtheartististhinkingmoreaboutmakingitlooklikeastackofrealwoodwithitscommercialassociationsandlessaboutusingtheartisticmaterialitsappearancepresentsforthemakingofapicture,hemaymisstheharmonicimpressionthelonglinesofthestacksofwoodpresent.Ifrealwoodisthefirstthingyouareledtothinkofinlookingathiswork,hewillobviouslyhavemissedtheexpressionofanyartisticfeelingthesubjectwascapableof

producing.Andthesamemaybesaidofthescaffoldpolesorthehoopironinthewheelwright'syard.

Thisstructureofabstractlinesatthebasisofapicturewillbemoreorlessoverlaidwiththetruthsofnature,andalltherichvarietyofnaturalforms,accordingtotherequirementsofthesubject.Thus,inlargedecorativework,wherethepaintinghastotakeitsplaceaspartofanarchitecturalscheme,theseverityofthisskeletonwillbenecessarytounitetheworktothearchitecturalformsaroundit,ofwhichithastoformapart;andverylittleindulgenceinthe

realisationofnaturaltruthshouldbepermittedtoobscureit.Butinthepaintingofasmallcabinetpicturethatexistsforcloseinspection,thesupportingpowerofthislinebasisisnotnearlysoessential,andafullindulgenceinalltherichvarietyofnaturaldetailispermissible.Andthisishowithappensthatpainterswhohavegloriedinrichdetailshavealwayspaintedsmallpictures,andpainterswhohavepreferredlargertruthspicturesofbiggerdimensions.Itsoundsratherparadoxicaltosaythesmallerthepicturethemoredetailitshouldcontain,andthelargertheless,butitisneverthelesstrue.Foralthoughalargepicturehasnotofnecessitygottobepartofanarchitecturalscheme,ithastobelookedatfromadistanceatwhichsmalldetailcouldnotbeseen,andwheresuchdetailwouldgreatlyweakenitsexpressivepower.Andfurther,thesmallpictureeasilycomeswithinthefieldofvision,andthewholeimpressioncanbereadilygraspedwithoutthemainlinesbeing,asitwere,underlined.Butinabigpictureoneofthegreatestdifficultiesistogetittoreadsimply,tostriketheeyeasoneimpression.Itssizemakingitdifficultforittobegotcomfortablywithinthefieldofvision,everyartificehastobeusedtogiveit"breadthoftreatment,"asitiscalled,andnothinginterfereswiththislikedetail.

XIIIVARIETYOFMASS

Themassesthatgotomakeupapicturehavevarietyintheir#shape#,their#tonevalues#,their#edges#,in#texture#_or_#quality#,andin#gradation#.Quiteaformidablelist,buteachoftheseparticularshassomerhythmicqualityofitsownaboutwhichitwillbenecessarytosayaword.

[Sidenote:VarietyofShape.]

Astovarietyofshape,manythingsthatweresaidaboutlinesapplyequallytothespacesenclosedbythem.Itisimpossibletowriteoftherhythmicpossibilitiesthattheinfinitevarietyofshapespossessedbynaturalobjectscontain,excepttopointouthownecessarythestudyofnatureisforthis.Varietyofshapeisoneofthemostdifficultthingstoinvent,andoneofthecommonestthingsinnature.Howeverimaginativeyourconception,andnomatterhowfaryoumaycarryyourdesign,workingfromimagination,therewillcomeatimewhenstudiesfromnaturewillbenecessaryifyourworkistohavethevarietythatwillgivelifeandinterest.Tryanddrawfromimaginationarowofelmtreesofaboutthesameheightanddistanceapart,andgetthevarietyofnatureintothem;andyouwillseehowdifficultitistoinvent.Onexaminingyourworkyouwillprobablydiscovertwoorthreepetforms

repeated,ortheremaybeonlyone.Ortryanddrawsomecumuluscloudsfromimagination,severalgroupsofthemacrossasky,andyouwillfindhowoftenagainyouhaverepeatedunconsciouslythesameforms.Howtiredonegetsofthepetcloudortreeofapainterwhodoesnotoftenconsultnatureinhispictures.Natureisthegreatstorehouseofvariety;evenapieceofcoalwillsuggestmoreinterestingrock-formsthanyoucaninvent.Anditisfascinatingtowatchtheinfinitevarietyofgracefulformsassumedbythecurlingsmokefromacigarette,fullofsuggestionsforbeautifullinearrangements.Ifthisvarietyofforminyourworkisallowedtobecomeexcessiveitwilloverpowertheunityof

yourconception.Itisinthelargerunityofyourcompositionthattheimaginativefacultywillbewanted,andvarietyinyourformsshouldalwaysbesubordinatedtothisidea.

Naturedoesnotsoreadilysuggestaschemeofunity,forthesimplereasonthatthefirstconditionofyourpicture,thefourboundinglines,doesnotexistinnature.Youmaygetinfinitesuggestionsforarrangements,andshouldalwaysbeonthelookoutforthem,butyourimaginationwillhavetorelatethemtotherigorousconditionsofyourfourboundinglines,andnaturedoesnothelpyoumuchhere.Butwhenvarietyintheformsiswanted,sheispre-eminent,anditisneveradvisabletowasteinventivepowerwhereitissounnecessary.

Butalthoughnaturedoesnotreadilysuggestadesignfittingtheconditionsofapanelhertendencyisalwaystowardsunityofarrangement.Ifyoutakeabunchofflowersorleavesandhaphazardstuffthemintoavaseofwater,youwillprobablygetaverychaoticarrangement.Butifyouleaveitforsometimeandletnaturehaveachanceyouwillfindthattheleavesandflowershavearrangedthemselvesmuchmoreharmoniously.Andifyoucutdownoneofagroupoftrees,whataharshdiscordantgapisusuallyleft;butintimenaturewill,bythrowingaboughhereandfillingupagapthere,asfaraspossiblerectifymattersandbringallintounityagain.Iampreparedtobetoldthishasnothingtodowithbeautybutisonlytheresultof

nature'sattemptstoseekforlightandair.Butwhateverbethephysicalcause,thefactisthesame,thatnature'slawstendtopictorialunityofarrangement.

[Sidenote:VarietyofToneValues]

Itwillbeaswelltotryandexplainwhatismeantbytonevalues.Allthemassesortones(forthetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably)thatgotothemakingofavisualimpressioncanbeconsideredinrelationtoanimaginedscalefromwhite,torepresentthelightest,toblack,torepresentthedarkesttones.Thisscaleofvaluesdoesnotrefertolightandshadeonly,butlightandshade,colour,andthewholevisualimpressionareconsideredasonemosaicofmassesofdifferentdegrees

ofdarknessorlightness.Adarkobjectinstronglightmaybelighterthanawhiteobjectinshadow,orthereverse:itwilldependontheamountofreflectedlight.Colouronlymattersinsofarasitaffectsthepositionofthemassinthisimaginedscaleofblackandwhite.Thecorrectobservationofthesetonevaluesisamostimportantmatter,andoneofnolittledifficulty.

Thewordtoneisusedintwosenses,inthefirstplacewhenreferringtotheindividualmassesastotheirrelationsinthescaleof"tonevalues";andsecondlywhenreferringtothemusicalrelationshipofthesevaluestoaonenessoftoneideagoverningthewholeimpression.Inverymuchthesamewayyoumightrefertoasinglenoteinmusicasatone,andalsotothetoneofthewholeorchestra.Thewordvalues

alwaysreferstotherelationshipoftheindividualmassesortonesinourimaginedscalefromblacktowhite.Wesayapictureisoutofvalueoroutoftonewhensomeofthevaluesaredarkerorlighterthanoursenseofharmonyfeelstheyshouldbe,inthesamewayasweshouldsayaninstrumentinanorchestrawasoutoftoneortunewhenitwashigherorlowerthanoursenseofharmonyallowed.Toneissointimatelyassociatedwiththecolourofapicturethatitisalittledifficulttotreatofitapart,anditisoftenusedinasensetoincludecolourinspeakingofthegeneraltone.Wesayithasawarmtoneoracoldtone.

Thereisaparticularrhythmicbeautyaboutawell-orderedarrangementoftonevaluesthatisaveryimportantpartofpictorialdesign.Thismusicoftonehasbeenpresentinartinarudimentarywaysincetheearliesttime,buthasrecentlyreceivedamuchgreateramountofattention,andmuchnewlightonthesubjecthasbeengivenbytheimpressionistmovementandthestudyoftheartofChinaandJapan,whichisnearlyalwaysverybeautifulinthisrespect.

#Thisqualityoftonemusicismostdominantwhenthemassesarelargeandsimple#,whenthecontemplationofthemisnotdisturbedbymuchvariety,andtheyhavelittlevariationoftextureandgradation.Aslightmistwilloftenimprovethetoneofalandscapeforthisreason.Itsimplifiesthetones,massesthemtogether,obliteratingmanysmallervarieties.Ihaveevenheardofthetoneofapicturebeingimprovedbysuchamistscrambledorglazedoverit.

[Illustration:PlateXLIII.

MONTESOLAROCAPRI

Studyonbrownpaperincharcoalandwhitechalk.]

Thepowderonalady'sface,whennotover-done,isanimprovementforthesamereason.Itsimplifiesthetonesbydestroyingthedistressing

shininglightsthatwerecuttingupthemasses;anditalsodestroysalargeamountofhalftone,broadeningthelightsalmostuptothecommencementoftheshadows.

#Tonerelationshipsaremostsympatheticwhenthemiddlevaluesofyourscaleonlyareused,thatistosay,whenthelightsarelowintoneandthedarkshigh.#

#Theyaremostdramaticandintensewhenthecontrastsaregreatandthejumpsfromdarktolightsudden.#

Thesympatheticcharmofhalf-lighteffectsisduelargelytothetonesbeingofthismiddlerangeonly;whereasthestrikingdramaticeffectof

astormclearing,inwhichyoumaygetalandscapebrilliantlylitbythesuddenappearanceofthesun,seenagainstthedarkcloudsoftheretreatingstorm,owesmuchofitsdramaticqualitytocontrast.Thestrongcontrastsoftonevaluescoupledwiththestrongcolourcontrastbetweenthewarmsunlitlandandthecoldangryblueofthestorm,givessuchascenemuchdramaticeffectandpower.

Thesubjectofvalueswillbefurthertreatedindealingwithunityoftone.

[Sidenote:VarietyinQualityandTexture]

Varietyinqualityandnatureisalmosttoosubtletowriteaboutwith

anyprospectofbeingunderstood.Theplayofdifferentqualitiesandtexturesinthemassesthatgotoformapicturemustbeappreciatedatfirsthand,andlittlecanbewrittenaboutit.Oilpaintiscapableofalmostunlimitedvarietyinthisway.Butitisbettertoleavethestudyofsuchqualitiesuntilyouhavemasteredthemediuminitsmoresimpleaspects.

Theparticulartonemusicofwhichwewerespeakingisnothelpedbyanygreatuseofthisvariety.Aonenessofqualitythroughouttheworkisbestsuitedtoexhibitit.Mastersoftone,likeWhistler,preservethis

onenessofqualityverycarefullyintheirwork,relyingchieflyonthegrainofaroughcanvastogivethenecessaryvarietyandpreventadeadnessinthequalityofthetones.

Butwhenmoreforceandbrilliancyarewanted,someuseofyourpaintinacrumbling,brokenmannerisnecessary,asitcatchesmorelight,thusincreasingtheforceoftheimpression.ClaudeMonetandhisfollowersintheirsearchforbrilliancyusedthisqualitythroughoutmanyoftheirpaintings,withnewandstrikingresults.Butitisatthesacrificeofmanybeautifulqualitiesofform,asthisroughnessofsurfacedoesnotlenditselfreadilytoanyfinesseofmodelling.InthecaseofClaudeMonet'swork,however,thisdoesnotmatter,asformwithallitssubtletiesisnotathinghemadeanyattemptatexploiting.Natureissufficientlyvastforbeautifulworktobedoneinseparatedepartmentsofvision,althoughonecannotplacesuchworkonthesameplanewithsuccessfulpicturesofwiderscope.Andtheparticularvisualbeautyofsparklinglightandatmosphere,ofwhichhewasoneofthefirsttomakeaseparatestudy,couldhardlyexistinaworkthataimedalsoatthesignificanceofbeautifulform,theappealofform,aswasexplainedinanearlierchapter,notbeingentirelyduetoavisualbuttoamentalperception,intowhichthesenseoftouchentersbyassociation.Thescintillationandglitteroflightdestroysthistouchidea,whichisbetterpreservedinquieterlightings.

Thereisanotherpointinconnectionwiththeuseofthickpaint,thatIdon'tthinkissufficientlywellknown,andthatis,itsgreaterreadinesstobediscolouredbytheoilinitscompositioncomingtothesurface.FifteenyearsagoIdidwhatitwouldbeadvisableforeverystudenttodoassoonaspossible,namely,makeachartofthecoloursheislikelytouse.Getagoodwhitecanvas,andsetuponitincolumnsthedifferentcolours,verymuchasyouwoulddoonyourpalette,writingthenamesininkbesidethem.Thentakeapalette-knife,anivoryonebypreference,anddragitfromtheindividualmassesofpaintsoastogetagradationofdifferentthicknesses,fromthethinnestpossiblelayerwhereyourknifeendstothethickmasswhereitwassqueezedoutofthetube.Itisalsoadvisabletohavepreviouslyruledsomepencillineswithahardpointdownthecanvasinsuchamanner

thatthestripsofpaintwillcrossthelines.Thischartwillbeofthegreatestvaluetoyouinnotingtheeffectoftimeonpaint.Tomakeitmorecomplete,thecoloursofseveralmakersshouldbeputdown,andatanyratethewhitesofseveraldifferentmakesshouldbeonit.Aswhiteenterssolargelyintoyourpaintingitishighlynecessarytouseonethatdoesnotchange.

ThetwothingsthatIhavenoticedarethatthethinendsofthestripsofwhitehaveinvariablykeptwhiterthanthethickend,andthatallthepaintshavebecomealittlemoretransparentwithtime.Thepencillinesherecomeinuseful,astheycanbeseenthroughthethinnerportion,andshowtowhatextentthistransparencyhasoccurred.ButthepointIwishtoemphasiseisthatatthethickendthelargerbody

ofoilinthepaint,whichalwayscomestothesurfaceasitdries,hasdarkenedandyellowedthesurfacegreatly;whilethesmallamountofoilatthethinendhasnotdarkenedittoanyextent.

ClaudeMonetevidentlyknewthis,andgotoverthedifficultybypaintingonanabsorbentcanvas,whichsucksthesurplusoiloutfrombelowandthuspreventsitscomingtothesurfaceanddiscolouringtheworkintime.Whenthisthickmannerofpaintingisadopted,anabsorbentcanvasshouldalwaysbeused.Italsohastheadvantageofgivingadulldrysurfaceofmorebrilliancythanashinyone.

Althoughnotsomuchaswithpainting,varietiesoftextureenterintodrawingsdonewithanyofthemediumsthatlendthemselvestomassdrawing;charcoal,contÃ©crayon,lithographicchalk,andevenredchalkandleadpencilarecapableofgivingavarietyoftextures,governedlargelybythesurfaceofthepaperused.Butthisismoretheprovinceofpaintingthanofdrawingproper,andcharcoal,whichismorepaintingthandrawing,istheonlymediuminwhichitcanbeusedwithmucheffect.

[Sidenote:VarietyofEdges.]

Thereisaverybeautifulrhythmicqualityintheplayfromsoftnesstosharpnessontheedgesofmasses.Amonotonoussharpnessofedgeishard,stern,andunsympathetic.Thisisausefulqualityattimes,particularlyindecorativework,wherethemoreintimatesympatheticqualitiesarenotsomuchwanted,andwheretheharderformsgobetterwiththearchitecturalsurroundingsofwhichyourpainteddecorationshouldformapart.Ontheotherhand,amonotonoussoftnessofedgeisveryweakandfeeble-looking,andtooentirelylackinginpowertobedesirable.Ifyoufindanysuccessfulworkdonewiththisqualityofedgeunrelievedbyanysharpnesses,itwilldependoncolour,andnotform,foranyqualitiesitmaypossess.

Someamountofsoftnessmakesforcharm,andisextremelypopular:"#Ido#likethatbecauseit'ssoniceandsoft"isaregularshow-dayremarkinthestudio,andisalwaysmeantasagreatcompliment,butisseldomtakenassuchbythesufferingpainter.Butabalanceofthesetwoqualitiesplayingaboutyourcontoursproducesthemostdelightfulresults,andtheartistisalwaysonthelookoutforsuchvariations.Heseldomletsasharpnessofedgerunfarwithoutlosingitoccasionally.Itmaybenecessaryforthehangofthecompositionthatsomeleadingedgesshouldbemuchinsistedon.Butevenhereamonotonoussharpnessistoodeadathing,andalthoughafirmnessofrunwillbeallowedtobefelt,subtlevariationswillbeintroducedtopreventdeadness.TheVenetiansfromGiorgione'stimeweregreatmastersofthismusicofedges.Thestructureoflinessurroundingthemasseson

whichtheircompositionsarebuiltwerefusedinthemostmysteriousanddelightfulway.Butalthoughmeltingintothesurroundingmass,theyarealwaysfirmandneversoftandfeeble.StudytheedgeinsuchagoodexampleoftheVenetianmannerasthe"BacchusandAriadne"attheNationalGallery,andnotewheretheyarehardandwherelost.

ThereisoneratherremarkablefacttobeobservedinthispictureandmanyVenetianworks,andthisisthatthe#mostaccentededgesarereservedforunessentialparts#,likethepieceofwhitedraperyonthelowerarmofthegirlwiththecymbals,andthelittlewhiteflowerontheboy'sheadinfront.Theedgesonthefleshareeverywherefusedandsoft,thedraperiesbeingmuchsharper.YoumaynoticethesamethinginmanypicturesofthelaterVenetianschools.Thegreatestaccentsonthe

edgesarerarelyinthehead,exceptitmaybeoccasionallyintheeyes.Buttheylovetogetsomestrongly-accentedfeature,suchasacrisply-paintedshirtcomingagainstthesoftmodellingoftheneck,tobalancethefusededgesintheflesh.IntheheadofPhilipIVinourNationalGallerytheonlyplacewhereVelazquezhasallowedhimselfanythinglikeasharpedgeisinthehighlightsonthechainhangingroundtheneck.Thesofteredgesoftheprincipalfeaturesinthesecompositionslendalargenessandmysterytotheseparts,andtorestorethebalance,sharpnessesareintroducedinnon-essentialaccessories.

InthefigurewiththewhitetunicfromVelazquez's"SurrenderofBreda,"herereproduced,notethewonderfulvarietyontheedgesofthewhitemassesofthecoatandthehorse'snose,andalsothatthesharpestaccentsarereservedforsuchnon-essentialsasthebowsonthetunicandtheloosehaironthehorse'sforehead.Velazquez'sedgesarewonderful,andcannotbetoocarefullystudied.Heworkedlargelyinflattonesorplanes;butthisrichnessandvarietyofhisedgeskeepshisworkfromlookingflatanddull,likethatofsomeofhisfollowers.Iamsorrytosaythisvarietydoesnotcomeoutsowellinthereproductiononpage194[TranscribersNote:PlateXLIV]asIcouldhavewished,thehalf-toneprocesshavingatendencytosharpenedgesrathermonotonously.

Thisqualityiseverywheretobefoundinnature.Ifyouregardanyscenepictorially,lookingatitasawholeandnotlettingyoureyefocusonindividualobjectswanderingfromonetoanotherwhilebeingbutdimlyconsciousofthewhole,butregardingitasabeautifulensemble;youwillfindthattheboundariesofthemassesarenothardcontinuousedgesbutplaycontinuallyalongtheircourse,heremeltingimperceptiblyintothesurroundingmass,andthereaccentuatedmoresharply.Evenalongcontinuousline,likethehorizonatsea,hassomeamountofthisplay,whichyoushouldalwaysbeonthelookoutfor.Butwhenthepartsonlyofnatureareregardedandeachisseparatelyfocussed,hardedgeswillbefoundtoexistalmosteverywhere,unless

thereisapositivemistenvelopingtheobjects.Andthisistheusualwayoflookingatthings.Butapicturethatisacatalogueofmanylittlepartsseparatelyfocussedwillnothangtogetherasonevisualimpression.

[Illustration:PlateXLIV.

PARTOFTHESURRENDEROFBREDA.BYVELAZQUEZ

Notethevariedquantityoftheedgeinwhitemassoftunic.(Thereproductiondoesnotunfortunatelyshowthisaswellastheoriginal.)

_PhotoAnderson_]

Innaturalisticworkthenecessityforpaintingtoonefocalimpressionisasgreatasthenecessityofpaintingintrueperspective.Whatperspectivehasdonefordrawing,theimpressionistsystemofpaintingtooneall-embracingfocushasdonefortone.Beforeperspectivewasintroduced,eachindividualobjectinapicturewasdrawnwithaseparatecentreofvisionfixedoneachobjectinturn.Whatperspectivedidwastoinsistthatallobjectsinapictureshouldbedrawninrelationtoonefixedcentreofvision.Andwhereasformerlyeachobjectwaspaintedtoahardfocus,whetheritwasintheforegroundorthedistance,impressionismteachesthatyoucannothavethefocusinapictureatthesametimeontheforegroundandthedistance.

Ofcoursetherearemanymannersofpaintingwithmoreprimitiveconventionsinwhichtheconsiderationoffocusdoesnotenter.Butinallpaintingthataimsatreproducingtheimpressionsdirectlyproducedinusbynaturalappearances,thisquestionoffocusanditsinfluenceonthequalityofyouredgesisofgreatimportance.

Somethingshouldbesaidabouttheserratededgesofmasses,likethoseoftreesseenagainstthesky.Theseareverydifficulttotreat,andalmosteverylandscapepainterhasadifferentformula.Thehard,fussy,cut-out,photographicappearanceoftreesmissesalltheirbeautyand

sublimity.

Therearethreeprincipaltypesoftreatmentthatmayserveasexamples.InthefirstplacetherearethetreesoftheearlyItalianpainters,threeexamplesofwhichareillustratedonpage197[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXIII].Athintreeisalwaysselected,andarhythmicpatternofleavesagainsttheskypainted.Thistreatmentofadarkpatternonalightgroundisveryusefulasacontrasttothesoftertonesofflesh.Butthetreatmentismoreoftenappliednowadaystoasprayoffoliageintheforeground,thepatternofwhichgivesaveryricheffect.ThepoplartreesinMillais'"ValeofRest"arepaintedinmuchthesamemannerasthatemployedbytheItalians,andareexceptionalamongmoderntreepaintings,thetreesbeingtreatedasapatternofleavesagainstthesky.MillaishasalsogotaraisedqualityofpaintinhisdarksverysimilartothatofBelliniandmanyearlypainters.

Giorgioneaddedanothertreetolandscapeart:therich,full,solidly-massedformsthatoccurinhis"ConcertChampÃªtre"oftheLouvre,reproducedonpage151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII].Inthispictureyoumayseebothtypesoftreatment.Therearethepatternsofleavesvarietyontheleftandthesolidly-massedtreatmentontheright.

[Illustration:DiagramXXIII.

EXAMPLESOFEARLYITALIANTREATMENTOFTREES

A.FrompicturesinOratoriodiS.Ansano."Iltrionfodell'Amore,"attributedtoBotticelli.

B.From"L'Annunziazione,"byBotticelli,Uffizi,Florence.

C.From"LaVergine,"byGiovanniBelliniintheAccademia,Venice.]

Corotinhislaterworkdevelopedatreatmentthathasbeenlargelyfollowedsince.Lookingattreeswithaverywidefocus,heignoredindividualleaves,andresolvedthemintomassesoftone,herelostand

herefoundmoresharplyagainstthesky.Thesubordinatemassesoffoliagewithinthesemainboundariesaretreatedinthesameway,resolvedintomassesofinfinitelyvaryingedges.Thisplay,thislost-and-foundnessathisedgesisoneofthegreatdistinguishingcharmsofCorot'strees.Whentheyhavebeenpaintedfromthismasspointofview,asuggestionofafewleaveshereandaboughtheremaybeindicated,comingsharplyagainstthesky,butyouwillfindthisbasisoftonemusic,thiscrescendoanddiminuendothroughoutallhislaterwork(seeillustration,page215[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXVI]).

Thesearethreeofthemoreextremetypesoftreestobemetwithinart,butthevariationsonthesetypesareverynumerous.Whatever

treatmentyouadopt,thetreemustbeconsideredasawhole,andsomerhythmicformrelatedtothislargeimpressionselected.Andthisappliestoallformswithserratededges:somelargeordermustbefoundtowhichthefussinessoftheedgesmustconform.

Thesubjectofedgesgenerallyisaveryimportantone,andonemuchmoreworriedoverbyamasterthanbytheaveragestudent.Itisinterestingtonotehowallthegreatpaintershavebegunwithahardmanner,withedgesoflittlevariety,fromwhichtheyhavegraduallydevelopedaloosermanner,learningtomasterthedifficultiesofdesign

thathardcontoursinsistonyourfacing,andonlywhenthisisthoroughlymasteredlettingthemselvesdevelopfreelythisplayontheedges,thislooserhandling.

Forunderthefreestpainting,ifitbegood,therewillbefoundabed-rockstructureofwell-constructedmassesandlines.Theymayneverbeinsistedon,buttheirsteadyinginfluencewillalwaysbefelt.Soerrinyourstudentworkonthesideofhardnessratherthanlooseness,ifyouwoulddisciplineyourselftodesignyourworkwell.Occasionallyonlyletyourselfgoatalooserhandling.

[Sidenote:VarietyofGradiation.]

Varietyofgradationwillnaturallybegovernedlargelybytheformandlightandshadeoftheobjectsinyourcomposition.Butwhilestudyingthegradationsoftonethatexpressformandgivethemodelling,youshouldneverneglecttokeepthemindfixedupontherelationthepartyouarepaintingbearstothewholepicture.Andnothingshouldbedonethatisoutofharmonywiththislargeconception.Itisoneofthemostdifficultthingstodecidetheamountofvarietyandemphasisallowableforthesmallerpartsofapicture,soastobringallinharmonywiththatonenessofimpressionthatshoulddominatethewhole;howmuchofyourscaleofvaluesitispermissibletouseforthemodellingofeachindividualpart.Inthebestworkthegreatesteconomyisexercisedin

thisrespect,sothatasmuchpowermaybekeptinreserveaspossible.Youhaveonlytheonescalefromblacktowhitetoworkwith,onlyoneoctavewithinthelimitsofwhichtocomposeyourtonesymphonies.Therearenohigherandloweroctavesasinmusictoextendyoureffect.Sobeverysparingwithyourtonevalueswhenmodellingthedifferentparts.

UNITYOFMASS

Whathasbeensaidaboutunityoflineappliesobviouslytotheoutlinesboundingthemasses,sothatweneednotsayanythingfurtheronthatsubject.Theparticularqualityofwhichsomethingshouldbesaid,istheunitythatisgiventoapicturebymeansofawell-arrangedandrhythmicallyconsideredschemeoftonevalues.

Themodificationsintherelativetonevaluesofobjectsseenunderdifferentaspectsoflightandatmosphereareinfiniteandevervarying;andthisisquiteaspecialstudyinitself.Natureisthegreatteacherhere,hertonearrangementsalwayspossessingunity.Howkindtotheeyeisherattempttocovertheuglinessofourgreattownsinanenvelopeofatmosphere,givingthemostwonderfultonesymphonies;thususing

man'sdesecrationofherairbysmoketocoveruphisotherdesecrationofhercountry-side,amanufacturingtown.Thisstudyofvaluesisadistinguishingfeatureofmodernart.

Butschemestakenfromnaturearenottheonlyharmoniousones.Theoldermasterswerecontentwithoneortwowell-triedarrangementsoftoneintheirpictures,whichwereoftennotatalltruetonaturalappearancesbutneverthelessharmonious.Thechiefinstanceofthisisthelow-tonedsky.Thepaintingoffleshhigherintonethantheskywasalmostuniversalatmanyperiodsofart,andinportraitsisstill

oftenseen.Yetitisonlyinstrongsunlightthatthisiseversoinnature,asyoucaneasilyseebyholdingyourhandupagainstaskybackground.Thepossibleexceptiontothisruleisadarkstorm-cloud,inwhichcaseyourhandwouldhavetobestronglylitbysomebrightlightinanotherpartoftheskytoappearlightagainstit.

Thishightoneoftheskyisaconsiderabledifficultywhenonewishestheinterestcentredonthefigures.Theeyeinstinctivelygoestothelightmassesinapicture,andifthesemassesaresky,thefigureslosesomeimportance.Thefashionofloweringitstonehasmuchtobesaidforitonthescoreoftheaddedinterestitgivestothefigures.Butitisapttobringaheavystuffylookintotheatmosphere,andisonlyreallyadmissibleinfranklyconventionaltreatment,inwhichonehasnotbeenledtoexpectimplicittruthtonaturaleffect.Iftruthtonaturalappearancesiscarriedfarinthefigures,thesametruthwillbeexpectedinthebackground;butifonlycertaintruthsareselectedinthefigures,andthetreatmentdoesnotapproachthenaturalistic,muchmorelibertycanbetakenwiththebackgroundwithoutlossofverisimilitude.

Butthereisaunityaboutnature'stonearrangementsthatitisverydifficulttoimproveupon;anditisusuallyadvisable,ifyoucan,tobasetheschemeoftoneinyourpictureonagoodstudyofvaluesfromnature.

Sucheffectsastwilight,moonlight,orevensunlightwereseldomattemptedbytheolderpainters,atanyrateintheirfiguresubjects.Allthelovelytonearrangementsthatnaturepresentsinthesemoreunusualaspectsareanewstudy,andofferunlimitednewmaterialtotheartist.Manyartistsarecontenttousethissimplyforitself,thebeautyofararetoneeffectbeingsufficientwiththesimplestaccessoriestomakeapicture.Butinfigurecomposition,whatnewandwonderfulthingscanbeimaginedinwhichsomerareaspectofnature'stone-musiciscombinedwithafinefiguredesign.

Thesevaluesarenoteasilyperceivedwithaccuracy,althoughtheirinfluencemaybefeltbymany.Atrueeyefortheaccurateperceptionof

subtletonearrangementsisathingyoushouldstudyverydiligentlytoacquire.Howthenisthistobedone?Itisverydifficult,ifnotimpossible,toteachanybodytosee.Littlemorecanbesaidthanhasalreadybeenwrittenaboutthissubjectinthechapteronvarietyinmass.Everymasshastobeconsideredinrelationtoanimaginedtonescale,takingblackforyourdarkestandwhiteforyourhighestlightaswehaveseen.Ablackglass,byreducingthelight,enablesyoutoobservetheserelationshipsmoreaccurately;thedazzlingqualityofstronglightmakingitdifficulttojudgethem.Butthisshouldonlybeusedtocorrectone'seye,andthecomparisonshouldbemadebetweennatureseenintheglassandyourworkseenalsointheglass.Tolookinablackglassandthencomparewhatyousawwithyourworklookedatdirectisnotafaircomparison,andwillresultinlow-tonedworkwith

littlebrilliancy.

Now,torepresentthisscaleoftonesinpaintingwehavewhitepaintasourhighestandblackpaintasourlowestnotes.Itisneveradvisabletoplayeitheroftheseextremes,althoughyoumaygoveryneartothem.Thatistosay,thereshouldneverbepurewhiteorpureblackmassesinapicture.Thereisakindofscreaminesssetupwhenonegoesthewholegamutoftone,thatgivesalookofunrestraintandweakness;somewhatlikethefeelingexperiencedwhenavocalistsingshisorherveryhighestorverylowestnote.Inagoodsingeronealwaysfeelshe

couldhavegonestillhigherorstilllower,asthecasemaybe,andthisgivesanaddedpowertotheimpressionofhissinging.Andinart,likewise,itisalwaysadvisabletokeepsomethingofthisreservepower.Also,thehighestlightsinnatureareneverwithoutcolour,andthiswilllowerthetone;neitherarethedeepestdarkscolourless,andthiswillraisetheirtone.Butperhapsthisisdogmatising,anditmaybethatbeautifulworkistobedonewithalltheextremesyoucan"clapon,"thoughIthinkitveryunlikely.

Inallthequieteraspectsoflightingthisrangefromblacktowhitepaintissufficient.Butwherestrong,brilliantlyliteffectsarewanted,somethinghastobesacrificed,ifthislookofbrilliancyistobemadetelling.

Inordertoincreasetherelationshipbetweensomeofthetonesothersmustbesacrificed.Therearetwowaysofdoingthis.Thefirst,whichwasthemethodearliestadopted,istobeginfromthelightendofthescale,and,takingsomethingverynearpurewhiteasyourhighestlight,togettherelationshipsbetweenthisandthenextmostbrillianttone,andtoproceedthus,tonebytone,fromthelightesttothedarkest.Butworkinginthiswayyouwillfindthatyouarriveatthegreatestdarkyoucanmakeinpaintbeforeyouhavecompletedthescaleofrelationshipsasinnature,ifthesubjecthappenstobebrilliantlylit.Anothermethodistoputdownthehighestlightandthedarkest

dark,andthenworkyourscaleoftonerelativelybetweenthem.Butitwillbefoundthatworkinginthisway,unlessthesubjectinnatureisveryquietlylit,youwillnotgetanythingliketheforcefulimpressionoftonethatnaturegives.

Thethirdway,andthisisthemoremodern,istobeginfromthedarkendofthescale,gettingthetruerelationshipfeltbetweenthegreatestdarkandthenextdarkesttonetoit,andsoon,proceedingtowardsthelight.Bythismethodyouwillarriveatyourhighestlightinpaintbeforethehighestlightinnaturehasbeenreached.Allvarietyoftoneatthelightendofthescalewillhavetobemodifiedinthiscase,insteadofatthedarkendasintheothercase.Inthepaintingofsunlightthelattermethodismuchthemoreeffective,a

lookofgreatbrilliancyandlightbeingproduced,whereasintheearliermethod,thescalebeingcommencedfromthelightend,somuchofthepicturewasdarkthattheimpressionoflightandairwaslostandadarkgloomylandtookitsplace,agloomaccentuatedratherthandispelledbythestreaksofluridlightwherethesunstruck.

Rembrandtisanexampleofbeginningthetonerelationshipsfromthelightsideofthescale,andalargepartofhiscanvasisinconsequencealwaysdark.

BastienLepageisanexampleofthesecondmethod,thatoffixingupontwoextremesandworking-relativelybetweenthem.Anditwillbenoticedthatheconfinedhimselfchieflytoquietgreydayeffectsoflighting,

therenderingofwhichwaswellwithintherangeofhispalette.Themethodofbeginningfromthedarkside,gettingthetruerelationsoftonesonthissideofthescale,andlettingthelightstakecareofthemselves,wasperhapsfirstusedbyTurner.Butitislargelyusednowwheneverastrongimpressionoflightisdesired.Thelightmassesinsteadofthedarkmassesdominatethepictures,whichhavegreatbrilliancy.

Thesetonevaluesareonlytobeperceivedintheirtruerelationshipbytheeyecontemplatingawidefieldofvision.Withtheordinaryhabitof

lookingonlyatindividualpartsofnature,thegeneralimpressionbeingbutdimlyfelt,theyarenotobserved.Theartisthastoacquirethehabitofgeneralisinghisvisualattentionoverawidefieldifhewouldperceivethetruerelationofthepartstothisscaleofvalues.Halfclosingtheeyes,whichistheusualmethodofdoingthis,destroystheperceptionofagreatdealofcolour.Anothermethodofthrowingtheeyesoutoffocusandenablingonetojudgeoflargerelationships,istodilatethemwidely.Thisratherincreasesthandiminishesthecolour,butisnotsosafeamethodofjudgingsubtletonerelationships.

Itiseasierinapproachingthisstudyoutofdoorstobeginwithquieteffectsoflight.Someofthosesoftgreydaysinthiscountryareverybeautifulintone,andchangesolittlethatcarefulstudiescanbemade.Andwithindoorwork,placeyoursubjectratherawayfromthedirectlightandavoidmuchlightandshade;letthelightcomefrombehindyou.

Ifverystronglighteffects,suchassunlight,oradarkinteriorlitbyonebrilliantwindow,areattempted,thevalueswillbefoundtobemuchsimplerandmoreharsh,oftenresolvingthemselvesintotwomasses,abrilliantlightcontrastedwithadarkshadow.Thistonearrangementofstronglightincontrastwithdarkshadowwasafavouriteformulawithmanyschoolsofthepast,sinceLeonardodaVincifirstusedit.Greatbreadthandsplendourisgivenbyittodesign,anditis

oneofthemostimpressiveoftonearrangements.LeonardodaVinci's"OurLadyoftheRocks,"intheNationalGallery,isanearlyexampleofthistreatment.AndCorreggio's"Venus,Mercury,andCupid,"herereproduced,isanotherparticularlyfineexample.Reynoldsandmanyoftheeighteenth-centurymenusedthisschemeintheirworkalmostentirely.Thisstronglightandshade,byeliminatingtoalargeextentthehalftones,helpstopreserveinhighlycompleteworkasimplicityanddirectnessofstatementthatisverypowerful.Forcertainimpressionsitprobablywillneverbebettered,butitisaverywell-wornconvention.Manetamongthemodernshasgivennewlifetothisformula,althoughhedidnotderivehisinspirationdirectlyfromCorreggiobutthroughtheSpanishschool.Byworkinginastrong,ratherglaring,directlight,heeliminatedstillfurtherthehalftones,and

gotridtoagreatextentoflightandshade.Comingatatimewhentherealisticandplainairmovementsweredestroyingsimpledirectness,hisworkwasofgreatvalue,bringingback,asitdidwithitsinsistenceonlarge,simplemasses,asenseoffrankdesign.Hisinfluencehasbeenverygreatinrecentyears,asartistshavefeltthatitofferedanewformulafordesignandcolour.Lightandshadeandhalftonearethegreatenemiesofcolour,sullying,astheydo,itspurity;andtosomeextenttodesignalso,destroying,astheydo,theflatnessofthepicture.Butwiththestrongdirectlight,themassesarecutoutassimplyaspossible,andtheircolourislittlesulliedbylightandshade.ThepictureofManet'sreproducedisatypicalexampleofhismanner.Theaggressiveshapeofthepatternmadebythelightmassagainstthedarkbackgroundistypicalofhisrevolutionaryattitude

towardsallacceptedcanonsofbeauty.Butevenhereitisinterestingtonotethatmanyprinciplesofcompositionareconformedto.Thedesignisunitedtoitsboundariesbythehorizontallineofthecouchandtheverticallineofthescreenattheback,whilethewholeswinghangsonthediagonalfromtopleft-handcornertoright;lowercorner,towhichthestronglymarkededgeofthebed-clothesandpillowatthebottomofthepictureisparallel.

[Illustration:PlateXLV.

CORREGGIO.VENUS.MERCURY,ANDCUPID(NATIONALGALLERY)

Afineexampleofoneofthemosteffectivetonearrangements;abrilliantly-lit,richly-modelledlightmassonadarkbackground.

_PhotoHanfstaengl_]

Largeflattonesgiveapowerandsimplicitytoadesign,andalargenessandbreadthofexpressionthatareveryvaluable,besidesshowingupeverylittlevarietyinthevaluesusedforyourmodelling;andthusenablingyoutomodelwiththeleastexpenditureoftones.Whateverrichnessofvariationyoumayultimatelydesiretoaddtoyourvalues,seetoitthatinplanningyourpictureyougetagoodbasicstructureofsimplydesigned,andasfaraspossibleflat,tones.

Inspeakingofvarietyinmasswesawhowthe#nearerthesetonesareinthescaleofvalues,themorereservedandquiettheimpressioncreated#,andthe#furtherapartorgreaterthecontrast,themoredramaticandintensetheeffect#.Andthesentimentoftoneinapicture,likethesentimentoflineandcolour,shouldbeinharmonywiththenatureofyoursubject.

Generallyspeaking#morevarietyoftoneandshapeinthemassesofyourcompositionispermissiblewhenasmallerrangeofvaluesisused

thanwhenyoursubjectdemandsstrongcontrasts#.Whenstrongcontrastsoftoneorwhatarecalledblackandwhiteeffectsaredesired,themassesmustbeverysimplydesigned.Werethisnotso,andwerethecompositionpatternedalloverwithsmallermassesinstrongcontrast,thebreadthandunityoftheeffectwouldbelost.Whilewhenthedifferenceofrelativevaluesbetweenonetoneandanotherisslight,theonenessofeffectisnotsomuchinterferedwithbytherebeingalargenumberofthem.Effectsofstrongcontrastsarethereforefarthemostdifficulttomanage,asitisnoteasytoreduceacompositionofanycomplexitytoasimpleexpressivepatternoflargemasses.

Thisprincipleappliesalsointhematterofcolour.Greatercontrastsandvarietyofcolourmaybeindulgedinwherethemiddlerangeonlyof

tonesisused,andwherethereislittletonecontrast,thanwherethereisgreatcontrast.Inotherwords,youcannotwithmuchhopeofsuccesshavestrongcontrastsofcolourandstrongcontrastsoftoneinthesamepicture:itistooviolent.

Ifyouhavestrongcontrastsofcolour,thecontrastsoftonebetweenthemmustbesmall.TheJapaneseandChineseoftenmakethemostsuccessfuluseofviolentcontrastsofcolourbybeingcarefulthattheyshallbeofthesametonevalue.

Andagain,whereyouhavestrongcontrastsoftone,suchasRembrandtwasfondof,youcannotsuccessfullyhavestrongcontrastsofcolouraswell.Reynolds,whowasfondbothofcolourandstrongtonecontrast,

hadtocompromise,ashetellsusinhislectures,bymakingtheshadowsallthesamebrowncolour,tokeepaharmonyinhiswork.

[Illustration:PlateXLVI.

OLYMPIA.MANET(Louvre)

AfurtherdevelopmentofthecompositionformulaillustratedbyCorreggio's"Venus".Addedforceisgivenbylightingwithlowdirectlighteliminationhalf-tones.

_PhotoNeurdein_]

Thereissomeanalogybetweenstraightlinesandflattones,andcurvedlinesandgradatedtones.Andagreatdealthatwassaidabouttherhythmicsignificanceoftheselineswillapplyequallywellhere.Whatwassaidaboutlongverticalandhorizontallinesconveyingalookofreposeandtouchingtheseriousemotionalnotes,canbesaidoflargeflattones.Thefeelingofinfinitysuggestedbyawideblueskywithoutacloud,seenaboveawidebareplain,isanobviousinstanceofthis.Andforthesameharmoniccause,acalmeveninghassopeacefulandinfiniteanexpression.Thewaninglightdarkensthelandandincreasesthecontrastbetweenitandthesky,withtheresultthatallthelandscapetowardsthewestisreducedtopracticallyonedarktone,cuttingsharplyagainstthewidelightofthesky.

Andthegracefulcharmofcurvedlinesswinginginharmoniousrhythmthroughacompositionhasitsanalogyingradatedtones.WatteauandGainsborough,thosemastersofcharm,knewthis,andintheirmostalluringcompositionsthetone-musicisfoundedonaprincipleoftone-gradations,swingingandinterlacingwitheachotherinharmoniousrhythmthroughoutthecomposition.Large,flattones,withtheirmorethoughtfulassociationsareoutofplacehere,andareseldomifeverused.Intheirworkweseeaworldwherethesaddeninginfluencesof

profoundthoughtanditsexpressionarefaraway.Nodeepernotesareallowedtomarthegaietyofthisholidayworld.Watteaucreatedadreamcountryofhisown,inwhichatiredhumanityhasdelightedeversince,inwhichallseriousthoughtsarefarawayandthemindtakesrefreshmentinthecontemplationofdelightfulthings.Andagreatdealofthischarmisduetotheprettyplayfromacrescendotoadiminuendointhetonevaluesonwhichhiscompositionsarebased--sofarremovedfromthesimplestructureofflatmassestowhichmoreprimitiveandaustereartowesitspower.

[Illustration:DiagramXXIV.

SHOWINGTHEPRINCIPLEONWHICHTHEMASSORTONERHYTHMOFTHE

COMPOSITIONREPRODUCEDONTHEOPPOSITEPAGEISARRANGED]

[Illustration:PlateXLVII.

L'EMBARQUEMENTPOURCYTHÃRE.WATTEAU(LOUVRE)

Atypicalexampleofcompositionfoundedongradatedtones.(Seeanalysisonoppositepage.)

_PhotoHanfstaengl_]

ButWatteau'sgreataccomplishmentwasindoingthiswithoutdegeneratingintofeebleprettiness,andthishedidbyaninsistenceon

characterinhisfigures,particularlyhismen.Hisdraperiesalsoarealwaysbeautifullydrawnandfullofvariety,neverfeebleandcharacterless.Thelandscapebackgroundsaremuchmorelackinginthisrespect,nothingeverhappenedthere,nostormshaveeverbenthisgracefultree-trunks,andtheincessantgradationsmighteasilybecomewearisome.Butpossiblythecharminwhichwedelightwouldbelost,didthelandscapepossessmorecharacter.Atanyratethereisenoughinthefigurestopreventanysicklyprettiness,althoughIthinkifyouremovedthefiguresthelandscapewouldnotbetolerable.

ButthefollowersofWatteauseizedupontheprettinessandgraduallygotoutoftouchwiththecharacter,andifyoucompareBoucher'sheads,particularlyhismen'sheads,withWatteau'syoumayseehowmuchhasbeenlost.

Thefollowingarethreeexamplesofthisgradatedtonecomposition(seepages210[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXIV],213[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXV],215[TranscribersNote:DiagramXXVI]):

Watteau:"EmbarquementpourL'ÃledeCythÃ¨re."

ThisisatypicalWatteaucomposition,foundedonarhythmicplayofgradatedtonesandgradatededges.Flattonesandhardedgesareavoided.Beginningatthecentreofthetopwithastronglyaccentednoteofcontrast,thedarktoneofthemassoftreesgradatesintothegroundandonpastthelowerright-handcorneracrossthefrontofthepicture,until,whennearingthelowerleft-handcorner,itreversestheprocessandfromdarktolightbeginsgradatinglighttodark,endingsomewhatsharplyagainsttheskyintherockformtotheleft.Therichplayoftonethatisintroducedinthetreesandground,&c.,blindsoneatfirsttotheperceptionofthislargertonemotive,butwithoutittherichvarietywouldnotholdtogether.Roughlyspeakingthewholeofthisdarkframeoftonesfromtheaccentedpointofthetreesatthetoptothemassoftherockontheleft,maybesaidtogradateawayinto

thedistance;cutintobythewedge-shapedmiddletoneofthehillsleadingtothehorizon.

Breakingacrossthisisagracefullineoffigures,beginningontheleftwherethemassofrockisbrokenbythelittleflightofcupids,andcontinuingacrossthepictureuntilitisbroughtupsharplybythelightfigureunderthetreesontheright.Notetheprettyclatterofspotsthislineoffiguresbringsacrossthepicture,introducinglightspotsintothedarkermasses,endingupwiththestronglyaccentedlightspotofthefigureontheright;anddarkspotsintothelightermasses,endingupwiththefiguresofthecupidsdarkagainstthesky.

Steadyinginfluencesinallthisfluxoftoneareintroducedbythe

verticalaccentofthetree-stemandstatueinthedarkmassontheright,bythehorizontallineofthedistanceontheleft,theoutlineofthegroundinthefront,andthestraightstaffsheldbysomeofthefigures.

InthecharcoalscribbleillustratingthiscompositionIhavetriedcarefullytoavoidanydrawinginthefiguresortreestoshowhowthetone-musicdependsnotsomuchontruthtonaturalappearancesasontheabstractarrangementoftonevaluesandtheirrhythmicplay.

[Illustration:DiagramXXV.

SHOWINGTHEPRINCIPLEONWHICHTHEMASSORTONERHYTHMISARRANGEDIN

TURNER'SPICTUREINTHENATIONALGALLERYOFBRITISHART,"ULYSSESDERIDINGPOLYPHEMUS"]

Ofcoursenaturecontainseveryconceivablevarietyoftone-music,butitisnottobefoundbyunintelligentcopyingexceptinrareaccidents.Emersonsays,"Althoughyousearchthewholeworldforthebeautifulyou'llnotfinditunlessyoutakeitwithyou,"andthisistruetoagreaterextentofrhythmictonearrangements.

Turner:"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus."

Turnerwasveryfondofthesegradatedtonecompositions,andcarriedthemtoalyricalheighttowhichtheyhadneverbeforeattained.His"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus,"intheNationalGalleryofBritishArt,isasplendidexampleofhisuseofthisprinciple.Agreatunityofexpressionisgivenbybringingthegreatestdarkandlighttogetherinsharpcontrast,asisdoneinthispicturebythedarkrocksandships'prowscomingagainsttherisingsun.Fromthispointthedarkandlightmassesgradateindifferentdirectionsuntiltheymergeabovetheships'sails.Thesesailscutsharplyintothedarkmassastherocksandshipontheextremerightcutsharplyintothelightmass.Notealsotheedgeswheretheyareaccentedandcomesharplyagainsttheneighbouringmass,andwheretheyarelost,andthepleasingqualitythisplayofedgesgives.

Stabilityisgivenbythelineofthehorizonandwavesinfront,andthemastsoftheships,theoars,and,intheoriginalpicture,afeelingofradiatinglinesfromtherisingsun.Withoutthesesteadyinginfluencesthesecompositionsofgradatedmasseswouldbesicklyandweak.

Corot:2470CollectionChauchard,Louvre.

ThisisatypicalexampleofCorot'stonescheme,andlittleneedbe

addedtothedescriptionalreadygiven.Infiniteplayisgotwiththesimplestmeans.Adarksilhouettedmassisseenagainstalightsky,theperfectbalanceoftheshapesandtheinfiniteplayoflost-and-foundnessintheedgesgivingtothissimplestructurearichnessandbeautyeffectthatisverysatisfying.NotehowCorot,likeTurner,bringshisgreatestlightanddarktogetherinsharpcontrastwheretherockontherightcutsthesky.

[Illustration:DiagramXXVI.

TYPICALEXAMPLEOFCOROT'SSYSTEMOFMASSRHYTHM,AFTERTHEPICTUREINTHELOUVRE,PARIS]

Stabilityisgivenbytheverticalfeelinginthecentralgroupoftreesandthesuggestionofhorizontaldistancebehindthefigure.

Itisnotonlyinthelargerdispositionofthemassesinacompositionthatthisprincipleofgradatedmassesandlostandfoundedgescanbeused.Wherevergraceandcharmareyourmotivetheyshouldbelookedforintheworkingoutofthesmallestdetails.

InconcludingthischapterImustagaininsistthatknowledgeofthesematterswillnotmakeyoucomposeagoodpicture.Acompositionmaybeperfectasfarasanyrulesorprinciplesofcompositiongo,andyetbe

ofnoaccountwhatever.Thelife-givingqualityinartalwaysdefiesanalysisandrefusestobetabulatedinanyformula.Thisvitalqualityindrawingandcompositionmustcomefromtheindividualartisthimself,andnobodycanhelphimmuchhere.Hemusteverbeonthelookoutforthosevisionshisimaginationstirswithinhim,andendeavour,howeverhaltinglyatfirst,togivethemsomesincereexpression.Tryalwayswhenyourmindisfilledwithsomepictorialideatogetsomethingputdown,amerefumbledexpressionpossibly,butitmaycontainthegerm.Lateronthesameideamayoccurtoyouagain,onlyitwillbelessvaguethistime,andaprocessofdevelopmentwillhavetakenplace.It

maybeyearsbeforeittakessufficientlydefiniteshapetojustifyapicture;theprocessofgerminationinthemindisaslowone.Buttryandacquirethehabitofmakingsomerecordofwhatpictorialideaspassinthemind,anddon'twaituntilyoucandrawandpaintwelltobegin.Qualitiesofdrawingandpaintingdon'tmatterabithere,itisthesensation,thefeelingforthepicture,thatiseverything.

Ifknowledgeoftherhythmicpropertiesoflinesandmasseswillnotenableyoutocomposeafinepicture,youmaywellaskwhatistheiruse?Theremaybethosetowhomtheyareofnouse.Theirartisticinstinctsaresufficientlystrongtoneednodirection.Butsuchnaturesarerare,anditisdoubtfuliftheyevergofar,whilemanyapaintermightbesavedalotofworryoversomethinginhispicturethat"won'tcome"didhebutknowmoreoftheprincipleofpictorialdesignhisworkistransgressing.Ifeelcertainthattheoldpainters,liketheVenetians,werefarmoresystematicandhadfarmorehardandfastprinciplesofdesignthanourselves.Theyknewthescienceoftheircraftsowellthattheydidnotsooftenhavetocallupontheirartisticinstincttogetthemoutofdifficulties.Theirartisticinstinctwasfreetoattendtohigherthings,theirknowledgeofthescienceofpicture-makingkeepingthemfrommanypettymistakesthatamodernartistfallsinto.Thedesireofsomanyartistsinthesedaystocutloosefromtraditionandstartalloveragainputsaveryseverestrainupontheirintuitivefaculties,andkeepsthemoccupied

correctingthingsthatmoreknowledgeofsomeofthefundamentalprinciplesthatdon'treallyalterandthatarethesameinallschoolswouldhavesavedthem.Knowledgeinartislikearailwaybuiltbehindthepioneerswhohavegonebefore;itoffersapointofdepartureforthosewhocomeafter,furtheronintotheunknowncountryofnature'ssecrets--ahelpnotlightlytobediscarded.

Butallartificeinartmustbeconcealed,#apictureobviouslycomposedisbadlycomposed#.Inagoodcompositionitisasthoughthepartshadbeencarefullyplacedinrhythmicrelationandthenthepicturejarredalittle,sothateverythingisslightlyshiftedoutofplace,thusintroducingour"dither"orplayoflifebetweentheparts.Ofcoursenomechanicaljoggingwillintroducethevitalqualityreferredto,which

mustcomefromthevitalityoftheartist'sintuition;althoughIhaveheardofphotographersjoggingthecamerainanendeavourtointroducesomeartistic"play"initsmechanicalrenderings.Butonemustsaysomethingtoshowhowinallgoodcompositionthemechanicalprinciplesatthebasisofthematteraresubordinatetoavitalprincipleonwhichthelifeintheworkdepends.

Thisconcealmentofallartifice,thisartlessnessandspontaneityofappearance,isoneofthegreatestqualitiesinacomposition,anyanalysisofwhichisfutile.Itiswhatoccasionallygivestotheworkoftheunletteredgeniussogreatacharm.Buttheartistinwhomthetruesparkhasnotbeenquenchedbyworldlysuccessorotherenervatinginfluence,keepsthesecretofthisfreshnessrighton,thecultureof

hisstudentdaysbeingusedonlytogiveitsplendourofexpression,butnevertostifleorsuppressitsnativecharm.

BALANCE

Thereseemstobeastrifebetweenopposingforcesatthebasisofallthings,astrifeinwhichaperfectbalanceisneverattained,orlifewouldcease.Theworldsarekeptontheircoursesbysuchopposingforces,theperfectequilibriumneverbeingfound,andsothevitalisingmovementiskeptup.Statesareheldtogetheronthesameprinciple,noStateseemingabletopreserveabalanceforlong;newforcesarise,thebalanceisupset,andtheStatetottersuntilanewequilibriumhasbeenfound.Itwouldseem,however,tobetheaimoflifetostriveafterbalance,anyviolentdeviationfromwhichisaccompaniedbycalamity.

Andinartwehavethesameplayofopposingfactors,straightlinesandcurves,lightanddark,warmandcoldcolouropposeeachother.Werethebalancebetweenthemperfect,theresultwouldbedullanddead.Butifthebalanceisverymuchout,theeyeisdisturbedandtheeffecttoodisquieting.Itwillnaturallybeinpicturesthataimatreposethatthisbalancewillbemostperfect.Inmoreexcitingsubjectslesswillbenecessary,butsomeamountshouldexistineverypicture,nomatterhowturbulentitsmotive;asingoodtragedythehorrorofthesituationisneverallowedtooverbalancethebeautyofthetreatment.

[Sidenote:BetweenStraightLinesandCurves]

Letusconsiderinthefirstplacethebalancebetweenstraightlines

andcurves.Thericherandfullerthecurves,themoresevereshouldbethestraightlinesthatbalancethem,ifperfectreposeisdesired.Butifthesubjectdemandsexcessofmovementandlife,ofcoursetherewillbelessnecessityforthebalancinginfluenceofstraightlines.Andontheotherhand,ifthesubjectdemandsanexcessofreposeandcontemplation,thebiaswillbeonthesideofstraightlines.Butapicturecomposedentirelyofrich,rollingcurvesistoodisquietingathingtocontemplate,andwouldbecomeveryirritating.Ofthetwoextremes,onecomposedentirelyofstraightlineswouldbepreferabletoonewithnosquarenesstorelievetherichnessofthecurves.Forstraightlinesaresignificantofthedeeperandmorepermanentthingsoflife,ofthepowersthatgovernandrestrain,andofinfinity;whiletherichcurves(thatis,curvesthefarthestremovedfromthestraight

line)seemtobeexpressiveofuncontrolledenergyandthemoreexuberantjoysoflife.Vicemaybeexcessinanydirection,butasceticismhasgenerallybeenacceptedasanoblervicethanvoluptuousness.Therococoartoftheeighteenthcenturyisaninstanceoftheexcessiveuseofcurvedforms,and,likeallexcessesinthejoysoflife,itisviciousandisthefavouritestyleofdecorationinvulgarplacesofentertainment.TheexcessiveuseofstraightlinesandsquareformsmaybeseeninsomeancientEgyptianarchitecture,butthisseveritywasoriginally,nodoubt,softenedbytheuseofcolour,andinanycaseitisnoblerandfinerthantheviciousclevernessofrococoart.

WehaveseenhowtheGreeksbalancedthestraightlinesoftheir

architecturalformswiththerichlinesofthesculpturewhichtheyusedsolavishlyontheirtemples.Butthebalancewasalwayskeptonthesideofthesquareformsandneveronthesideofundueroundness.Anditisonthissidethatthebalancewouldseemtobeinthefinestart.Eventhefinestcurvesarethosethatapproachthestraightlineratherthanthecircle,thaterronthesideofflatnessesratherthanroundnesses.

[Sidenote:BetweenFlatandGradatedTones]

Whathasbeensaidaboutthebalanceofstraightlinesandcurvesappliesequallywelltotones,ifforstraightlinesyousubstituteflattones,andforcurvedlinesgradatedtones.Thedeeper,morepermanentthingsfindexpressioninthewider,flattertones,whileanexcessofgradationsmakesforprettiness,ifnotforthegrossroundnessesofviciousmodelling.

Oftenwhenapictureishopelesslyoutofgearand"muckedup,"astheysayinthestudio,itcanbegotontherightroadagainbyreducingittoabasisofflattones,goingoveritandpaintingoutthegradations,gettingitbacktoasimplerequationfromwhichtherightroadtocompletioncanbemorereadilyseen.Overmuchconcernwiththegradationsofthesmallermodellingisaverycommonreasonofpicturesanddrawingsgettingoutofgear.Thelessexpenditureoftonevaluesyoucanexpressyourmodellingwith,thebetter,asageneralrule.Thebalanceinthefinestworkisusuallyonthesideofflattonesratherthanonthesideofgradatedtones.Workthaterrsonthesideofgradations,likethatofGreuze,howeverpopularitsappeal,ismuchpoorerstuffthanworkthaterrsonthesideofflatnessintone,likeGiottoandtheItalianprimitives,orPuvisdeChavannesamongthemoderns.

[Sidenote:BetweenLightandDarkTones.]

Thereisabalanceoftonesetupalsobetweenlightanddark,betweenblackandwhiteinthescaleoftone.Picturesthatdonotgofarinthedirectionoflight,startingfromamiddletone,shouldnotgofarinthedirectionofdarkeither.InthisrespectnotethepicturesofWhistler,agreatmasterinmattersoftone;hislightsseldomapproachanywherenearwhite,and,ontheotherhand,hisdarksneverapproachblackintone.Whenthehighestlightsarelowintone,thedarkestdarksshouldbehighintone.PainterslikeRembrandt,whosepictureswhenfreshmusthaveapproachedverynearwhiteinthehighlights,alsoapproachblackinthedarks,andnearerourowntime,FrankHollforcedthewhitesofhispicturesveryhighandcorrespondinglythedarkswereveryheavy.Andwhenthisbalanceiskeptthereisarightnessaboutitthatisinstinctivelyfelt.Wedonotmeanthatthe#amount#oflight

tonesinapictureshouldbebalancedbythe#amount#ofdarktones,butthatthereshouldbesomebalancebetweentheextremesoflightanddarkusedinthetoneschemeofapicture.Theoldrulewas,Ibelieve,thatapictureshouldbetwo-thirdslightandone-thirddark.ButIdonotthinkthereisanyruletobeobservedhere:therearetoomanyexceptions,andnomentionismadeofhalftones.

Likeallso-calledlawsinart,thisruleiscapableofmanyapparentexceptions.Thereisthewhitepictureinwhichallthetonesarehigh.Butinsomeofthemostsuccessfuloftheseyouwillgenerallyfindspotsofintenselydarkpigment.Turnerwasfondoftheselightpicturesinhislatermanner,butheusuallyputinsomedarkspot,suchastheblackgondolasinsomeofhisVenetianpictures,thatillustratethelaw

ofbalancewearespeakingof,andareusuallyputinexcessivelydarkinproportionastherestofthepictureisexcessivelylight.

Thesuccessfulone-tonepicturesaregenerallypaintedinthemiddletones,andthusdonotinanywaycontradictourprincipleofbalance.

[Sidenote:BetweenWarmandColdColours.]

Oneistemptedatthispointtowanderalittleintotheprovinceofcolour,wheretheprincipleofbalanceofwhichwearespeakingismuch

felt,thescaleherebeingbetweenwarmandcoldcolours.Ifyoudividethesolarspectrumroughlyintohalf,youwillhavethereds,oranges,andyellowsononeside,andthepurples,blues,andgreensontheother,theformerbeingroughlythewarmandthelatterthecoldcolours.Theclevermanipulationoftheoppositionbetweenthesewarmandcoldcoloursisoneofthechiefmeansusedingivingvitalitytocolouring.Butthepointtonoticehereisthatthefurtheryourcolouringgoesinthedirectionofwarmth,thefurtheritwillbenecessarytogointheoppositedirection,torightthebalance.ThatishowitcomesaboutthatpainterslikeTitian,wholovedawarm,glowing,goldencolouring,sooftenhadtoputamassofthecoldestblueintheirpictures.Gainsborough's"BlueBoy,"althoughdoneindefianceofReynolds'principle,isnocontradictionofourrule,foralthoughtheboyhasabluedressalltherestofthepictureiswarmbrownandsothebalanceiskept.Itisthefailuretoobservethisbalancethatmakessomanyofthered-coatedhuntsmenandsoldiers'portraitsinourexhibitionssoobjectionable.Theyaretoooftenpaintedonadark,hot,burntsiennaandblackbackground,withnothingbutwarmcoloursintheflesh,&c.,withtheresultthatthescreamingheatisintolerable.Withahotmassofredlikeahuntsman'scoatinyourpicture,thecoolestcolourshouldbelookedforeverywhereelse.SeeninaNovemberlandscape,howwellahuntsman'scoatlooks,butthen,howcoldandgreyisthecolouringofthelandscape.Therightthingtodoistosupportyourredwithasmanycoolandneutraltonesaspossibleandavoidhot

shadows.Withsostrongared,bluemightbetoomuchofacontrast,unlessyourcanvaswaslargeenoughtoadmitofitsbeingintroducedatsomedistancefromthered.

Mostpainters,ofcourse,arecontenttokeeptomiddlecourses,nevergoingveryfarinthewarmorcolddirections.And,undoubtedly,muchmorefreedomofactionispossiblehere,althoughtheresultsmaynotbesopowerful.Butwhenbeautyandrefinementofsentimentratherthanforcearedesired,themiddlerangeofcolouring(thatistosay,allcolourspartlyneutralisedbyadmixturewiththeiropposites)ismuchsafer.

[Sidenote:BetweenInterestandMass.]

Thereisanotherformofbalancethatmustbealthoughitisconnectedmorewiththesubjectmatterofart,asitconcernsthementalsignificanceofobjectsratherthanrhythmicqualitiespossessedbylinesandmasses;Irefertothebalancethereisbetweeninterestandmass.Theall-absorbinginterestofthehumanfiguremakesitoftenwhenquiteminuteinscalebalancetheweightandinterestofagreatmass.DiagramXXVIIisaroughinstanceofwhatismeant.Withoutthelittlefigurethecompositionwouldbeoutofbalance.Buttheweightofinterestcentreduponthatlonelylittlepersonisenoughtorightthebalanceoccasionedbythegreatmassoftreesontheleft.Figuresarelargelyusedbylandscapepaintersinthisway,andareofgreatuseinrestoringbalanceinapicture.

[Illustration:DiagramXXVII.

ILLUSTRATINGHOWINTERESTMAYBALANCEMASS]

[Sidenote:BetweenVarietyandUnity.]

Andlastly,theremustbeabalancestruckbetweenvarietyandunity.Agreatdealhasalreadybeensaidaboutthis,anditwillonlybenecessarytorecapitulateherethattovarietyisduealltheexpression

orthepicturesque,ofthejoyousenergyoflife,andallthatmakestheworldsuchadelightfulplace,butthattounitybelongstherelatingofthisvarietytotheunderlyingbed-rockprinciplesthatsupportitinnatureandinallgoodart.Itwilldependonthenatureoftheartistandonthenatureofhisthemehowfarthisunderlyingunitywilldominatetheexpressioninhiswork;andhowfaritwillbeoverlaidandhiddenbehindarichgarmentofvariety.

Butbothideasmustbeconsideredinhiswork.Iftheunityofhisconceptionisallowedtoexcludevarietyentirely,itwillresultinadeadabstraction,andifthevarietyistobeallowednoneoftherestraininginfluencesofunity,itwilldevelopintoariotousextravagance.

RHYTHM:PROPORTION

Rulesandcanonsofproportiondesignedtoreducetoamathematicalformulathethingsthatmoveusinbeautifulobjects,havenotbeena

greatsuccess;thebeautifulwillalwaysdefysuchclumsyanalysis.Buthowevertrueitisthatbeautyofproportionmusteverbetheresultofthefinersensesoftheartist,itispossiblethatcanonsofproportion,suchasthoseofthehumanbody,maybeofservicetotheartistbyofferingsomestandardfromwhichhecandepartatthedictatesofhisartisticinstinct.Thereappearstobenodoubtthattheancientsculptorsusedsomesuchsystem.Andmanyoftherenaissancepainterswereinterestedinthesubject,LeonardodaVincihavingmuchtosayaboutitinhisbook.

Likeallscientificknowledgeinart,itfailstotraptheelusivesomethingthatisthevitalessenceofthewholematter,butsuchscientificknowledgedoeshelptobringone'sworkuptoahighpointof

mechanicalperfection,fromwhichone'sartisticinstinctcansoarwithabetterchanceofsuccessthanifnoscientificscaffoldinghadbeenusedintheinitialbuildingup.Yet,howeverperfectyoursystem,don'tforgetthatthelife,the"dither,"willstillhavetobeaccountedfor,andnosciencewillhelpyouhere.

Theideathatcertainmathematicalproportionsorrelationshipsunderliethephenomenawecallbeautyisveryancient,andtooabstrusetotroubleushere.Butundoubtedlyproportion,thequantitativerelationofthepartstoeachotherandtothewhole,formsaveryimportantpartintheimpressionworksofartandobjectsgiveus,andshouldbeasubjectofthegreatestconsiderationinplanningyourwork.Themathematicalrelationshipofthesequantitiesisasubjectthathas

alwaysfascinatedscholars,whohavemeasuredtheantiquestatuesaccuratelyandpainstakinglytofindthesecretoftheircharm.Science,byshowingthatdifferentsoundsanddifferentcoloursareproducedbywavesofdifferentlengths,andthatthereforedifferentcoloursandsoundscanbeexpressedintermsofnumbers,hascertainlyopenedthedoortoanewconsiderationofthissubjectofbeautyinrelationtomathematics.Andtheresultofsuchaninquiry,ifitisbeingorhasbeencarriedon,willbeofmuchinterest.

Butthereissomethingchillingtotheartistinanarrayofdead

figures,forhehasaconsciousnessthatthelifeofthewholematterwillneverbecapturedbysuchmechanicalmeans.

Thequestionweareinterestedtoaskhereis:arethereparticularsentimentsconnectedwiththedifferentrelationsofquantities,theirproportions,aswefoundtherewereinconnectionwithdifferentarrangementsoflinesandmasses?Haveabstractproportionsanysignificanceinart,aswefoundabstractlineandmassarrangementshad?Itisadifficultthingtobedefiniteabout,andIcanonlygivemyownfeelingonthematter;butIthinkinsomedegreetheyhave.

Proportioncanbeconsideredfromourtwopointsofviewofunityandvariety.Insofarastheproportionsofanypictureorobjectresolvethemselvesintoasimple,easilygraspedunityofrelationship,asenseofreposeandsublimityisproduced.Insofarasthevarietyofproportioninthedifferentpartsisassertiveandpreventstheeyegraspingthearrangementasasimplewhole,asenseofthelivelyrestlessnessoflifeandactivityisproduced.Inotherwords,aswefoundinlinearrangements,unitymakesforsublimity,whilevarietymakesfortheexpressionoflife.Ofcoursethescaleoftheobjectwillhavesomethingtodowiththis.Thatistosay,themostsublimelyproportioneddog-kennelcouldnevergiveustheimpressionofsublimityproducedbyagreattemple.Inpicturesthescaleoftheworkisnotofsogreatimportance,apaintingordrawinghavingthepowerofgiving

theimpressionofgreatsizeonasmallscale.Theproportionthatismosteasilygraspedisthehalf--twoequalparts.Thisisthemostdevoidofvariety,andthereforeoflife,andisonlyusedwhenaneffectofgreatreposeandaloofnessfromlifeiswanted;andeventhen,neverwithoutsomevarietyintheminorpartstogivevitality.Thethirdandthequarter,andinfactanyequalproportions,areothersthatareeasilygraspedandpartakeinalesserdegreeofthesamequalitiesasthehalf.Sothatequalityofproportionshouldbeavoidedexceptonthoserareoccasionswheneffectsremotefromnatureandlifearedesired.Natureseemstoabhorequalities,nevermakingtwothingsalikeorthesameproportionifshecanhelpit.Allsystemsfoundedonequalities,asaresomanymodernsystemsofsocialreform,

areman'swork,theproductsofamachine-madeage.Forthisisthedifferencebetweennatureandthemachine:natureneverproducestwothingsalike,themachineneverproducestwothingsdifferent.Mancouldsolvethesocialproblemto-morrowifyoucouldproducehimequalunits.Butifallmenwerealikeandequal,wherewouldbethelifeandfunofexistence?itwoulddepartwiththevariety.Andinproportion,asinlife,varietyisthesecretofvitality,onlytobesuppressedwhereastaticeffectiswanted.Inarchitectureequalityofproportionismoreoftenmetwith,asthestaticqualitiesofreposeareofmoreimportanceherethaninpainting.Onemeetsitonallfinebuildingsinsuchthingsasrowsofcolumnsandwindowsofequalsizeanddistancesapart,orthecontinualrepetitionofthesameformsinmouldings,&c.Butevenhere,inthebestwork,somevarietyisallowedtokeeptheeffectfrombeing

quitedead,thecolumnsontheoutsideofaGreekpedimentbeingnearertogetherandleaningslightlyinwards,andtherepeatedformsofwindows,columns,andmouldingsbeinginfinitelyvariedinthemselves.Butalthoughyouoftenfindrepetitionsofthesameformsequidistantinarchitecture,itisseldomthatequalityofproportionisobservableinthemaindistributionofthelargemasses.

Letustakeoursimpletypeofcomposition,andinDiagramXXVIII,A,putthehorizonacrossthecentreandanuprightpostcuttingitinthemiddleofthepicture.Andletusintroducetwospotsthatmayindicate

thepositionofbirdsintheupperspacesoneithersideofthis.

Herewehaveamaximumofequalityandthedeadestandmoststaticofresults.

Toseethesediagramsproperlyitisnecessarytocoveroverwithsomepiecesofnotepaperallbuttheonebeingconsidered,astheyaffecteachotherwhenseentogether,andthequalityoftheirproportionisnotsoreadilyobserved.

[Illustration:PlateXLVIII.

THEANSIDEIMADONNA.BYRAPHAEL(NATIONALGALLERY)

Atypicalexampleofstaticbalanceincomposition.

_PhotoHanfstaengl_]

InmanypicturesoftheMadonna,whenahushandreverencearedesiredratherthanexuberantlife,thefigureisputinthecentreofthecanvas,equalityofproportionexistingbetweenthespacesoneithersideofher.Buthavinggotthereposethiscentralisationgives,everythingisdonetoconcealthisequality,andvarietyinthecontoursoneitherside,andinanyfigurestheremaybe,iscarefullysought.

Raphael's"AnsideiMadonna,"intheNationalGallery,isaninstanceofthis(p.230).YouhavefirstthecentralisationofthefigureoftheMadonnawiththethroneonwhichshesits,exactlyinthemiddleofthepicture.Notonlyisthethroneinthecentreofthepicture,butitswidthisexactlythatofthespacesoneithersideofit,givingusthreeequalproportionsacrossthepicture.Thenyouhavethecircularlinesofthearchesbehind,curvespossessedoftheleastpossibleamountofvarietyandthereforethecalmestandmostreposeful;whilethehorizontallinesofthestepsandtheverticallinesofthethroneandarchitecture,andalsotherowsofhangingbeadsgivefurtheremphasistothisinfinityofcalm.Butwhenwecometothefiguresthissymmetryhasbeenvariedeverywhere.Alltheheadsswingtowardstheright,whilethelinesofthedraperiesswingfreelyinmanydirections.

Theswingoftheheadstowardstherightisbalancedandtheeyebroughtbacktoequilibriumbythestrongly-insisted-uponstaffofSt.Nicholasontheright.ThestaffofSt.Johnnecessarytobalancethislinesomewhat,isveryslightlyinsistedon,beingrepresentedtransparentasifmadeofglass,soasnottoincreasetheswingtotherightoccasionedbytheheads.Itisinterestingtonotethefruitintroducedatthelastmomentintheright-handlowercorner,draggedin,asitwere,torestorethebalanceoccasionedbythefigureoftheChristbeingontheleft.Inthewriter'shumbleopiniontheextremelyobviousartificewithwhichthelineshavebeenbalanced,andtheseverityoftheconventionofthiscompositiongenerally,areoutofharmonywiththeamountofnaturalisticdetailandparticularlyofsolidityallowedinthetreatmentofthefiguresandaccessories.Thesmallamountof

truthtovisualnatureintheworkofearliermenwentbetterwiththeformalityofsuchcompositions.Withsolittleofthevarietyoflifeintheirtreatmentofnaturalappearances,onewasnotledtodemandsomuchofthevarietyoflifeinthearrangement.ItisthesimplicityandremotenessfromthefulleffectofnaturalappearancesintheworkoftheearlyItalianschoolsthatmadetheirpaintingsuchareadymediumfortheexpressionofreligioussubjects.Thisatmosphereofother-worldlinesswherethemusicoflineandcolourwasuninterruptedbyanyaggressivelookofrealthingsisabetterconventionfortheexpressionofsuchideasandemotions.

[Illustration:DiagramXXVIII(1).

A,D,G]

B,E,H]

C,F,I]

InBandCtheproportionsofthethirdandthequarterareshown,producingthesamestaticeffectasthehalf,althoughnotsocompletely.

AtD,E,FthesamenumberoflinesandspotsaswehaveatA,B,Chavebeenused,butvariedastosizeandposition,sothattheyhavenoobviousmechanicalrelationship.Theresultisanexpressionofmuchmorelifeandcharacter.

AtG,H,Imorelinesandspotshavebeenadded.AtGtheyareequidistantanddeadfromlackofvariety,whileatHandItheyare

variedtoadegreethatpreventstheeyegraspinganyobviousrelationshipbetweenthem.TheyhaveconsequentlyalookoflivelinessandlifeverydifferentfromA,B,C,orG.Itwillbeobservedthatastheamountofvarietyincreasessodoesthelifeandlivelinessoftheimpression.

Inthesediagramsacertainstaticeffectiskeptupthroughout,onaccountofourlinesbeingverticalandhorizontalonly,whichlines,aswesawinanearlierchapter,arethecalmestwehave.Butdespitethis,Ithinktheaddedlifeduetothevarietyintheproportionsissufficientlyapparentinthediagramstoprovethepointwewishtomake.

AsacontrasttotheinfinitecalmofRaphael's"Madonna,"wehavereproducedTintoretto's"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark,"intheBreraGallery,Milan.Hereallislifeandmovement.Theproportionsareinfinitelyvaried,nowheredoestheeyegraspanyobviousmathematicalrelationship.Wehavethesamesemi-circulararchesasintheRaphael,butnotsymmetricallyplaced,andtheirlineseverywherevaried,andtheircalmeffectdestroyedbytheflickeringlightsplayingaboutthem.NotethegreatemphasisgiventotheoutstretchedhandofthepowerfulfigureoftheApostleontheleftbythelinesofthearchitectureandthelineofarmofthekneelingfigureinthecentreofthepictureconvergingonthishandandleadingtheeyeimmediatelytoit.Thereisherenostaticsymmetry,allisenergyandforce.Startingwiththisarrestingarm,theeyeisleddownthemajesticfigureofSt.Mark,past

therecumbentfigure,andacrossthepicturebymeansofthebandoflightontheground,totheimportantgroupoffrightenedfiguresontheright.Andfromthemontothefiguresengagedinloweringacorpsefromitstomb.Or,followingthedirectionoftheoutstretchedarmofSt.Mark,weareledbythelinesofthearchitecturetothisgroupstraightaway,andbackagainbymeansofthegroupontherightandthebandoflightontheground.Thequantitiesarenotplacedinreposefulsymmetryaboutthecanvas,aswasthecaseintheRaphael,butarethrownoffapparentlyhaphazardfromlinesleadingtheeyeroundthepicture.Notealsothedramaticintensitygivenbythestrongly

contrastedlightandshade,andhowTintorettohasenjoyedtheweirdeffectofthetwofigureslookingintoatombwithalight,theirshadowsbeingthrownonthelidtheyholdopen,atthefarendoftheroom.Thismusthavebeenanamazinglynewpieceofrealismatthetime,andiswonderfullyused,togiveaneerieeffecttothedarkenedendoftheroom.Withhisboundlessenergyandfullenjoymentoflife,Tintoretto'sworknaturallyshowsastrongleaningtowardsvariety,andhisamazingcompositionsarealiberaleducationintheinnumerableandunexpectedwaysinwhichapanelcanbefilled,andshouldbecarefullystudiedbystudents.

[Illustration:PlateXLIX.

THEFINDINGOFTHEBODYOFST.MARKTINTORETTO(BREDA,MILAN)

ComparewithRaphael'sAnsideiMadonna,andnotehowenergyandmovementtaketheplaceofstaticcalminthebalanceofthiscomposition.

_PhotoAnderson_]

Apleasingproportionthatoftenoccursinnatureandartisonethatmayberoughlystatedinfiguresasthatbetween5and8.Insuchaproportiontheeyeseesnomathematicalrelationship.Wereitlessthan5,itwouldbetooneartheproportionof4to8(orone-thirdthetotal

length),adullproportion;orwereitmore,itwouldbeapproachingtoonearequalityofproportiontobequitesatisfactory.

Ihaveseenaproportionalcompass,importedfromGermany,givingarelationshipsimilartothisandsaidtocontainthesecretofgoodproportion.Thereiscertainlysomethingremarkableaboutit,andintheAppendix,page289[TranscribersNote:APPENDIX],youwillfindsomefurtherinterestingfactsaboutthis.

Thevarietyofproportionsinabuilding,apicture,orapieceofsculptureshouldalwaysbeunderthecontrolofafewsimple,dominantquantitiesthatsimplifytheappearanceandgiveitaunitywhichisreadilygraspedexceptwhereviolenceandlackofreposearewanted.The

simplertheproportionis,themoresublimewillbetheimpression,andthemorecomplicated,thelivelierandmorevivacioustheeffect.Fromafewwell-chosenlargeproportionstheeyemaybeledontoenjoythesmallervarieties.Butingoodproportionthelesserpartsarenotallowedtoobtrude,butarekeptinsubordinationtothemaindispositionsonwhichtheunityoftheeffectdepends.

PORTRAITDRAWING

Thereissomethingineveryindividualthatislikelyforalongtimetodefytheanalysisofscience.Whenyouhavesummedupthetotalofatomsorelectronsorwhateveritisthatgoestothemakingofthetissuesandalsotheinnumerablecomplexfunctionsperformedbythedifferentparts,youhavenotyetgotonthetrackoftheindividualthatgovernsthewholeperformance.Theeffectofthispersonalityontheoutwardform,andtheinfluenceithasinmodifyingtheaspectofbodyandfeatures,arethethingsthatconcerntheportraitdraughtsman:the

seizingonandexpressingforcefullytheindividualcharacterofthesitter,asexpressedbyhisoutwardappearance.

Thischaracterexpressioninformhasbeenthoughttobesomewhatantagonistictobeauty,andmanysittersareshyoftheparticularcharacteristicsoftheirownfeatures.Thefashionablephotographer,knowingthis,carefullystipplesoutofhisnegativeany#striking#characteristicsintheformofhissitterthenegativemayshow.Butjudgingbytheresult,itisdoubtfulwhetheranybeautyhasbeengained,andcertainthatinterestandvitalityhavebeenlostintheprocess.Whatevermaybethenatureofbeauty,itisobviousthatwhatmakesoneobjectmorebeautifulthananotherissomethingthatischaracteristicoftheappearanceoftheoneandnotoftheother:sothatsomeclosestudyofindividualcharacteristicsmustbetheaimoftheartistwhowouldseektoexpressbeauty,aswellastheartistwhoseekstheexpressionofcharacterandprofessesnointerestinbeauty.

Catchingthelikeness,asitiscalled,issimplyseizingontheessentialthingsthatbelongonlytoaparticularindividualanddifferentiatethatindividualfromothers,andexpressingtheminaforcefulmanner.Therearecertainthingsthatarecommontothewholespecies,likenesstoacommontype;theindividuallikenessisnotinthisdirectionbutattheoppositepoletoit.

Itisoneofthemostremarkablethingsconnectedwiththeamazingsubtletyofappreciationpossessedbythehumaneye,thatofthemillionsofheadsintheworld,andprobablyofallthathaveeverexistedintheworld,notwolookexactlyalike.Whenoneconsidershowaliketheyare,andhowveryrestrictedistherangeofdifferencebetweenthem,isitnotremarkablehowquicklytheeyerecognisesonepersonfromanother?Itismoreremarkablestillhowonesometimesrecognisesafriendnotseenformanyyears,andwhoseappearancehaschangedconsiderablyinthemeantime.Andthislikenessthatwerecogniseisnotsomuchasisgenerallythoughtamatteroftheindividualfeatures.Ifoneseestheeyealone,theremainderofthefacebeingcovered,itisalmostimpossibletorecogniseevenawell-knownfriend,ortellwhethertheexpressionisthatoflaughingor

crying.Andagain,howdifficultitistorecogniseanybodywhentheeyesaremaskedandonlythelowerpartofthefacevisible.

[Illustration:PlateL.

FROMADRAWINGINREDCHALKBYHOLBEININTHEBRITISHMUSEUMPRINTROOM

Notehoweverybitofvarietyissoughtfor,thedifferenceintheeyesandoneithersideofthemouth,etc.]

Ifyoutryandrecallawell-knownheaditwillnotbetheshapeofthefeaturesthatwillberecollectedsomuchasanimpression,theresultofallthesecombined,asortofchordofwhichthefeatureswill

bebutthecomponentelements.Itistherelationofthedifferentpartstothischord,thisimpressionofthepersonalityofahead,thatistheall-importantthinginwhatispopularlycalled"catchingthelikeness."Indrawingaportraitthemindmustbecentredonthis,andalltheindividualpartsdrawninrelationtoit.Themomenttheeyegetsinterestedsolelyinsomeindividualpartandforgetstheconsiderationofitsrelationshiptothiswholeimpression,thelikenesssuffers.

Wherethereissomuchthatissimilarinheads,itisobviousthatwhatdifferencestherearemustbesearchedoutandseizeduponforcefully,

iftheindividualityoftheheadistobemadetelling.Thedrawingofportraitsshouldthereforebeapproachedfromthedirectionofthesedifferences;thatistosay,thethingsingeneraldispositionandproportioninwhichyoursubjectdiffersfromacommontype,shouldbefirstsoughtfor,thethingscommontoallheadsbeinglefttotakecareofthemselvesforabit.Thereasonforthisisthattheeye,whenfresh,seesthesedifferencesmuchmorereadilythanafterithasbeenworkingforsometime.Thetendencyofatiredeyeistoseelessdifferentiation,andtoharkbacktoadulluniformity;sogetintouchatoncewiththevitaldifferenceswhileyoureyeisfreshandyourvisionkeen.

Lookoutfirstforthecharacterofthedispositionofthefeatures,notetheproportionsdownanimaginedcentreline,ofthebrows,thebaseofthenose,themouthandchin,andgetthecharacteroftheshapeoftheenclosinglineofthefaceblockedoutinsquarelines.Thegreatimportanceofgettingtheseproportionsrightearlycannotbeover-emphasised,asanymistakemaylateronnecessitatecompletelyshiftingacarefullydrawnfeature.Andtheimportanceofthismaybejudgedfromthefactthatyourecogniseaheadalongwayoff,beforeanythingbutthegeneraldispositionofthemassessurroundingthefeaturescanbeseen.Theshapeoftheskull,too,isanotherthingofwhichtogetanearlyidea,anditsrelationtothefaceshouldbecarefullynoted.Butitisimpossibletolaydownhardandfastrules

forthesethings.Someartistsbegininpointdrawingwiththeeyes,andsomeleavetheeyesuntiltheverylast.Somedraughtsmenareneverhappyuntiltheyhaveaneyetoadjusttheheadround,treatingitasthecentreofinterestanddrawingthepartsrelativelytoit.Whileotherssay,withsometruth,thatthereisamesmericeffectproducedwhentheeyeisdrawnthatblindsonetothecold-bloodedtechnicalconsiderationofaheadaslineandtoneincertainrelationships;thatitisaswelltopostponeuntilthelastthatmomentwhentheshapesandtonesthatrepresentforminyourdrawingshallbelitupbytheintroductionoftheeyetothelookofaliveperson.Oneisfreertoconsidertheaccuracyofone'sformbeforethisdisturbinginfluenceisintroduced.

Andthereisagooddealtobesaidforthis.

Althoughinpointdrawingyoucan,withoutseriouseffect,beginatanypartthatinterestsyou,insettingoutapaintingIthinktherecanbenotwoopinionsastotherightwaytogoaboutit.Thecharacterofthegeneraldispositionofthemassesmustbefirstconstructed.Andifthisgeneralblockinginhasbeenwelldone,thecharacterofthesitterwillbeapparentfromthefirsteveninthisearlystage;andyouwillbeabletojudgeoftheaccuracyofyourblockingoutbywhetherornotitdoessuggesttheoriginal.Ifitdoesnot,correctitbeforegoinganyfurther,working,asitwere,fromthegeneralimpressionofthemassesoftheheadasseenalongwayoff,addingmoreandmoredetail,andgraduallybringingtheimpressionnearer,untilthecompletedhead

isarrivedat,thusgettingintouchfromtheveryfirstwiththelikenesswhichshoulddominatetheworkallalong.

[Illustration:PlateLI.

SIRCHARLESDILKE,BART.

FromthedrawinginthecollectionofSirRobertEssex,M.P.,inredcontÃ©chalkrubbed,thehighlightsbeingpickedoutwithrubber.]

Therearemanypointsofviewfromwhichaportraitcanbedrawn--Imean,mentalpointsofview.And,asinabiography,thevalueoftheworkwilldependontheinsightanddistinctionoftheauthororartist.Thevaletofagreatmanmightwriteabiographyofhismasterthatcouldbequitetruetohispointofview;but,assuminghimtobeanaveragevalet,itwouldnotbeagreatwork.IbelievethegardenerofDarwinwhenaskedhowhismasterwas,said,"Notatallwell.Yousee,hemoonsaboutallday.I'veseenhimstaringataflowerforfiveortenminutesatatime.Now,ifhehadsomeworktodo,hewouldbemuchbetter."Areallygreatbiographycannotbewrittenexceptbyamanwhocancomprehendhissubjectandtakeawideviewofhispositionamongmen,sortingwhatistrivialfromwhatisessential,whatiscommontoallmenfromwhatisparticulartothesubjectofhiswork.Anditisverymuchthesameinportraiture.Itisonlythepainterwhopossessestheintuitivefacultyforseizingonthesignificantthingsintheformexpressionofhissubject,ofdisentanglingwhatistrivialfromwhatisimportant;andwhocanconveythisforciblytothebeholderonhiscanvas,moreforciblythanacasualsightoftherealpersoncoulddo--itisonlythispainterwhocanhopetopaintareallyfineportrait.

Itistrue,thehonestandsincereexpressionofanypainterwillbeofsomeinterest,justasthebiographywrittenbyDarwin'sgardenermightbe;butthereisavastdifferencebetweenthispointofviewandthat

ofthemanwhothoroughlycomprehendshissubject.Notthatitisnecessaryfortheartisttograspthemindofhissitter,althoughthatisnodisadvantage.Butthisisnothispointofview,hisbusinessiswiththeeffectofthisinnermanonhisoutwardappearance.Anditisnecessaryforhimtohavethatintuitivepowerthatseizesinstinctivelyonthosevariationsofformthatareexpressiveofthisinnerman.Thehabitualcastofthoughtinanyindividualaffectstheshapeandmouldstheformofthefeatures,and,tothediscerning,theheadisexpressiveoftheperson;boththebiggerandthesmallerperson,boththelargerandthepettycharacteristicseverybodypossesses.Andthefineportraitwillexpressthelargerandsubordinatethepettyindividualities,willgiveyouwhatisofvalue,and

subordinatewhatistrivialinaperson'sappearance.

Theposeoftheheadisacharacteristicfeatureaboutpeoplethatisnotalwaysgivenenoughattentioninportraits.Thehabitualcastofthoughtaffectsitscarriagetoaverylargedegree.Thetwoextremetypesofwhatwemeanarethestronglyemotionalmanwhocarrieshisheadhigh,drinkinginimpressionsashegoesthroughtheworld;andthemanofdeepthoughtwhocarrieshisheadbentforward,hisbackbentinsympathywithit.Everybodyhassomecharacteristicactioninthewaythatshouldbelookedoutforandthatisusuallyabsentwhenasitterfirstappearsbeforeapainteronthestudiothrone.Alittlediplomacyandconversationalhumouringisnecessarytoproducethatunconsciousnessthatwillbetraythemaninhisappearance.

Howthepowertodiscoverthesethingscanbeacquired,itis,ofcourse,impossibletoteach.Allthestudentcandoistofamiliarisehimselfwiththebestexamplesofportraiture,inthehopethathemaybestimulatedbythismeanstoobservefinerqualitiesinnatureanddevelopthebestthatisinhim.Buthemustneverbeinsincereinhiswork.Ifhedoesnotappreciatefinethingsintheworkofrecognisedmasters,lethimsticktothehonestportrayalofwhathedoesseeinnature.Theonlydistinctionofwhichheiscapableliesinthisdirection.Itisnotuntilheawakenstothesightinnatureof

qualitieshemayhaveadmiredinothers'workthatheisinapositionhonestlytointroducethemintohisownperformances.

Probablythemostpopularpointofviewinportraitureatpresentistheonethatcanbedescribedasa"strikingpresentmentoftheliveperson."Thisistheportraitthatarreststhecrowdinanexhibition.Youcannotignoreit,vitalityburstsfromit,andeverythingseemssacrificedtothisqualityofstrikinglifelikeness.Andsomeverywonderfulmodernportraitshavebeenpaintedfromthispointofview.Buthavewenotsacrificedtoomuchtothisqualityofvitality?Hereisaladyhurriedlygettingupfromacouch,thereagentlemansteppingoutoftheframetogreetyou,violenceandvitalityeverywhere.Butwhatofrepose,harmonyofcolourandform,andthewiseorderingandselectingofthematerialsofvisionthatonehasbeenusedtointhegreatportraitureofthepast?Whilethecraftsmaninoneisstaggeredandamazedatthebrilliantvirtuosityofthething,theartistinoneresentsthesacrificeofsomuchforwhatis,afterall,butashort-livedexcitement.Agemay,nodoubt,improvesomeoftheportraitsofthisclassbyquietingthemincolourandtone.Andthosethataregoodindesignandarrangementwillstandthiswithoutlossofdistinction,butthoseinwhicheverythinghasbeensacrificedtothisstrikinglifelikequalitywillsufferconsiderably.Thisparticular

qualitydependssomuchonthefreshnessofthepaintthatwhenthisismellowedanditsvividnessislost,nothingwillremainofvalue,ifthequieterqualitiesofdesignandarrangementhavebeensacrificedforit.

FransHalsistheonlyoldmasterIcanthinkofwithwhomthisformofportraitcanbecompared.Butitwillbenoticedthatbesidesdesigninghiscanvasescarefully,heusuallybalancedthevigourandvitalityofhisformwithagreatsobrietyofcolour.Infact,insomeofhislaterwork,wherethisrestlessvitalityismostinevidence,thecolourislittlemorethanblackandwhite,withalittleyellowochreandVenetianred.Itisthisextremereposefulnessofcolourthatopposestheunrestintheformandhelpstorestorethebalanceandnecessaryreposeinthepicture.Itisinterestingtonotetherestlessvarietyof

theedgesinFransHal'swork,howhenever,ifhecanhelpit,letsanedgerunsmoothly,butkeepsitconstantlyonthemove,oftenleavingitquitejagged,andtocomparethiswithwhatwassaidaboutvitalitydependingonvariety.

[Illustration:PlateLII.

JOHNREDMOND,M.P.

FromthedrawinginthecollectionofSirRobertEssex,M.P.,inredcontÃ©chalkrubbed,thehighlightsbeingpickedoutwithrubber.]

Anotherpointofviewisthatoftheartistwhoseekstogiveasignificantandcalmviewoftheexteriorformsofthesitter,anexpressivemapoftheindividualityofthoseforms,leavingyoutoformyourownintellectualjudgments.Asimple,ratherformal,attitudeisusuallychosen,andthesitterisdrawnwithsearchinghonesty.Thereisagreatdealtobesaidforthispointofviewinthehandsofapainterwithalargeappreciationofformanddesign.Butwithoutthesemoreinspiringqualitiesitisapttohavethedulnessthatattendsmost

literaltranscriptions.Therearemanyinstancesofthispointofviewamongearlyportraitpainters,oneofthebestofwhichistheworkofHolbein.Butthen,toaverydistinguishedappreciationofthesubtletiesofformcharacterisationheaddedafinesenseofdesignandcolourarrangement,qualitiesbynomeansalwaysatthecommandofsomeofthelessermenofthisschool.

EveryportraitdraughtsmanshouldmakeapilgrimagetoWindsor,armedwiththenecessarypermissiontoviewthewonderfulseriesofportraitdrawingsbythismasterinthelibraryofthecastle.Theyarealiberaleducationinportraitdrawing.Itisnecessarytoseetheoriginals,foritisonlyafterhavingseenthemthatonecanproperlyunderstandthenumerousandwell-knownreproductions.Astudyofthesedrawingswill,Ithink,revealthefactthattheyarenotsoliteralasisusuallythought.Unflinchinglyandunaffectedlyhonesttheyare,buthonestnottoacold,mechanicallyaccuraterecordofthesitter'sappearance,buthonestandaccuratetothevitalimpressionofthelivesittermadeonthemindoftheliveartist.Thisisthedifferenceweweretryingtoexplainthatexistsbetweentheacademicandthevitaldrawing,anditisaverysubtleandelusivequality,likeallartisticqualities,totalkabout.Therecordofavitalimpressiondonewithunflinchingaccuracy,butundertheguidanceofintensementalactivity,isaverydifferentthingfromadrawingdonewiththecold,mechanicalaccuracyofamachine.Theonewillinstantlygriptheattentionandgiveonea

vividsensationinawaythatnomechanicallyaccuratedrawingcoulddo,andinawaythatpossiblythesightoftherealpersonwouldnotalwaysdo.Weseenumbersoffacesduringaday,butonlyafewwiththevividnessofwhichIamspeaking.Howmanyfacesinacrowdarepassedindifferently--thereisnovitalityintheimpressiontheymakeonourmind;butsuddenlyafacewillrivetourattention,andalthoughitisgoneinaflash,thememoryoftheimpressionwillremainforsometime.

ThebestofHolbein'sportraitdrawingsgiveonetheimpressionofhavingbeenseeninoneoftheseflashesandrivettheattentioninconsequence.Drawingsdoneunderthismentalstimuluspresentsubtledifferencesfromdrawingsdonewithcoldaccuracy.ThedrawingoftheLadyAudley,herereproduced,bearsevidenceofsomeofthissubtle

variationonwhatarecalledthefacts,inthelefteyeofthesitter.Itwillbenoticedthatthepupilofthiseyeislargerthantheother.NowIdonotsupposethatasamatterofmechanicalaccuracythiswasso,buttheimpressionoftheeyesseenaspartofavividimpressionoftheheadisseldomthattheyarethesamesize.Holbeinhadinthefirstinstanceinthisverycarefullywroughtdrawingmadethemso,butwhenatthelasthewasvitalisingtheimpression,"pullingittogether"asartistssay,hehasdeliberatelyputalineoutsidetheoriginalone,makingthispupillarger.Thisisnotatallclearlyseeninthereproduction,but#isdistinctlyvisibleintheoriginal#.Andtomythinkingitwasdoneatthedictatesofthevividmentalimpressionhewishedhisdrawingtoconvey.Fewcanfailtobestruckinturningoverthiswonderfulseriesofdrawingsbythevividnessoftheirportraiture,

andthevividnessisduetotheirbeingseverelyaccuratetothevitalimpressiononthemindofHolbein,notmerelytothefactscoldlyobserved.

[Illustration:PlateLIII.

THELADYAUDLEY.HOLBEIN(WINDSOR)

Notethedifferentsizesofpupilsintheeyes,andseeletterpressontheoppositepage.

_CopyrightphotoBraun&Co._]

Anotherpointofviewisthatofseekinginthefaceasymbolofthepersonwithin,andselectingthosethingsaboutaheadthatexpressthis.Ashasalreadybeensaid,thehabitualattitudeofmindhasinthecourseoftimeamarkedinfluenceontheformoftheface,andinfactofthewholebody,sothat--tothosewhocansee--themanorwomanisavisiblesymbolofthemselves.Butthisisbynomeansapparenttoall.

ThestrikingexampleofthisclassisthesplendidseriesofportraitsbythelateG.F.Watts.Lookingattheseheadsoneismadeconsciousofthepeopleinafuller,deepersensethaniftheywerebeforeoneintheflesh.ForWattssoughttodiscoverthepersonintheirappearanceandtopaintapicturethatshouldbealivingsymbolofthem.Hetookpainstofindoutallhecouldaboutthemindofhissittersbeforehepaintedthem,andsoughtintheappearancetheexpressionofthisinnerman.SothatwhereaswithHolbeinitwasthevividpresentationoftheimpressionasonemightseeaheadthatstruckoneinacrowd,withWattsitisthespiritoneisfirstconsciousof.ThethundersofwarappearinthepowerfulheadofLordLawrence,themusicofpoetryintheheadofSwinburne,andthedryatmosphereofthehigherregionsof

thoughtintheJohnStuartMill,&c.IntheNationalPortraitGallerytherearetwopaintingsofthepoetRobertBrowning,onebyRudolphLehmannandonebyWatts.Nowtheformerportraitisprobablymuchmore"like"thepoetasthepeoplewhomethimcasuallysawhim.ButWatts'sportraitislikethemanwhowrotethepoetry,andLehmann'sisnot.Browningwasaparticularlydifficultsubjectinthisrespect,inthattoacasualobservertherewasmuchmoreabouthisexternalappearancetosuggestaprosperousmanofbusiness,thanthefieryzealofthepoet.

TheseportraitsbyWattswillrepaythecloseststudybythestudentofportraiture.Theyarefullofthatwiseselectionbyagreatmindthat

liftssuchworkabovethetrivialityofthecommonplacetothelevelofgreatimaginativepainting.

Anotherpointofviewisthatoftreatingthesitteraspartofasymphonyofformandcolour,andsubordinatingeverythingtothisartisticconsideration.Thisisveryfashionableatthepresenttime,andmuchbeautifulworkisbeingdonewiththismotive.Andwithmanyladieswhowouldnot,Ihope,objecttoone'ssayingthattheirprincipalcharacteristicwasthecharmoftheirappearance,thispointofviewoffers,perhaps,oneofthebestopportunitiesofasuccessfulpainting.Aposeisselectedthatmakesagooddesignoflineand

colour--agoodpattern--andthecharacterofthesitterisnotallowedtoobtrudeormarthesymmetryofthewholeconsideredasabeautifulpanel.TheportraitsofJ.McNeillWhistlerareexamplesofthistreatment,apointofviewthathasverylargelyinfluencedmodernportraitpaintinginEngland.

Thenthereistheofficialportraitinwhichthedignityofanofficeheldbythesitter,ofwhichoccasiontheportraitisamemorial,hasto

beconsidered.Themoreintimateinterestinthepersonalcharacterofthesitterisheresubordinatedtotheinterestofhispubliccharacterandattitudeofmindtowardshisoffice.ThusithappensthatmuchmoredecorativepageantrysymbolicofthesethingsispermissibleinthiskindofportraiturethaninthatofplainMr.Smith;agreaterstatelinessofdesignasbefittingofficialoccasions.

Itisnotcontendedthatthisformsanythinglikeacompletelistofthenumerousaspectsfromwhichaportraitcanbeconsidered,buttheyaresomeofthemoreextremeofthoseprevalentatthepresenttime.Neitherisitcontendedthattheyareincompatiblewitheachother:thequalitiesoftwoormoreofthesepointsofviewareoftenfoundinthesamework.Anditisnotinconceivablethatasingleportraitmightcontainallandbeastrikinglifelikepresentment,afaithfulcatalogueofallthefeatures,asymbolofthepersonandasymphonyofformandcolour.Butthechancesareagainstsuchacompositeaffairbeingasuccess.Oneorotherqualitywilldominateinasuccessfulwork;anditisnotadvisabletotryandcombinetoomanydifferentpointsofviewas,intheconfusionofideas,directnessofexpressionislost.Butnogoodportraitiswithoutsomeofthequalitiesofallthesepointsofview,whichevermaydominatetheartist'sintention.

[Sidenote:Expression.]

Thecamera,andmoreparticularlytheinstantaneouscamera,hashabituatedpeopletoexpectinaportraitamomentaryexpression,andofthesemomentaryexpressionsthefaintsmile,asweallknow,isaneasyfirstinthematterofpopularity.Itisnouncommonthingforthepaintertobeaskedintheearlystagesofhisworkwhenheisgoingtoputinthesmile,itneverbeingquestionedthatthisistheartist'saiminthematterofexpression.

Thegivingoflifelikeexpressiontoapaintingisnotsosimpleamatterasitmightappeartobe.Couldonesettherealpersonbehindtheframeandsuddenlyfixthemforeverwithoneofthosepassingexpressionsontheirfaces,howevernaturalitmighthavebeenatthemoment,fixedforeveritisterrible,andmostunlifelike.Aswehave

alreadysaid,afewlinesscribbledonapieceofpaperbyaconsummateartistwouldgiveagreatersenseoflifethanthisfixedactuality.Itisnotultimatelybythepursuitoftheactualrealisationthatexpressionandlifeareconveyedinaportrait.Everyfacehasexpressionofafarmoreinterestingandenduringkindthanthesemomentarydisturbancesofitsformoccasionedbylaughterorsomepassingthought,&c.Anditmustneverbeforgottenthataportraitisapanelpaintedtoremainforcenturieswithoutmovement.Sothatalargeamountofthequalityofreposemustenterintoitscomposition.Portraitsinwhichthishasnotbeenborneinmind,howeverentertainingatapictureexhibition,whentheyareseenforafewmomentsonly,pallononeifconstantlyseen,andarefinallyveryirritating.

Buttherealexpressioninaheadissomethingmoreenduringthanthesepassingmovements:onethatbelongstotheformsofahead,andthemarksleftonthatformbythelifeandcharacteroftheperson.Thisisoffarmoreinterestthanthosepassingexpressions,theresultsofthecontractionofcertainmusclesundertheskin,theeffectofwhichisverysimilarinmostpeople.Itisfortheportraitpaintertofindthismoreenduringexpressionandgiveitnobleexpressioninhiswork.

[Sidenote:TreatmentofClothes.]

Itisacommonideaamongsittersthatiftheyarepaintedinmodernclothesthepicturewilllookold-fashionedinafewyears.Ifthesitter'sappearancewerefixeduponthecanvasexactlyastheystoodbeforetheartistinhisstudio,withoutanyselectiononthepartofthepainter,thismightbetheresult,and_is_theresultinthecaseofpainterswhohavenohigheraimthanthis.

Buttherearequalitiesindressthatdonotbelongexclusivelytotheparticularperiodoftheirfashion.Qualitiesthatarethesameinallages.Andwhentheseareinsistedupon,andthefrivolitiesofthemomentindressnottroubledaboutsomuch,theportraithasapermanentquality,andwillneverinconsequencelookold-fashionedintheoffensivewaythatisusuallymeant.Inthefirstplace,thedraperyandstuffsofwhichclothesaremadefollowlawsinthemannerinwhichtheyfoldanddrapeoverthefigure,thatarethesameinalltimes.Iftheexpressionofthefigurethroughthedraperiesissoughtbythepainter,apermanentqualitywillbegiveninhiswork,whateverfantasticshapesthecutofthegarmentsmayassume.

Andfurther,theartistdoesnottakewhatevercomestohandintheappearanceofhissitter,butworkstoathought-outarrangementofcolourandform,toadesign.Thisheselectsfromthemovingandvariedappearanceofhissitter,tryingonethingafteranother,untilheseesasuggestivearrangement,fromtheimpressionofwhichhemakeshis

design.Itistruethattheextremesoffashiondonotalwayslendthemselvessoreadilyasmorereasonablemodestothemakingofagoodpictorialpattern.Butthisisnotalwaysso,someextremefashionsgivingopportunitiesofverypiquantandinterestingportraitdesigns.Sothat,howeverextremethefashion,iftheartistisabletoselectsomeaspectofitthatwillresultinagoodarrangementforhisportrait,theworkwillneverhavetheoffensiveold-fashionedlook.Theprinciplesgoverninggooddesignsarethesameinalltimes;andifmaterialforsucharrangementhasbeendiscoveredinthemostmodishoffashions,ithasbeenliftedintoaspherewherenothingiseveroutofdate.

Itisonlywhenthepainterisconcernedwiththetrivialdetailsof

fashionfortheirownsake,forthemakinghispicturelookliketherealthing,andhasnotbeenconcernedwithtransmutingtheappearanceoffashionableclothesbyselectionintothepermanentrealmsofformandcolourdesign,thathisworkwilljustifyoneinsayingthatitwilllookstaleinafewyears.

Thefashionofdressingsittersinmeaningless,so-calledclassicaldraperiesisafeebleone,andusuallyarguesalackofcapacityforselectingagoodarrangementfromtheclothesoftheperiodintheartistwhoadoptsit.Modernwomen'sclothesarefullofsuggestionsfornewarrangementsanddesignsquiteasgoodasanythingthathasbeendoneinthepast.Therangeofsubtlecoloursandvarietiesoftextureinmaterialsisamazing,andthesubtletyofinventiondisplayedinsome

ofthedesignsforcostumesleadsonetowonderwhetherthereisnotsomethingintheremarkattributedtoaneminentsculptorthat"designingladies'fashionsisoneofthefewartsthatisthoroughlyvitalto-day."

THEVISUALMEMORY

Thememoryisthegreatstorehouseofartisticmaterial,thetreasuresofwhichtheartistmayknowlittleaboutuntilachanceassociationlightsupsomeofitsdarkrecesses.Fromearlyyearsthemindoftheyoungartisthasbeenstoringupimpressionsinthesemysteriouschambers,collectedfromnature'saspects,worksofart,andanythingthatcomeswithinthefieldofvision.Itisfromthisstorethattheimaginationdrawsitsmaterial,howeverfantasticandremotefromnaturalappearancestheformsitmayassume.

Howmuchourmemoryofpicturescolourstheimpressionsofnaturewereceiveisprobablynotsuspectedbyus,butwhocouldsayhowascenewouldappeartohim,hadheneverlookedatapicture?Sosensitiveisthevisiontotheinfluenceofmemorythat,afterseeingthepicturesofsomepainterwhoseworkhasdeeplyimpressedus,weareapt,whilethememoryofitisstillfreshinourminds,toseethingsashewouldpaintthem.OndifferentoccasionsafterleavingtheNationalGalleryIcanrememberhavingseenTrafalgarSquareasPaoloVeronese,Turner,orwhateverpaintermayhaveimpressedmeintheGallery,wouldhavepaintedit,thememoryoftheirworkcolouringtheimpressionthesceneproduced.

But,puttingasidethememoryofpictures,letusconsidertheplaceofdirectvisualmemoryfromnatureinourwork,picturesbeingindirectorsecond-handimpressions.

Wehaveseeninanearlierchapterhowcertainpaintersinthenineteenthcentury,feelinghowverysecond-handandfarremovedfromnaturepaintinghadbecome,startedamovementtodiscardstudiotraditionsandstudynaturewithasingleeye,takingtheirpicturesoutofdoors,andendeavouringtowrestnature'ssecretsfromheronthespot.ThePre-RaphaelitemovementinEnglandandtheImpressionistmovementinFranceweretheresultsofthisimpulse.Anditisinteresting,bytheway,tocontrastthedifferentmannerinwhichthisdesireformoretruthtonatureaffectedtheFrenchandEnglish

temperaments.TheintenseindividualismoftheEnglishsoughtouteverydetail,everyleafandflowerforitself,paintingthemwithapassionandintensitythatmadetheirpaintingavividmediumfortheexpressionofpoeticideas;whilethemoresyntheticmindoftheFrenchmanapproachedthissearchforvisualtruthfromtheoppositepointofviewofthewholeeffect,findinginthelarge,generalisedimpressionanewworldofbeauty.Andhismorelogicalmindledhimtoinquireintothenatureoflight,andsotoinventatechniquefoundedonscientificprinciples.

Butnowthefirstblushoffreshnesshaswornoffthenewmovement,paintershavebeguntoseethatifanythingbutveryordinaryeffectsaretobeattempted,thispaintingonthespotmustgiveplacetomore

relianceonthememory.

Memoryhasthisgreatadvantageoverdirectvision:itretainsmorevividlytheessentialthings,andhasahabitoflosingwhatisunessentialtothepictorialimpression.

Butwhatistheessentialinapainting?Whatisitmakesonewanttopaintatall?Ah!Hereweapproachverydebatableandshadowyground,andwecandolittlebutaskquestions,theanswertowhichwillvarywitheachindividualtemperament.Whatisitthattheseraysoflight

strikingourretinaconveytoourbrain,andfromourbraintowhateverisourselves,intheseatofconsciousnessabovethis?Whatisthismysteriouscorrespondencesetupbetweensomethingwithinandsomethingwithout,thatattimessendssuchaclamourofharmonythroughourwholebeing?Whydocertaincombinationsofsoundinmusicandofformandcolourinartaffectussoprofoundly?Whatarethelawsgoverningharmonyintheuniverse,andwhencedotheycome?Itishardlytreesandsky,earth,orfleshandblood,#assuch#,thatinteresttheartist;butratherthatthroughthesethingsinmemorablemomentsheispermittedaconsciousnessofdeeperthings,andimpelledtoseekutteranceforwhatismovinghim.Itistherecordoftheseraremomentsinwhichoneapprehendstruthinthingsseenthattheartistwishestoconveytoothers.Butthesemoments,theseflashesofinspirationwhichareattheinceptionofeveryvitalpicture,occurbutseldom.Whatthepainterhastodoistofixthemvividlyinhismemory,tosnapshotthem,asitwere,sothattheymaystandbyhimduringthetoilsomeprocedureofthepainting,andguidethework.

Thisinitialinspiration,thisinitialflashinthemind,neednotbetheresultofasceneinnature,butmayofcoursebepurelytheworkoftheimagination;acomposition,thesenseofwhichflashesacrossthemind.Butineithercasethedifficultyistopreservevividlythesensationofthisoriginalartisticimpulse.Andinthecaseofitshavingbeenderivedfromnaturedirect,asissooftenthecasein

modernart,thesystemofpaintingcontinuallyonthespotisapttolosetouchwithitverysoon.Forinthecontinualobservationofanythingyouhavesetyoureaselbeforedayafterday,comesaseriesofimpressions,moreandmorecommonplace,astheeyebecomesmoreandmorefamiliarwiththedetailsofthesubject.Anderelongtheoriginalemotionthatwasthereasonofthewholeworkislostsightof,andoneofthosepicturesordrawingsgivingacatalogueoftiredobjectsmoreorlessingeniouslyarranged(thatweallknowsowell)istheresult--workutterlylackinginthefreshnessandcharmoftrueinspiration.Forhowevercommonplacethesubjectseenbytheartistinoneofhis"flashes,"itisclothedinanewnessandsurprisethatcharmus,beitonlyanorangeonaplate.

Nowapictureisathingofpaintuponaflatsurface,andadrawingisamatterofcertainmarksuponapaper,andhowtotranslatetheintricaciesofavisualorimaginedimpressiontotheprosaictermsofmassesofcolouredpigmentorlinesandtonesisthebusinesswithwhichourtechniqueisconcerned.Theease,therefore,withwhichapainterwillbeabletorememberanimpressioninaformfromwhichhecanwork,willdependuponhispowertoanalysevisioninthistechnicalsense.Themoreoneknowsaboutwhatmaybecalledtheanatomyofpicture-making--howcertainformsproducecertaineffects,certaincoloursorarrangementsothereffects,&c.--theeasierwillitbeforhimtocarryawayavisualmemoryofhissubjectthatwillstandbyhimduringthelonghoursofhislaboursatthepicture.Themoreheknowsoftheexpressivepowersoflinesandtones,themoreeasilywillhebe

abletoobservethevitalthingsinnaturethatconveytheimpressionhewishestomemorise.

Itisnotenoughtodrinkinandremembertheemotionalsideofthematter,althoughthismustbedonefully,butifamemoryofthesubjectistobecarriedawaythatwillbeofservicetechnically,thescenemustbecommittedtomemoryintermsofwhatevermediumyouintendtoemployforreproducingit--inthecaseofadrawing,linesandtones.Andtheimpressionwillhavetobeanalysedintothesetermsasifyouwereactuallydrawingthesceneonsomeimaginedpieceofpaperinyour

mind.Thefacultyofdoingthisisnottobeacquiredallatonce,butitisamazingofhowmuchdevelopmentitiscapable.Justasthefacultyofcommittingtomemorylongpoemsorplayscanbedeveloped,socanthefacultyofrememberingvisualthings.Thissubjecthasreceivedlittleattentioninartschoolsuntiljustrecently.Butitisnotyetsosystematicallydoneasitmightbe.MonsieurLecoqdeBoisbaudraninFranceexperimentedwithpupilsinthismemorytraining,beginningwithverysimplethingsliketheoutlineofanose,andgoingontomorecomplexsubjectsbyeasystages,withthemostsurprisingresults.Andthereisnodoubtthatagreatdealmorecanandshouldbedoneinthisdirectionthanisatpresentattempted.Whatstudentsshoulddoistoformahabitofmakingeverydayintheirsketch-bookadrawingofsomethingtheyhaveseenthathasinterestedthem,andthattheyhavemadesomeattemptatmemorising.Don'tbediscouragediftheresultsarepooranddisappointingatfirst--youwillfindthatbyperseveringyourpowerofmemorywilldevelopandbeofthegreatestservicetoyouinyourafterwork.Tryparticularlytorememberthespiritofthesubject,andinthismemory-drawingsomescribblingandfumblingwillnecessarilyhavetobedone.Youcannotexpecttobeabletodrawdefinitelyandclearlyfrommemory,atleastatfirst,althoughyouraimshouldalwaysbetodrawasfranklyandclearlyasyoucan.

[Illustration:PlateLIV.

STUDYONBROWNPAPERINBLACKANDWHITECONTÃCHALKIllustratingasimplemethodofstudyingdraperyforms.]

Letusassumethatyouhavefoundasubjectthatmovesyouandthat,beingtoofleetingtodrawonthespot,youwishtocommittomemory.Drinkafullenjoymentofit,letitsoakin,fortherecollectionofthiswillbeoftheutmostusetoyouafterwardsinguidingyourmemory-drawing.Thismentalimpressionisnotdifficulttorecall;itisthevisualimpressionintermsoflineandtonethatisdifficulttoremember.Havingexperiencedyourfullenjoymentoftheartisticmatterinthesubject,youmustnextconsideritfromthematerialside,asaflat,visualimpression,asthisistheonlyforminwhichitcanbe

expressedonaflatsheetofpaper.Notetheproportionsofthemainlines,theirshapesanddisposition,asifyouweredrawingit,infactdothewholedrawinginyourmind,memorisingtheformsandproportionsofthedifferentparts,andfixitinyourmemorytothesmallestdetail.

Ifonlytheemotionalsideofthematterhasbeenremembered,whenyoucometodrawityouwillbehopelesslyatsea,asitisremarkablehowlittlethememoryretainsoftheappearanceofthingsconstantlyseen,ifnoattempthasbeenmadetomemorisetheirvisualappearance.

Thetrueartist,evenwhenworkingfromnature,worksfrommemoryverylargely.Thatistosay,heworkstoaschemeintunetosomeemotional

enthusiasmwithwhichthesubjecthasinspiredhiminthefirstinstance.Natureisalwayschanging,buthedoesnotchangetheintentionofhispicture.Healwayskeepsbeforehimtheinitialimpressionhesetsouttopaint,andonlyselectsfromnaturethosethingsthatplayuptoit.Heisafeebleartist,whocopiesindividuallythepartsofascenewithwhatevereffecttheymayhaveatthemomentheisdoingthem,andthenexpectsthesumtotaltomakeapicture.Ifcircumstancespermit,itisalwaysaswelltomakeinthefirstinstancearapidsketchthatshall,whateveritmaylack,atleastcontainthemaindispositionofthemassesandlinesofyourcomposition

seenundertheinfluenceoftheenthusiasmthathasinspiredthework.Thiswillbeofgreatvalueafterwardsinfresheningyourmemorywheninthelabouroftheworktheoriginalimpulsegetsdulled.Itisseldomthatthevitalityofthisfirstsketchissurpassedbythecompletedwork,andoften,alas!itisfarfromequalled.

Inportraitpaintinganddrawingthememorymustbeusedalso.Asittervariesverymuchintheimpressionhegivesondifferentdays,andtheartistmustintheearlysittings,whenhismindisfresh,selecttheaspecthemeanstopaintandafterwardsworklargelytothememoryofthis.

Alwaysworktoaschemeonwhichyouhavedecided,anddonotflounderoninthehopeofsomethingturningupasyougoalong.Yourfacultiesareneversoactiveandpronetoseesomethinginterestingandfineaswhenthesubjectisfirstpresentedtothem.Thisisthetimetodecideyourscheme;thisisthetimetotakeyourfilloftheimpressionyoumeantoconvey.Thisisthetimetolearnyoursubjectthoroughlyanddecideonwhatyouwishthepicturetobe.Andhavingdecidedthis,workstraighton,usingnaturetosupportyouroriginalimpression,butdon'tbeledoffbyafreshschemebecauseothersstrikeyouasyougoalong.Newschemeswilldoso,ofcourse,andeverynewonehasaknackoflookingbetterthanyouroriginalone.Butitisnotoftenthatthisisso;thefactthattheyarenewmakesthemappeartogreateradvantage

thantheoriginalschemetowhichyouhavegotaccustomed.Sothatitisnotonlyinworkingawayfromnaturethatthememoryisofuse,butactuallywhenworkingdirectlyinfrontofnature.

Tosumup,therearetwoaspectsofasubject,theoneluxuriatinginthesensuouspleasureofit,withallofspiritualsignificanceitmayconsciouslyorunconsciouslyconvey,andtheotherconcernedwiththelines,tones,shapes,&c.,andtheirrhythmicordering,bymeansofwhichitistobeexpressed--thematterandmanner,astheymaybecalled.And,iftheartist'smemoryistobeofusetohiminhiswork,boththeseaspectsmustbememorised,andofthetwothesecondwillneedthemostattention.Butalthoughtherearethesetwoaspectsofthesubject,andeachmustreceiveseparateattentionwhenmemorisingit,

theyareinrealityonlytwoaspectsofthesamething,whichintheactofpaintingordrawingmustbeunitedifaworkofartistoresult.Whenasubjectfirstflashesuponanartisthedelightsinitasapaintedordrawnthing,andfeelsinstinctivelythetreatmentitwillrequire.Ingooddraughtsmanshipthethingfeltwillguideandgoverneverything,everytouchwillbeinstinctwiththethrillofthatfirstimpression.Thecraftsmanmind,solaboriouslybuiltup,shouldbynowhavebecomeaninstinct,asecondnature,atthedirectionofahigherconsciousness.Atsuchtimestherightstrokes,therighttonescomenaturallyandgoontherightplace,theartistbeingonlyconsciousofafiercejoyandafeelingthatthingsareintuneandgoingwellforonce.Itisthethirstforthisgloriousenthusiasm,thisfusingofmatterandmanner,thisactofgivingthespiritwithinoutwardform,

thatspurstheartistonatalltimes,anditisthisthatisthewonderfulthingaboutart.

PROCEDURE

Incommencingadrawing,don't,assomanystudentsdo,startcarelesslyflounderingaboutwithyourchalkorcharcoalinthehopethatsomethingwillturnup.Itisseldomifeverthatanartistputsonpaperanythingbetterthanhehasinhismindbeforehestarts,andusuallyitisnotnearlysogood.

Don'tspoilthebeautyofacleansheetofpaperbyalotofscribble.Tryandseeinyourmind'seyethedrawingyoumeantodo,andthentryandmakeyourhandrealiseit,makingthepapermorebeautifulbyeverytouchyougiveinsteadofspoilingitbyaslovenlymannerofprocedure.

Toknowwhatyouwanttodoandthentodoitisthesecretofgoodstyleandtechnique.Thissoundsverycommonplace,butitissurprisinghowfewstudentsmakeittheiraim.Youmayoftenobservethemcomein,pinapieceofpaperontheirboard,drawalinedownthemiddle,makeafewmeasurements,andstartblockinginthedrawingwithouthavinggiventhesubjecttobedrawnathought,asifitwerealltheredonebeforethem,andonlyneededcopying,asaclerkwouldcopyaletteralreadydraftedforhim.

Now,nothingisbeingsaidagainstthepracticeofdrawingguidelinesandtakingmeasurementsandblockinginyourwork.Thisisverynecessaryinacademicwork,ifratherfetteringtoexpressivedrawing;

buteveninthemostacademicdrawingtheartisticintelligencemustbeused,althoughthatisnotthekindofdrawingthischapterisparticularlyreferringto.

Lookwellatthemodelfirst;tryandbemovedbysomethingintheformthatyoufeelisfineorinteresting,andtryandseeinyourmind'seyewhatsortofdrawingyoumeantodobeforetouchingyourpaper.Inschoolstudiesbealwaysunflinchinglyhonesttotheimpressionthemodelgivesyou,butdismissthecameraideaoftruthfromyourmind.Insteadofconvertingyourselfintoamechanicalinstrumentforthecopyingofwhatisbeforeyou,letyourdrawingbeanexpressionoftruthperceivedintelligently.

Beextremelycarefulaboutthefirstfewstrokesyouputonyourpaper:thequalityofyourdrawingisoftendecidedintheseearlystages.Iftheyarevitalandexpressive,youhavestartedalonglinesyoucandevelop,andhavesomehopeofdoingagooddrawing.Iftheyarefeebleandpoor,thechancesaregreatlyagainstyourgettinganythinggoodbuiltuponthem.Ifyourstarthasbeenbad,pullyourselftogether,turnyourpaperoverandstartafresh,tryingtoseizeuponthebig,significantlinesandswingsinyoursubjectatonce.Rememberitismucheasiertoputdownastatementcorrectlythantocorrectawrongone;sooutwiththewholepartifyouareconvinceditiswrong.Trainyourselftomakedirect,accuratestatementsinyourdrawings,anddon'twastetimetryingtomanoeuvreabaddrawingintoagoodone.Stopassoonasyoufeelyouhavegonewrongandcorrecttheworkinitsearly

stages,insteadofrushingonuponawrongfoundationinthevaguehopethatitwillallcomerightintheend.Whenoutwalking,ifyoufindyouhavetakenawrongroadyoudonot,ifyouarewise,gooninthehopethatthewrongwaywillleadtotherightone,butyouturnroundandgobacktothepointatwhichyoulefttherightroad.Itisverymuchthesameindrawingandpainting.Assoonasyoubecomeawarethatyouhavegotuponthewrongtrack,stopandruboutyourworkuntilanearlierstagethatwasrightisreached,andstartalongagainfromthispoint.Asyoureyegetstrainedyouwillmorequicklyperceivewhenyouhavedoneawrongstroke,andbeabletocorrectitbeforehavinggone

veryfaralongthewrongroad.

Donotworktoolongwithoutgivingyoureyealittlerest;afewmomentswillbequitesufficient.Ifthingswon'tcome,stopaminute;theeyeoftengetsfatiguedveryquicklyandrefusestoseetruly,butsoonrevivesifrestedaminuteortwo.

Donotgolabouringatadrawingwhenyourmindisnotworking;youarenotdoinganygood,andprobablyarespoilinganygoodyouhavealreadydone.Pullyourselftogether,andaskwhatitisyouaretryingtoexpress,andhavinggotthisideafirmlyfixedinyourmind,goforyourdrawingwiththedeterminationthatitshallexpressit.

Allthiswillsoundverytritetostudentsofanymettle,buttherearelargenumberswhowastenoendoftimeworkinginapurelymechanical,lifelessway,andwiththeirmindsanywherebutconcentratedupontheworkbeforethem.Andifthemindisnotworking,theworkofthehandwillbeofnoaccount.Myownexperienceisthatonehasconstantlytobemakingfresheffortduringtheprocedureofthework.Themindisapttotireandneedsrousingcontinually,otherwisetheworkwilllacktheimpulsethatshallmakeitvital.Particularlyisthissointhefinalstagesofadrawingorpainting,when,inaddingdetailsandsmallrefinements,itisdoublynecessaryforthemindtobeonfirewiththeinitialimpulse,orthemainqualitieswillbeobscuredandtheresult

enfeebledbythesesmallermatters.Donotrubout,ifyoucanpossiblyhelpit,indrawingsthataimatartisticexpression.Inacademicwork,whereartisticfeelingislessimportantthanthedisciplineofyourfaculties,youmay,ofcourse,doso,butevenhereaslittleaspossible.Inbeautifuldrawingofanyfacilityithasaweakeningeffect,somewhatsimilartothatproducedbyapersonstoppinginthemiddleofawittyorbrilliantremarktocorrectaword.Ifawronglineismade,itisleftinbythesideoftherightoneinthedrawingofmanyofthemasters.Butthegreataimofthedraughtsmanshouldbetotrainhimselftodrawcleanlyandfearlessly,handandeyegoingtogether.Butthisstateofthingscannotbeexpectedforsometime.

Letpainstakingaccuracybeyouraimforalongtime.Whenyoureyeandhandhaveacquiredthepowerofseeingandexpressingonpaperwithsomedegreeofaccuracywhatyousee,youwillfindfacilityandquicknessofexecutionwillcomeoftheirownaccord.Indrawingofanyexpressivepowerthisquicknessandfacilityofexecutionareabsolutelyessential.Thewavesofemotion,undertheinfluenceofwhichtheeyereallyseesinanyartisticsense,donotlastlongenoughtoallowofaslow,painstakingmannerofexecution.Theremustbenohitchinthemachineryofexpressionwhentheconsciousnessisalivetotherealisationofsomethingfine.Fluencyofhandandaccuracyofeyearethethingsyouracademicstudiesshouldhavetaughtyou,andthesepowerswillbeneededifyouaretocatchtheexpressionofanyofthefinerthingsinform

thatconstitutegooddrawing.

Tryandexpressyourselfinassimple,notascomplicatedamanneraspossible.Leteverytouchmeansomething,andifyoudon'tseewhattodonext,don'tfillinthetimebymeaninglessshadingandscribblinguntilyoudo.Waitawhile,restyoureyebylookingaway,andthenseeifyoucannotfindsomethingrightthatneedsdoing.

Beforebeginningadrawing,itisnotabadideatostudycarefullytheworkofsomemasterdraughtsmanwhomthesubjecttobedrawnmay

suggest.Ifyoudothiscarefullyandthoughtfully,andtakeinafullenjoyment,youreyewillunconsciouslybeledtoseeinnaturesomeofthequalitiesofthemaster'swork.Andyouwillseethesubjecttobedrawnasamuchfinerthingthanwouldhavebeenthecasehadyoucometoitwithyoureyeunpreparedinanyway.Reproductionsarenowsogoodandcheapthatthebestdrawingsintheworldcanbehadforafewpence,andeverystudentshouldbegincollectingreproductionsofthethingsthatinteresthim.

Thisisnottheplacetodiscussquestionsofhealth,butperhapsitwillnotbethoughtgrandmotherlytomentiontheextremeimportanceofnervousvitalityinafinedraughtsman,andhowhislifeshouldbeorderedonsuchhealthylinesthathehasathiscommandthemaximuminsteadoftheminimumofthisfaculty.Afteracertainpoint,itisaquestionofvitalityhowfaranartistislikelytogoinart.Giventwomenofequalability,theoneleadingacarelesslifeandtheotherahealthyone,asfarasahealthyoneispossibletosuchasupersensitivecreatureasanartist,therecanbenodoubtastotheresult.Itisbecausethereisstillalingeringideainthemindsofmanythatanartistmustleadadissipatedlifeorheisnotreallyanartist,thatonefeelsitnecessarytomentionthesubject.Thisideahasevidentlyarisenfromtheinabilityoftheaveragepersontoassociateanunconventionalmodeoflifewithanythingbutriotousdissipation.Aconventionallifeisnottheonlywholesomeformof

existence,andiscertainlyamostunwholesomeanddeadeningformtotheartist;andneitherisadissipatedlifetheonlyunconventionaloneopentohim.Itisaswellthattheyoungstudentshouldknowthis,andbeledearlytotakegreatcareofthatmostvaluableofstudioproperties,vigoroushealth.

MATERIALS

Thematerialsinwhichtheartistworksareofthegreatestimportanceindeterminingwhatqualitiesintheinfinitecomplexityofnatureheselectsforexpression.Andthegooddraughtsmanwillfindouttheparticularonesthatbelongtowhatevermediumheselectsforhisdrawing,andbecarefulnevertoattemptmorethanitiscapableofdoing.Everymaterialheworkswithpossessescertainvitalqualitiespeculiartoitself,anditishisbusinesstofindoutwhattheseareandusethemtotheadvantageofhisdrawing.Whenoneisworkingwith,say,penandink,thenecessityforselectingonlycertainthingsisobviousenough.Butwhenamediumwiththevastcapacityofoilpaintisbeingused,theprincipleofitsgoverningthenatureoftheworkismoreoftenlostsightof.Sonearcanoilpaintapproachanactual

illusionofnaturalappearances,thatmuchmisdirectedefforthasbeenwastedonthisobject,allenjoymentofthemediumbeingsubordinatedtoameretriciousattempttodeceivetheeye.AndIbelieveapopularideaoftheartofpaintingisthatitexistschieflytoproducethisdeception.Novitalexpressionofnaturecanbeachievedwithouttheaidoftheparticularvitalitypossessedbythemediumwithwhichoneisworking.Ifthisislostsightofandtheeyeistrickedintothinkingthatitislookingatrealnature,itisnotafinepicture.Artisnotasubstitutefornature,butanexpressionoffeelingproducedintheconsciousnessoftheartist,andintimatelyassociatedwiththematerial

throughwhichitisexpressedinhiswork--inspired,itmaybe,inthefirstinstance,bysomethingseen,andexpressedbyhiminpaintedsymbolsastruetonatureashecanmakethemwhilekeepingintunetotheemotionalideathatpromptedthework;butneverregardedbythefineartistasanythingbutpaintedsymbolsnevertheless.Neverforonemomentdoesheintendyoutoforgetthatitisapaintedpictureyouarelookingat,howevernaturalisticthetreatmenthisthememaydemand.

Intheearlierhistoryofartitwasnotsonecessarytoinsistonthelimitationsimposedbydifferentmediums.Withtheirmorelimitedknowledgeofthephenomenaofvision,theearlymastershadnotthesameopportunitiesofgoingastrayinthisrespect.Butnowthatthewholefieldofvisionhasbeendiscovered,andthatthesubtlesteffectsoflightandatmospherearecapableofbeingrepresented,ithasbecomenecessarytodecidehowfarcompleteaccuracyofrepresentationwillhelptheparticularimpressionyoumayintendyourpictureordrawingtocreate.Thedangeristhatinproducingacompleteillusionofrepresentation,theparticularvitalityofyourmedium,withalltheexpressivepoweritiscapableofyielding,maybelost.

Perhapsthechiefdifferencebetweenthegreatmastersofthepastandmanymodernpaintersistheneglectofthisprinciple.#Theyrepresentednatureintermsofwhatevermediumtheyworkedin,andneveroversteppedthislimitation#.Modernartists,particularlyinthe

nineteenthcentury,oftenattemptedto#copynature#,themediumbeingsubordinatedtotheattempttomakeitlookliketherealthing.Inthesameway,thedrawingsofthegreatmastersweredrawings.Theydidnotattemptanythingwithapointthatapointwasnotcapableofexpressing.Thedrawingsofmanymodernartistsarefullofattemptstoexpresstoneandcoloureffects,thingsentirelyoutsidethetrueprovinceofdrawing.Thesmallbutinfinitelyimportantpartofnaturethatpuredrawingiscapableofconveyinghasbeenneglected,andlinework,untilrecently,wentoutoffashioninourschools.

Thereissomethingthatmakesforpowerinthelimitationsyourmaterialsimpose.Manyartistswhoseworkinsomeofthemorelimitedmediumsisfine,areutterlyfeeblewhentheyattemptonewithsofew

restrictionsasoilpaint.Ifstudentscouldonlybeinducedtoimposemorerestraintuponthemselveswhentheyattemptsodifficultamediumaspaint,itwouldbegreatlytotheadvantageoftheirwork.Beginningfirstwithmonochromeinthreetones,asexplainedinaformerchapter,theymightthentakeforfigureworkivoryblackandVenetianred.Itissurprisingwhatanamountofcoloureffectcanbegotwiththissimplemeans,andhowmuchcanbelearnedabouttherelativepositionsofthewarmandcoldcolours.Donotattemptthefullrangeoftoneatfirst,butkeepthedarksratherlighterandthelightsdarkerthannature.Attemptthefullscaleoftoneonlywhenyouhaveacquiredsufficientexperiencewiththesimplerrange,andgraduallyaddmorecoloursasyoulearntomasterafew.Butrestraintsarenotsofashionablejustnowasunbridledlicence.Artstudentsstartinwithapalettefullofthe

mostamazingcolours,producingresultsthatitwerebetternottodiscuss.Itisawisemanwhocandiscoverhislimitationsandselectamediumthecapacitiesofwhichjusttallywithhisown.Todiscoverthis,itisadvisabletotrymany,andbelowisashortdescriptionofthechiefonesusedbythedraughtsman.Butverylittlecanbesaidaboutthem,andverylittleideaoftheircapacitiesgiveninawrittendescription;theymustbehandledbythestudent,andarenodoubtcapableofmanymorequalitiesthanhaveyetbeengotoutofthem.

[Sidenote:LeadPencil]

Thiswell-knownmediumisoneofthemostbeautifulforpurelinework,anditsuseisanexcellenttrainingtotheeyeandhandinprecisionofobservation.Perhapsthisiswhyithasnotbeensopopularinourartschoolslately,whenthecharmsofseveredisciplinearenotsomuchinfavourastheyshouldbe.Itisthefirstmediumwearegiventodrawwith,andasthehandiestandmostconvenientisunrivalledforsketch-bookuse.

Itismadeinalargevarietyofdegrees,fromthehardestandgreyesttothesoftestandblackest,andistoowellknowntoneedmuchdescription.Itdoesnotneedfixing.

Forpurelinedrawingnothingequalsit,exceptsilverpoint,andgreatdraughtsmen,likeIngres,havealwayslovedit.Itdoesnotlenditselfsoreadilytoanyformofmassdrawing.Althoughitissometimesusedforthispurpose,theoffensiveshinethatoccursifdarkmassesareintroducedisagainstitsuseinanybutverylightlyshadedwork.

[Illustration:PlateLV.

FROMASILVER-POINTDRAWING]

Itscharmistheextremedelicacyofitsgrey-blacklines.

[Sidenote:SilverandGoldPoint.]

Similartoleadpencil,andofevengreaterdelicacy,issilver-pointdrawing.Amoreancientmethod,itconsistsindrawingwithasilverpointonpaperthesurfaceofwhichhasbeentreatedwithafaintwashofChinesewhite.Withoutthiswashthepointwillnotmakeamark.

Forextremedelicacyandpurityoflinenomediumcansurpassthismethod.Andfortheexpressionofabeautifulline,suchasaprofile,nothingcouldbemoresuitablethanasilverpoint.Asatrainingtotheeyeandhandalso,itisofgreatvalue,asnorubbingoutofanysortispossible,andeyeandhandmustworktogetherwithgreatexactness.

Thedisciplineofsilver-pointdrawingistoberecommendedasacorrectivetothepicturesquevagariesofcharcoalwork.

Agoldpoint,givingawarmerline,canalsobeusedinthesamewayasasilverpoint,thepaperfirsthavingbeentreatedwithChinesewhite.

[Sidenote:Charcoal.]

Twoextremepointsofviewfromwhichtherenderingofformcanbeapproachedhavebeenexplained,andithasbeensuggestedthatstudentsshouldstudythembothseparatelyinthefirstinstance,astheyeachhavedifferentthingstoteach.Ofthemediumsthatarebestsuitedtoadrawingcombiningbothpointsofview,thefirstandmostpopularis

charcoal.

Charcoalismadeinmanydifferentdegreesofhardnessandsoftness,thehardervarietiesbeingcapableofquiteafinepoint.Achisel-shapedpointisthemostconvenient,asitdoesnotwearawaysoquickly.Andifthebroadsideofthechiselpointisusedwhenadarkmassiswanted,theedgecanconstantlybekeptsharp.Withthisedgeaveryfinelinecanbedrawn.

Charcoalworkswithgreatfreedom,andanswersreadilywhenforceful

expressioniswanted.Itismuchmorelikepaintingthananyotherformofdrawing,awidepieceofcharcoalmakingawidemarksimilartoabrush.Thedelicacyandlightnesswithwhichithastobehandledisalsomuchmorelikethehandlingofabrushthananyotherpointdrawing.Whenrubbedwiththefinger,itshedsasoftgreytoneoverthewholework.Withapieceofbreadpressedbythumbandfingerintoapellet,highlightscanbetakenoutwiththeprecisionofwhitechalk;orrubbercanbeused.Breadis,perhaps,thebest,asitdoesnotsmudgethecharcoalbutliftsitreadilyoff.Whenrubbedwiththefinger,thedarks,ofcourse,arelightenedintone.Itisthereforeusefultodrawinthegeneralproportionsroughlyandrubdowninthisway.Youthenhaveamiddletoneoverthework,withtheroughdrawingshowingthrough.Nowproceedcarefullytodrawyourlightswithbreadorrubber,andyourshadowswithcharcoal,inmuchthesamemannerasyoudidinthemonochromeexercisesalreadydescribed.

Allpreliminarysettingoutofyourworkoncanvasisusuallydonewithcharcoal,whichmustofcoursebefixedwithaspraydiffuser.Forlargework,suchasafull-lengthportrait,sticksofcharcoalnearlyaninchindiameteraremade,andalongswinginglinecanbedonewithouttheirbreaking.

Fordrawingsthatareintendedasthingsofbeautyinthemselves,andarenotmerelydoneasapreparatorystudyforapainting,charcoalis

perhapsnotsorefinedamediumasagreatmanyothers.Itistoomuchlikepaintingtohavetheparticularbeautiesofadrawing,andtoomuchlikedrawingtohavethequalitiesofapainting.However,somebeautifulthingshavebeendonewithit.

Itisusefulindoingstudieswheremuchfinishisdesired,tofixtheworkslightlywhendrawninandcarriedsomewayon.Youcanworkoverthisagainwithoutcontinuallyrubbingoutwithyourhandwhatyouhavealreadydrawn.Ifnecessaryyoucanruboutwithahardpieceofrubberanypartsthathavealreadybeenfixed,orevenscrapewithapen-knife.Butthisisnotadvisableforanythingbutanacademicstudy,orworkingdrawings,asitspoilsthebeautyandfreshnessofcharcoalwork.StudiesdoneinthismediumcanalsobefinishedwithContÃ©chalk.

Thereisalsoanartificialcharcoalputupinsticks,thatisverygoodforrefinedwork.Ithassomeadvantagesovernaturalcharcoal,inthattherearenoknotsanditworksmuchmoreevenly.ThebestnaturalcharcoalIhaveusedistheFrenchmakeknownas"FusainRouget."Itismadeinthreedegrees,No.3beingthesoftest,and,ofcourse,theblackest.ButsomeoftheordinaryVenetianandvinecharcoalssoldaregood.Butdon'tgetthecheapervarieties:abadpieceofcharcoalisworsethanuseless.

Charcoalisfixedbymeansofasolutionofwhiteshellacdissolvedinspiritsofwine,blownonwithaspraydiffuser.Thisissoldbytheartists'colourmen,orcanbeeasilymadebythestudent.Itlightly

depositsathinfilmofshellacoverthework,actingasavarnishandpreventingitsrubbingoff.

Charcoalisnotonthewholethemediumanartistwithapureloveofformselects,butratherthatofthepainter,whousesitwhenhisbrushesandpaintsarenothandy.

[Sidenote:RedChalk(Sanguine).]

Adelightfulmediumthatcanbeusedforeitherpurelineworkora

mixedmethodofdrawing,isredchalk.Thisnaturalredearthisoneofthemostancientmaterialsfordrawing.ItisalovelyVenetianredincolour,andworkswellinthenaturalstate,ifyougetagoodpiece.Itissoldbytheounce,anditisadvisabletotrythepiecesastheyvaryverymuch,somebeinghardandgrittyandsomemoresoftandsmooth.ItisalsomadebyMessrs.ContÃ©ofParisinsticksartificiallyprepared.Theseworkwellandarenevergritty,butarenotsohardasthenaturalchalk,andconsequentlywearawayquicklyanddonotmakefinelinesaswell.

Redchalkwhenrubbedwiththefingeroraragspreadsevenlyonpaper,andproducesamiddletoneonwhichlightscanbedrawnwithrubberorbread.Sticksofhard,pointedrubberareeverywheresold,which,cutinachiselshape,workbeautifullyonredchalkdrawings.Breadisalsoexcellentwhenasofterlightiswanted.Youcancontinuallycorrectandredrawinthismediumbyrubbingitwiththefingerorarag,thusdestroyingthelightsandshadowstoalargeextent,andenablingyoutodrawthemagainmorecarefully.Forthisreasonredchalkisgreatlytoberecommendedformakingdrawingsforapicturewheremuchfumblingmaybenecessarybeforeyoufindwhatyouwant.Unlikecharcoal,ithardlyneedsfixing,andmuchmoreintimatestudyoftheformscanbegotintoit.

Mostofthedrawingsbytheauthorreproducedinthisbookaredonein

thismedium.Fordrawingsintendedtohaveaseparateexistenceitisoneoftheprettiestmediums.Infact,thisisthedangertothestudentwhilestudying:yourdrawinglookssomuchatitsbestthatyouareapttobesatisfiedtoosoon.Butforportraitdrawingsthereisnomediumtoequalit.

Additionalqualityofdarkisoccasionallygotbymixingalittleofthisredchalkinapowderedstatewithwaterandaverylittlegum-arabic.Thiscanbeappliedwithasablebrushasinwater-colourpainting,andmakesarichvelvetydark.

Itisnecessarytoselectyourpaperwithsomecare.Theordinarypaperhastoomuchsizeonit.Thisispickedupbythechalk,andwill

preventitsmarking.Apaperwithlittlesizeisbest,oroldpaperwherethesizehasperished.IfindanO.W.paper,madeforprintingetchings,asgoodasanyforordinarywork.Itisnotperfect,butworksverywell.Whatonewantsisthesmoothestpaperwithoutafacedandhot-pressedsurface,anditisdifficulttofind.

Occasionallyblackchalkisusedwiththeredtoaddstrengthtoit.Andsomedraughtsmenuseitwiththeredinsuchamannerastoproducealmostafullcoloureffect.

Holbein,whousedthismediumlargely,tintedthepaperinmostofhisportraitdrawings,varyingthetintverymuch,andsometimesusingzincwhiteasawash,whichenabledhimtosupplementhisworkwitha

silver-pointlinehereandthere,andalsogotoveranydifficultythesizeinthepapermightcause.Hisaimseemstohavebeentoselectthefewessentialthingsinaheadanddrawthemwithgreatfinalityandexactness.Inmanyofthedrawingstheearlierworkhasbeendonewithredorblackchalkandthenrubbeddownandthedrawingredonewitheitherabrushandsomeofthechalkrubbedupwithwaterandgumorasilver-pointlineofgreatpurity,whileinothershehastintedthepaperwithwater-colourandrubbedthisawaytothewhitepaperwherehewantedalight,orChinesewhitehasbeenusedforthesamepurpose.

BlackContÃ©isahardblackchalkmadeinsmallsticksofdifferentdegrees.Itisalsoputupincedarpencils.Rathermoregrittythanredchalkorcharcoal,itisafavouritemediumwithsome,andcanbeusedwithadvantagetosupplementcharcoalwhenmoreprecisionanddefinitionarewanted.Ithasverymuchthesamequalityoflineandsodoesnotshowasadifferentmedium.Itcanberubbedlikecharcoalandredchalkandwillspreadatoneoverthepaperinverymuchthesameway.

[Sidenote:Whitechalk.]

Whitechalkissometimesusedontonedpapertodrawthelights,thepaperservingasahalftonewhiletheshadowsandoutlinesaredrawninblackorred.Inthiskindofdrawingthechalkshouldneverbeallowedtocomeincontactwiththeblackorredchalkoftheshadows,thehalftoneofthepapershouldalwaysbebetweenthem.

Forrubbedworkwhitepastelisbetterthantheordinarywhitechalksoldfordrawing,asitisnotsohard.Adrawingdoneinthismethodwithwhitepastelandredchalkisreproducedonpage46[Transcribers

Note:PlateIV],andonewiththehardwhitechalk,onpage260[TranscribersNote:PlateLIV].

Thisisthemethodcommonlyusedformakingstudiesofdrapery,theextremerapiditywithwhichthepositionofthelightsandshadowscanbeexpressedbeingofgreatimportancewhensounstableasubjectasanarrangementofdraperyisbeingdrawn.

[Sidenote:Lithography.]

Lithographyasameansofartisticreproductionhassufferedmuchinpublicesteembybeingputtoallmannerofinartistictradeuses.Itisreallyoneofthemostwonderfulmeansofreproducinganartist'sactual

work,theresultbeing,inmostcases,soidenticalwiththeoriginalthat,seentogether,iftheoriginaldrawinghasbeendoneonpaper,itisalmostimpossibletodistinguishanydifference.Andofcourse,asinetching,itistheprintsthatarereallytheoriginals.Theinitialworkisonlydoneasameansofproducingthese.

Adrawingismadeonalithographicstone,thatis,apieceoflimestonethathasbeenpreparedwithanalmostperfectlysmoothsurface.Thechalkusedisaspecialkindofagreasynature,andismadeinseveraldegreesofhardnessandsoftness.Norubbingoutispossible,butlinescanbescratchedoutwithaknife,orpartsmadelighterbywhitelinesbeingdrawnbyaknifeoverthem.Agreatrangeoffreedomandvarietyispossibleintheseinitialdrawingsonstone.Thechalkcanberubbed

upwithalittlewater,likeacakeofwater-colour,andappliedwithabrush.Andeveryvarietyoftonecanbemadewiththesideofthechalk.

Somecareshouldbetakennottoletthewarmfingertouchthestone,oritmaymakeagreasymarkthatwillprint.

Whenthisinitialdrawingisdonetotheartist'ssatisfaction,themostusualmethodistotreatthestonewithasolutionofgum-arabicandalittlenitricacid.Afterthisisdry,thegumiswashedoffasfarasmaybewithwater;someofthegumisleftintheporousstone,

butitisrejectedwherethegreasylinesandtonesofthedrawingcome.Printsmaynowbeobtainedbyrollingupthestonewithaninkedroller.Theinkiscomposedofavarnishofboiledlinseedoilandanyofthelithographiccolourstobecommerciallyobtained.

Theinkdoesnottakeonthedampgummedstone,butonlywherethelithographicchalkhasmadeagreasymark,sothataperfectfacsimileofthedrawingonstoneisobtained,whenasheetofpaperisplacedonthestoneandthewholeputthroughthepress.

Themediumdeservestobemuchmorepopularwithdraughtsmenthanitis,asnomoreperfectmeansofreproductioncouldbedevised.

Thelithographicstoneisratheracumbersomethingtohandle,buttheinitialdrawingcanbedoneonpaperandafterwardstransferredtothestone.Inthecaseoflineworktheresultispracticallyidentical,butwheremuchtoneandplayingaboutwiththechalkisindulgedin,thestoneismuchbetter.Lithographicpapersofdifferenttexturesaremadeforthispurpose,butalmostanypaperwilldo,providedthedrawingisdonewiththespeciallithographicchalk.

[Sidenote:PenandInk.]

Penandinkwasafavouritemeansofmakingstudieswithmanyold

masters,notablyRembrandt.Oftenheighteningtheeffectwithawash,heconveyedmarvelloussuggestionswiththesimplestscribbles.Butitisadifficultmediumfortheyoungstudenttohopetodomuchwithinhisstudies,althoughfortrainingtheeyeandhandtoquickdefinitestatementofimpressions,thereismuchtobesaidforit.Nohuggingofhalftonesispossible,thingsmustbereducedtoastatementofcleardarks--whichwouldbeausefulcorrectivetothetendencysomanystudentshaveofseeingchieflythehalftonesintheirwork.

[Illustration:PlateLVI.

STUDYINPENANDINKANDWASHFORTREEIN"THEBOARHUNT"RUBENS(LOUVRE)

_PhotoGiraudon_]

Thekindofpenusedwilldependonthekindofdrawingyouwishtomake.Insteelpensthereareinnumerablevarieties,fromthefinecrow-quillstothethick"J"nibs.Thenaturalcrow-quillisamuchmoresympathetictoolthanasteelpen,althoughnotquitesocertaininitsline.Butmoreplayandvarietyistobegotoutofit,andwhenafreependrawingiswanteditispreferable.

Reedpensarealsomade,andareusefulwhenthicklinesarewanted.Theysometimeshaveasteelspringunderneathtoholdtheinksomewhatinthesamemannerassomefountainpens.

Thereisevenaglasspen,consistingofasharp-pointedconeofglasswithgroovesrunningdowntothepoint.Theinkisheldinthesegrooves,andrunsdownandisdepositedfreelyasthepenisused.Alineofonlyonethicknesscanbedrawnwithit,butthiscanbedrawninanydirection,anadvantageovermostothershapes.

[Sidenote:Etching.]

Etchingisaprocessofreproductionthatconsistsindrawingwitha

steelpointonawaxedplateofcopperorzinc,andthenputtingitinabathofdilutednitricacidtobiteinthelines.Thelongertheplateremainsinthebaththedeeperanddarkerthelinesbecome,sothatvarietyinthicknessisgotbystoppingoutwithavarnishthelightlineswhentheyaresufficientlystrong,andlettingthedarkeroneshavealongerexposuretotheacid.

Manywonderfulandbeautifulthingshavebeendonewiththissimplemeans.Theprintingconsistsininkingtheplatealloverandwipingoffuntilonlythelinesretainanyink,whentheplateisputinapressandanimpressiontaken.Orsomeslightamountofinkmaybeleftontheplateincertainplaceswhereatintiswanted,andalittlemaybesmudgedoutofthelinesthemselvestogivethemasofterquality.Infacttherearenoendoftricksacleveretchingprinterwilladopttogivequalitytohisprint.

[Sidenote:Paper.]

Thevarietiesofpaperonthemarketattheserviceoftheartistareinnumerable,andnothingneedbesaidhereexceptthatthetextureofyourpaperwillhaveaconsiderableinfluenceonyourdrawing.Buttryeverysortofpapersoastofindwhatsuitstheparticularthingsyouwanttoexpress.ImakeapointofbuyingeverynewpaperIsee,andanewpaperisoftenastimulanttosomenewqualityindrawing.Avoidthe

wood-pulppapers,astheyturndarkafteratime.Linenragistheonlysafesubstanceforgoodpapers,andartistsnowhaveintheO.W.papersalargeseriesthattheycanrelyonbeingmadeoflinenonly.

Itissometimesadvisable,whenyouarenotdrawingasubjectthatdemandsaclearhardline,butwheremoresympatheticqualitiesarewanted,tohaveawadofseveralsheetsofpaperundertheoneyouareworkingon,pinnedonthedrawing-board.Thisgivesyouamoresympatheticsurfacetoworkuponandimprovesthequalityofyourwork.Inredrawingastudywithwhichyouarenotquitesatisfied,itisagoodplantouseathinpaper,pinningitoverthefirststudysothatitcanbeseenthrough.Onecanbythismeansstartasitwerefromthepointwhereoneleftoff.Goodpapersofthisdescriptionarenowonthe

market.Ifancytheyarecalled"bank-note"papers.

CONCLUSION

Mechanicalinvention,mechanicalknowledge,andevenamechanicaltheoryoftheuniverse,havesoinfluencedtheaveragemodernmind,thatithasbeenthoughtnecessaryintheforegoingpagestospeakoutstrongly

againsttheideaofamechanicalstandardofaccuracyinartisticdrawing.Ifthereweresuchastandard,thephotographiccamerawouldserveourpurposewellenough.And,consideringhowlargelythisideaisheld,oneneednotbesurprisedthatsomepaintersusethecamera;indeed,thewonderisthattheydonotuseitmore,asitgivesinsomeperfectionthemechanicalaccuracywhichisalltheyseemtoaimatintheirwork.Theremaybetimeswhenthecameracanbeofusetoartists,butonlytothosewhoarethoroughlycompetenttodowithoutit--tothosewhocanlook,asitwere,throughthephotographanddrawfromitwiththesamefreedomandspontaneitywithwhichtheywoulddrawfrom

nature,thusavoidingitsdeadmechanicalaccuracy,whichisaverydifficultthingtodo.Butthecameraisaconveniencetobeavoidedbythestudent.

Now,althoughithasbeennecessarytoinsiststronglyonthedifferencebetweenphenomenamechanicallyrecordedandtherecordsofalivingindividualconsciousness,Ishouldbeverysorryifanythingsaidshouldleadstudentstoassumethatalooseandcarelessmannerofstudywasinanywayadvocated.Thetrainingofhiseyeandhandtothemostpainstakingaccuracyofobservationandrecordmustbethestudent'saimformanyyears.Thevariationsonmechanicalaccuracyintheworkofafinedraughtsmanneednotbe,andseldomare,consciousvariations.Mechanicalaccuracyisamucheasierthingtoaccomplishthanaccuracytothesubtleperceptionsoftheartist.Andhewhocannotdrawwithgreatprecisiontheordinarycoldaspectofthingscannothopetocatchthefleetingaspectofhisfinervision.

Thoseartistswhocanonlydrawinsomeweirdfashionremotefromnaturemayproduceworkofsomeinterest;buttheyaretoomuchatthemercyofanaturaltrickofhandtohopetobemorethaninterestingcuriositiesinart.

Theobjectofyourtrainingindrawingshouldbetodeveloptotheuttermosttheobservationofformandallthatitsignifies,andyour

powersofaccuratelyportrayingthisonpaper.#Unflinchinghonesty#mustbeobservedinallyourstudies.Itisonlythenthatthe"you"inyouwilleventuallyfindexpressioninyourwork.Anditisthispersonalquality,thisrecordingoftheimpressionsoflifeasfeltbyaconsciousindividualthatistheveryessenceofdistinctioninart.

The"seekingafteroriginality"somuchadvocatedwouldbebetterput"seekingforsincerity."Seekingfororiginalityusuallyresolvesitselfintorunningafteranypeculiarityinmannerthatthechangingfashionsofarestlessagemaythrowup.Oneofthemostoriginalmenwhoeverliveddidnottroubletoinventtheplotsofmorethanthreeorfourof

hisplays,butwascontenttotakethehackneyedworkofhistimeasthevehiclethroughwhichtopourtherichtreasuresofhisvisionoflife.Andwrote:

"Whatcustomwillsinallthingsdoyoudoit."

Individualstylewillcometoyounaturallyasyoubecomemoreconsciousofwhatitisyouwishtoexpress.Therearetwokindsofinsincerityinstyle,theemploymentofaready-madeconventionalmannerthatisnotunderstoodandthatdoesnotfitthematter;andtherunningafterandlaboriouslyseekinganoriginalmannerwhennooriginalmatterexists.Goodstyledependsonaclearideaofwhatitisyouwishtodo;itistheshortestmeanstotheendaimedat,themostaptmannerofconveying

thatpersonal"something"thatisinallgoodwork."Thestyleistheman,"asFlaubertsays.Thesplendourandvalueofyourstylewilldependonthesplendourandvalueofthementalvisioninspiredinyou,thatyouseektoconvey;onthequalityoftheman,inotherwords.Andthisisnotamatterwheredirectteachingcanhelpyou,butrestsbetweenyourownconsciousnessandthosehigherpowersthatmoveit.

APPENDIX

Ifyouaddalineof5inchestooneof8inchesyouproduceone13incheslong,andifyouproceedbyalwaysaddingthelasttwoyouarriveataseriesoflengths,5,8,13,21,34,55inches,&c.Mr.WilliamSchoolingtellsmethatanytwooftheselinesadjoiningoneanotherarepracticallyinthesameproportiontoeachother;thatistosay,one8inchesis1.600timesthesizeofone5inches,andthe13-inchlineis1.625thesizeofthe8-inch,andthe21-inchlinebeing1.615timesthe13-inchline,andsoon.Withthemathematician'sloveofaccuracy,Mr.Schoolinghasworkedouttheexactproportionthatshouldexistbetweenaseriesofquantitiesforthemtobeinthesameproportiontotheirneighbours,andinwhichanytwoaddedtogetherwouldproducethenext.Thereisonlyoneproportionthatwilldothis,andalthoughveryformidable,statedexactly,forpracticalpurposes,itisthatbetween5andafractionover8.Statedaccuratelytoelevenplacesofdecimalsitis(1+sqrt(5))/2=1.61803398875(nearly).

Wehaveevidentlyhereaveryuniqueproportion.Mr.SchoolinghascalledthisthePhiproportion,anditwillbeconvenienttorefertoitbythisname.

[Illustration:

THEPHIPROPORTION

ECis1.618033,&c.,timessizeofAB,CD""""BC,DE""""CD,&c.,

AC=CDBD=DE,&c.]

Testingthisproportiononthereproductionsofpicturesinthisbookintheorderoftheirappearing,wefindthefollowingremarkableresults:

"LosMeninas,"Velazquez,page60[TranscribersNote:PlateIX].--Theright-handsideoflightopeningofdoorattheendoftheroomisexactlyPhiproportionwiththetwosidesofpicture;andfurther,thebottomofthisopeningisexactlyPhiproportionwiththetopandbottomofcanvas.

Itwillbenoticedthatthisisaveryimportantpointinthe"placing"ofthecomposition.

"FÃªteChampÃªtre,"Giorgione,page151[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIII].--LowerendoffluteheldbyseatedfemalefigureexactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture,andlowersideofhandholdingit(a

pointslightlyabovetheendofflute)exactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofcanvas.Thisisalsoanimportantcentreintheconstructionofthecomposition.

"BacchusandAriadne,"Titian,page154[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXIV].--TheproportioninthispicturebothwithtopandbottomandsidesofcanvascomesintheshadowunderchinofBacchus;themostimportantpointinthecompositionbeingtheplacingofthishead.

"LoveandDeath,"byWatts,page158[TranscribersNote:Plate

XXXV].--PointfromwhichdraperyradiatesonfigureofDeathexactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.

Pointwhereright-handsideofrightlegofLovecutsdarkedgeofstepsexactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture.

"SurrenderofBreda,"byVelazquez,page161[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVI].--Firstspearinuprightrowontherighttopofpicture,exactlyPhiproportionwithsidesofcanvas.Heightofguncarriedhorizontallybymaninmiddledistanceabovecentralgroup,exactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.Thislinegivesheightofgroupoffiguresonleft,andisthemostimportanthorizontallineinthepicture.

"BirthofVenus,"Botticelli,page166[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVII].--HeightofhorizonlinePhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.HeightofshellonwhichVenusstandsPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture,thesmallerquantitybeingbelowthistime.LaterallytheextremeedgeofdarkdraperyheldbyfigureonrightthatblowstowardsVenusisPhiproportionwithsidesofpicture.

"TheRapeofEuropa,"byPaoloVeronese,page168[TranscribersNote:PlateXXXVIII].--TopofheadofEuropaexactlyPhiproportionwithtopandbottomofpicture.Right-handsideofsameheadslightlytoleftof

Phiproportionwithsidesofpicture(unlessinthereproductionapartofthepictureonthelefthasbeentrimmedaway,asislikely,inwhichcaseitwouldbeexactlyPhiproportion).

Ihavetakenthefirstsevenpicturesreproducedinthisbookthatwerenotselectedwithanyideaofillustratingthispoint,andIthinkyouwilladmitthatineachsomeveryimportantquantityhasbeenplacedinthisproportion.Onecouldgoonthroughalltheillustrationswereitnotforthefearofbecomingwearisome;andalso,onecouldgoonthroughsomeoftheminorrelationships,andpointouthowoftenthisproportionturnsupincompositions.Butenoughhasbeensaidtoshowthattheeyeevidentlytakessomeespecialpleasureinit,whatevermayeventuallybefoundtobethephysiologicalreasonunderlyingit.

Absorbentcanvas

Academicdrawing

Academicandconventional

Academicstudents

Accuracy,scientificandartistic

Anatomy,studyof,itsimportance

"AnsideiMadonna,"Raphael's

Apellesandhiscolours

Architecture,proportionin

Art,somedefinitionsof

Artist,the

Atmosphereindicatedbyshading

Atmosphericcolours

Audley,Lady,Holbein'sportraitof

"BacchusandAriadne,"Titian's

Backgrounds

Balance

Balancebetweenstraightlinesandcurves

BalancebetweenflatandgradatedtonesBalancebetweenlightanddarktones

Balancebetweenwarmandcoldcolours

Balancebetweeninterestandmass

Balancebetweenvarietyandunity

"Bank-note"papers

BastienLepage

Bathforetching

Beauty,definitionof

Beautyandprettiness

Beautyandtruth

"BirthofVenus,the,"Botticelli's

Blackchalk

BlackContÃ©

Blackglass,theuseofa

Blake,exampleofparallelism

Blake'sdesigns

Blake'suseofthevertical

Blockinginthedrawing

Blockingoutwithsquarelines

"BlueBoy,"Gainsborough's

Botany,thestudyof

Botticelli'swork

Boucher'sheadscomparedwithWatteau's

Boundariesofforms

BoundariesofmassesinNature

Bread,useof,incharcoaldrawing

Browning,R.,portraitsof

Brush,manipulationofthe

Brushstrokes

Brushes,variouskindsofBurkeon"TheSublimeandtheBeautiful"

Burne-Jones

Camera,useofthe

Carbonpencils

Carlyle

Circle,perfectcurveof,tobeavoided

Chalks,drawingin

Charcoaldrawing;fixingsolution

Chavannes,Peuvisde

Chiaroscuro

Chineseart

ChinaandJapan,theartof

Colour,contrastsof

Coloursforfigurework

Colours,ausefulchartof

Classicarchitecture

ClaudeMonet

Clothes,thetreatmentof

Compositionofapicture,the

Constable

ContÃ©crayon

"ContrastsinHarmony"

Conventionalart

Conventionallife,deadnessofthe

Cornersofthepanelorcanvas,the

Corot,hismassesoffoliage

Correggio

Crow-quillpen,the

Curves,howtoobservetheshapeof

Curvesandstraightlines

Darwin,anecdoteof

Deadness,toavoid

Decorativework

"Dither"

Diagonallines

Discordandharmony

Discordantlines

DraperiesofWatteau,the

Draperystudiesinchalks

Draperyinportrait-drawing

Draughtsmanshipandimpressionism

Drawing,academic

Drawing,definitionof

East,artsofthe

Edges,varietyof

Edges,theimportanceofthesubjectof

Egganddartmoulding

Egyptiansculpture

Egyptianwallpaintings

ElGreco

ElginMarbles,the

Ellipse,the

"Embarquementpourl'ÃledeCythÃ¨re,"Watteau's

Emersononthebeautiful

Emotionalpowerofthearts

Emotionalsignificanceofobjects

Erechtheum,mouldingfromthe

Etching

Exercisesinmassdrawing

Exhibitions

Expressioninportrait-drawing

Eye,anatomyofthe

Eye,the,inportrait-drawing

Eyebrow,the

Eyelashes,the

Eyelids,the

"FÃªteChampÃªtre,"Giorgioni's

Figurework,coloursfor

"FindingoftheBodyofSt.Mark"

Fixingpositionsofsalientpoints

Flaubert

Foliage,treatmentof

Foreshortenings

Formandcolour

Form,theinfluenceof

Form,thestudyof

FransHals

_FrenchRevolution_,Carlyle's

Frenchschools

Fripp,SirAlfred

Fromentin'sdefinitionofart

Fulnessofformindicatedbyshading

Gainsborough,thecharmof

Geniusandtalent

Geology,thestudyof

Giorgioni

"Giorgioni,TheSchoolof,"WalterPater's

Giotto

Glasspens

Goethe

Goldpoint

Goldandsilverpaintforshading

Gothicarchitecture

Gradation,varietyof

Greekarchitecture

GreekartintheMiddleAges

Greekart,varietyin

Greekvivacityofmoulding

GreekandGothicsculpture

Greektypeofprofile

Greuze

Hair,thetreatmentof

Hair,effectofstyleupontheface

Halftones

"HannibalcrossingtheAlps,"Turner's

Hardnessindicatedbyshading

Harshcontrasts,effectof

Hatching

Health,questionsof

Henner,theworkof

Highlights

Hogarth'sdefinition

Holbein'sdrawings

Holl,Frank

Horizontal,calmandreposeofthe

Horizontalandvertical,the

_HumanAnatomyforArtStudents_

Humanfigure,theoutlineofthe

Impressionism

Impressionistvision

Ingres,studiesof

Inkusedinlithography

Intellectandfeeling

Intuitions

ItalianRenaissance,the

Italianworkinthefifteenthcentury

Japaneseart

Japanesemethod,a

JapaneseandChineseuseofcontrastsofcolour

Keats'definitionofbeauty

LandscapesofWatteau,the

Lang,Andrew,hisdefinitionofart

Lawrence,Lord,portraitof

Leadpencil

LecoqdeBoisbaudran,M.

Lehmann,R.,portraitsby

LeonardodaVinci

Lightandshade,principlesof

Lightingandlighteffects

Likeness,catchingthe

Lineandthecircle,the

Linedrawingandmassdrawing

Linesexpressingreposeorenergy

Line,thepowerofthe

Lines,valueof,inportrait-painting

Linesofshading,different

Lithographicchalk

Lithography

"LoveandDeath,"Watts'

Massdrawing

Masters,pastandmodern

Materials

Mathematicalproportions

Measuringcomparativedistances

Measurements,verticalandhorizontal

Medium,theuseof

MichaelAngelo,thefiguresof

MichaelAngeloandDegas

Millais

Mist,effectofa,onthetoneofapicture

Model,the

Monet,Claude

Morris'sdefinitionofart

Nature,varietyofformsin

Nature'stendencytopictorialunityofarrangement

Newspaperasabackground

Normanarchitecture

Oil,surplusinpaint

Originality

"OurLadyoftheRocks,"L.daVinci's

Outlinedrawing

Outlinestudiesandmodels

Paint,thevitalityof

Paint,theconsistencyof

Paint,effectofoilinthick

"PaintedPoetry"

Painter'straining,theobjectofthe

Paintinganddrawing

Panelorcanvas,the

PaoloUccello

PaoloVeronese

Paperfordrawing

Parallelshading

Parallelismoflines

Parthenon,the

Pater,Walter

Pen-and-inkdrawing

Pensforpen-and-inkdrawing

Perspective,thestudyof

PhilipIV,Velazquez'portraitof

Photograph,failureofthe

Picturegalleries,theinfluenceof

Pictures,smallandlarge,treatmentof

Planesoftone,paintinginthe

Pre-Raphaelitepaintings

Pre-Raphaelitemovement,the

Preparatorydrawings,disadvantageof

Primitiveart

Primitiveemotions

Procedure,incommencingadrawing

Profiles,beautyof

Proportions

Poppyoilandturpentine,theuseof

Portrait-drawing

"PortraitoftheArtist'sDaughter,"SirE.Burne-Jones's

Pose,the

PeuvisdeChavannes

Qualityandtexture,varietyin

Radiatinglines

"RapeofEuropa,The,"PaulVeronese's

Raphael

Redrays

Reedpens

Rembrandtandhiscolours

Reproduction,advantagesofup-to-date

Retina,effectoflightonthe

Reynolds'contrastsofcolour

Rhythm,definitionof

Rightangle,powerofthe

Romansculpture,lackofvitalityin

Rossetti

RoyalAcademySchools

Rubens

Ruskin

SchoolsofArt

Scientificandartisticaccuracy

Scientificstudy,necessityfor

Scumbling

Shading

Shape,varietyof

Silhouette,the

Silver-point

Silver-pointwork,shadingin

Sitter,the

Softnessindicatedbyshading

Solarspectrum,the

Solidsasflatcopy

Spanishschool,the

Straightlinesindicativeofstrength

Straightlinesandflattones,analogybetween

Stronglightincontrastwithdarkshadow

Studyofdrawing,the

Stump,the

"SublimeandtheBeautiful,The,"Burke's

"SurrenderofBreda,The,"Velazquez'

Sympatheticlines

Talentandgenius

TeachersinArtSchools

Technicalsideofanart,the

Thicknessandaccent,varietyof

Tintoretto

Titian

Tolstoy'sdefinitionofart

Tone,meaningoftheword

Tonevalues,varietyof

Tonedpaper,drawingon

Tones,largeflat,theeffectof

Touch,thesenseof

TrafalgarSquarelions,the

Trees,themassesof

Turner

Types,lifelessnessof

"UlyssesderidingPolyphemus,"Turner's

Unityandvariety

Unityofline

"ValeofBest,"Millais'

Value,meaningofthewordasappliedtoapicture

Valuesoftonedrawing,the

VanDyck,hisuseofthestraightline

Varietyinsymmetry

"VarietyinUnity"

"Varyingwell"

Velazquez

Venetianpainters,andthemusicofedges

Venetians,the,theiruseofstraightlines

Venetians,systemandprinciplesofdesignofthe

"Venus,Mercury,andCupid,"Correggio's

Vertical,the,associatedwiththesublime

Verticallines,feelingassociatedwith

Vision

Visualblindness

Visualmemory,the

Ward,theanimalpainter

Warmcolours

Watteau,thecharmof

Watts,G.F.,portraitsby

Watts'useoftherightangle

Windsor,Holbein'sportraitsat

Whistler,amasteroftone

Whitecasts,drawingfrom

Whitechalk

Whitepaint

Whitepastel

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