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THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 1
The Racial Disparity of Zero Tolerance: Shackles of the African American Student
A Master’s Project
Presented to
The Faculty of the Adler Graduate School
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By:
Caleb L. Willis
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Chair: Doug Pelcak
Reader: Amy Foell
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July 2018
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 2
Abstract
Zero tolerance practice conducted in public educational institutions have affected students of
color, primarily African Africans due to disparate implementation. The use of harsh disciplinary
methods has hindered students of color educational attainment. Four decades of research has
exhibited persistent data showing African Americans have been disproportionately suspended
and expelled. For school counselors this is a critical problem because it affects these students in
the domains of academic achievement, post-secondary options, and social/emotional. School
counselors can disrupt such impediments by advising on pertinent disciplinary approaches such
as trauma-informed education. Adlerian Psychology is an instrumental approach to
understanding the development of children, the foundation and structure of misbehavior, and
how to work with children who misbehave.
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 3
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2
Zero Tolerance Background ................................................................................................ 5
Racial Disparity in Referral, Suspension, and Exclusion ................................................... 7
Criminalization of Student Conduct ................................................................................. 10
School-to-Prison Migration ...............................................................................................11
Black Stock ....................................................................................................................... 15
Implication for School Counselors and Educators............................................................ 19
Trauma-Informed Education ............................................................................................. 20
Trauma and Discrimination .......................................................................................... 22
The Adolescent Brain .................................................................................................... 24
Trauma-Informed Schools ............................................................................................ 26
Adlerian Perspective and Application ............................................................................... 29
Mistaken Goals of a Discouraged Child ........................................................................... 33
Goal of Attention........................................................................................................... 33
Goal of Power ............................................................................................................... 34
Goal of Revenge ........................................................................................................... 35
Goal of Inadequacy ....................................................................................................... 35
Encouragement ................................................................................................................. 36
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 37
References ......................................................................................................................... 39
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 4
The Racial Disparity of Zero Tolerance: Shackles of The African American Student
Do you remember getting in trouble at school? Do you remember how you felt during
that disciplinary situation? Should not discipline be horizontally serviced across all racial
groups? The Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 created a gateway
toward equitable educational opportunities for all students (Skiba et al., 2011). According to
Browne, Losen, and Wald “the right to not be discriminated against on the basis of race, color, or
national origin was explicitly guaranteed by Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964” (as cited in
Skiba et al., 2011, p. 86). Additionally, the Equal Protection Clause in the Fourteenth
Amendment protects against discrimination on these bases also (Skiba, Eckes, & Brown, 2009).
Public education is the embarkation for communal and pecuniary fortuity, along being the
amelioration and cornerstone of egalitarianism (Simmons, 2017). Yet, public education in the
U.S. is satiated with inequalities racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically (Teske, 2011).
Whereas dissimilitude in educational institutions thwarts the moral obligation of education,
society observes the defalcation of freedom (Simmons, 2017). A number of researchers found
that over the past three decades, national, state, district, and building level statistics have
exemplified high representation of African Americans in school discipline notation (Skiba et al.,
2009).
Research analyzing demographic correlates of school discipline have found that African
American students are disciplined at higher rates than white students (Bottiani, Bradshaw, &
Mendelson, 2017). Gregory and Weinstein; Skiba, Michael, Nardo, and Peterson examined
underlying dynamics of racial discrepancies and reported that African American students are
overrepresented in referrals for subjective offenses, while white students are disciplined for
objective offenses (as cite in Bottiani et al., 2017). Within this educational context, school
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 5
counselors are faced with important challenges to meet the needs of students (Vega, Moore, &
Miranda, 2015). Parikh, Post, and Flowers reported that school counselors must advocate for
equity and access and support students and families by being a change agent combating
structures of oppression and injustice (as cited in American School Counselor Association,
2015). Today, one of the most important challenges school counselors are faced with is the racial
discipline gap between students of color and white students established by zero tolerance
discipline practice in schools. To understand the problems of today, one must know the
foundational bricks laid by history.
Zero Tolerance Background
The American Psychological Association (APA) Zero Tolerance Task Force defined zero
tolerance as a disciplinary practice that calls for mandatory consequences for student violations
regardless of the situational context (as cited in Heilbrun, Cornell, & Lovegrove, 2015). Teske
(2011) stated “The history and etymology of the term ‘zero tolerance’ can be traced back to the
1980s during State and Federal efforts to combat drugs, or what became known during the 1980s
as the ‘war on drugs’” (p. 88). Garland; Western reported that during this time the War on Drugs
had been extended and renamed to the War on Crime in which American society became fixated
with criminality that was not realistic to the presented evidence of crime rates (as cited in
Simmons, 2017). Zimring stated zero tolerance administration, three strike policies, and
irrevocable incarcerating sentences were the mode to use for the governments mantra of being
“tough” on crime (as cited in Simmons, 2017). U.S. Department of Homeland Security and other
researchers have highlighted that consequently school systems duplicated the criminal justice
system tactics on crime as an approach for handling disciplinary problems within schools (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). Skiba found zero tolerance broadly spread throughout U.S. school
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 6
systems based on widespread perception of school violence (as cited in Heilbrun et al., 2015).
Skiba reported the Clinton Administration legislation of the Gun Free Schools Act (GSFA) of
1994 shifted disciplinary practice, requiring schools to expel students for about a year for
bringing a gun to school (as cited in Heilbrun, et al., 2015). Additionally, the GSFA mandated
schools to report all armament infractions to the juvenile justice system (Krezmien, Leone,
Zablocki, & Wells, 2010). Heaviside, Rowand, Williams, and Farris reported in 1998, 94% of
public schools in the U.S. immersed themselves into the zero-tolerance movement with their
policies and procedures (as cited in Krezmien et al., 2010). The GSFA of 1994 extensively
integrated zero tolerance policies into the school system by requiring schools to comply or risk
losing federal funding (Wilson, 2014). In addition to GSFA burdening schools about safety, Title
1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act placed pressure on school officials to foster
high student achievement, which resulted in schools vigorously focusing on the constriction of
student misconduct (Krezmien et al, 2010).
According to the Council of State Governments Justice Center, several states and school
systems protracted zero tolerance policy on firearms to include violations such as drugs, alcohol,
and aggressive behavior (as cited in Heilbrun et al., 2015). Poe-Yamagata and Jones reported
this is evident in the fact that student suspension doubled from 1.7 million in 1974 to 3.1 million
in 2001 (as cited in Teske, 2011). Zero tolerance policies are conducted with the philosophical
belief that the removal of disruptive students will deter other students from the same behaviors
while at the same time creating a safe and learning environment (Teske, 2011). However, APA
Task Force on Zero Tolerance reported no evidence to support the efficacy of zero tolerance as a
viable disciplinary practice (as cited in Heilbrun et al., 2015). The belief in zero tolerance
policies fails to consider the effects on students (Teske, 2011).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 7
Racial Disparity in Referral, Suspension, and Exclusion
Zero tolerance practice is supposed to be applied to all students regardless of race,
gender, and socioeconomic status. However, several groups of researchers emphasized in their
studies race to be a significant predictor of disparities in referral, suspension, and expulsion rates
more so than socioeconomic status (SES) throughout all learning environments (as cited in
Bryan, Day-Vines, Griffin, & Moore-Thomas, 2012). Skiba et al. found African American
students to be overrepresented in office referrals for behavioral problems from elementary to
middle school compared to white students; while Latino students were only overrepresented at
the middle school level (as cited in Sullivan, Klingbeil, & Van Norman, 2013). Vavrus and Cole
reported that high rates of exclusion of African Americans starts with the racial discrepancy of
office disciplinary referrals by classroom teachers (as cited in Skiba et al., 2009). Tenenbaum
and Ruck study of teacher expectations and teacher referrals showed teachers had better
expectations and lower referrals for white students than for African American and Latino
students (as cited in Bryan et al., 2012). Skiba et al. reported that white students were referred
for objective circumstances such as using illegal substances, destruction of property, unexcused
classroom attendance, and offensive rhetoric (Skiba et al., 2009). Conversely, African American
students were referred for seemingly subjective circumstances such as discourtesy, loud clamor,
intimidation, and dawdling (Skiba et al, 2009). According to the U.S. Department of Education
Office of Civil Rights, during the 2011-2012 school year, 3.5 million students were suspended
in-school and 3.45 million were suspended out-of-school (as cited in Noltemeyer, Ward, &
Mcloughlin, 2015). Losen et al. estimated these numbers could put Super Bowl capacity at a
maximum for about fifty decades (as cited in Simmons, 2017). The National Center for
Education Statistics and Losent et al. reported that 1.55 million of those students were
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 8
suspended on more than one occasion, along with the estimation of a typical suspension being
3.5 days, it was noted 18 million days of schooling were missed during the 2011-2012 school
year (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Bush et al. showed there are typically 180 school days within
a year and 18 million days of missed schooling is comparable to 100,000 scholarly years (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). Several studies have found that black students to be significantly
overrepresented in school suspension (Noltemeyer et al., 2015). Skiba et al. emphasized that
suspension rates doubled for black students in kindergarten through 12th grade, while rates for
white students slightly increased less than two percentage points (as cited in Heilbrun et al.,
2015). Per Office for Civil Rights, African American students are 3.8 times more likely to be
given a suspension compared to their white counterparts (U.S Department of Education, 2016),
which is represented in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Racial Disparities in School Discipline. Source: American Institutes for
Research (2018, June 18). Retrieved from https://www.air.org/resource/disparities-school-
discipline-race. Copyright 2009 by U.S. Department of Education.
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 9
Losen et al. reported since the 1972-73 school year, the national rate of out-of-school
suspension for African American students increased by about 200 percent (from 12 percent to 23
percent in 2011-12), while the rate for white students only increased 12 percent (from 6 percent
to 7 percent in 2011-12) (as cited in Bottani et al., 2016). Examining all racial groups, male
students were twice as likely to be suspended than female students and African American males
had the highest rates of all racial groups (Sullivan et al., 2013). Losen and Skiba along with
Petras et al. identified black males to have high-level suspension risk, be suspended for lesser
disciplinary violations than all racial subgroups and receive harsher punishment for minor
misconduct (as cited in Heilbrun et al., 2015). KewalRamani et al. and Gregory found that
African American males are twice as likely as African American females to be expelled and six
times more likely than Caucasian females to be suspended (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
Fabelo et al. found in Texas that 83 percent of black male students across the state experienced
the degree of one discipline violation from seventh grade to twelfth grade, ultimately resulting in
increased discontinuity than any other racial group or gender group (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
Per Fabelo et al. for 94 percent of these black males, this was their initial experience in dealing
with discipline at school for violating the protocol for behavior (as cited in Simmons, 2017). In
school, penal involvement for black males stems from severe measures for petty encroachment
(Simmons, 2017). Geronimo showed that regardless of African American students reporting the
same or lower drug use, alcohol use, and possession of weapons in contrast to other students,
African American students were most likely to be suspended in comparison to white students for
the same infractions (as cited in Thompson, 2016). Bowditch; Raffaele-Mendez; Wald and
Losen as well as Skiba and Rausch found increased rates of suspension are linked to detrimental
effects such as heightened disorderly conduct, diminished academic achievement, and upsurge of
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 10
school dropouts (as cited in Krezmien et al., 2010). Further, an inadvertent consequence under
zero tolerance practice of suspension and expulsion is an increased risk in marginalized students
facilitated into the juvenile justice system (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014).
Criminalization of Student Conduct
Public education has been deservedly apotheosized for being an avenue toward vast
endeavors, but it also has served as a place riddled of youth criminality, creating hope while
concurrently spawning discrepancy (Simmons, 2017). Meiners reported that adolescents are
treated as criminals by school safety personnel, disciplinary regulations, and by daily
interpersonal actions which has resulted in the adults perceiving them negatively as an enemy to
fight against (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Per the U.S. Department of Education, schools that
are overloaded and underfunded possess increased suspension and expulsion rates due to the
criminality of common teenage developmental characteristics (as cited in Mallet, 2016). The
despair of school safety has risen, along with zero-tolerance practice and increased suspension
rates have become a norm in the function of school operations to which law enforcement and the
juvenile justice system act in response to student mischief (Krezmien et al., 2010). According to
Advancement Project; and Hirschfield; Kupchik originally under the GFSA, law enforcement
was only supposed to be used for serious violations (armaments and illegal substances), however
school officials expanded law enforcement to enact zero tolerance for minor violations as well
(as cited in Krezmien et al., 2010). Casella; Dinkes, Cataldi, and Lin-Kelly reported that from
1993 to present, the estimation of physical encounters has remained at a fixed rate, while
referrals to the juvenile justice system for misconduct seemly not critical has escalated (as cited
in Krezmien et al., 2010).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 11
For instance, according to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People, during the 2004-2005 academic year in the state of Florida, 75 percent of 26,990
referrals sent to the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice were for school related problems (as
cited in Krezmien et al., 2010). Several research studies found in 2010 that above 2.1 million
youth below the age of 18 were taken into custody causing juvenile court systems to conduct
about 1.3 million minor crime cases associated with youth given criminal misdemeanors (Mallet,
2016). Conversely, documentation has shown the rate of student infractions and misconduct has
relatively declined since the 1990s (Krezmien et al., 2010). According to the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention as well as James and McCallion, in relevance to risk to life, educational
institutions have become securer since 1992 (as cited in Simmons, 2017). For example,
according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), from 1992 to 2015, rates of
student victimization in school has receded “82% from 181 victimizations per 1,000 students in
1992 to 33 victimizations per 1,000 students in 2015” (NCES, 2017, p.7). Another example,
NCES found in grades 9-12, physical altercations have declined 21 percent, from 42 percent in
1993 to 23 percent in 2015 (NCES, 2017). Zimring found the rate of criminality throughout the
U.S. has declined and this trend has been mirrored within the school systems, which cannot be
ascribed to the rigid disciplinary methodologies used (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Several
studies have also expounded that educational institutions have used stern tactics on youth
without the data to substantiate this practice and driven youth away from school in astronomical
figures (Simmons, 2017).
School-to-Prison Migration
The flooding of African Americans into correctional services is like the Great Migration
(Simmons, 2017). This influx of African Americans has transformed the U.S. demographical
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 12
landscape in comparison to the historical movements of populations over the course of history
(Simmons, 2017). Several studies have reported that over the last five decades, empirical
research assessing the juvenile courts have found disproportionately at each legal justice process
such as arrest, referral, conviction, and incarceration (Nicholson-Crotty, Birchmeier & Valentine,
2009). According to Hsia, Bridges, and Mchale youth of color makeup over 60 percent of youth
confined in the juvenile justice system in the U.S. (as cited in Nicholson-Crotty, Birchmeier, &
Valentine, 2009). According to Wolf, during the 2009-2010 school year 250,000 students were
linked to the justice system by school officials, 96,000 were detained, and students of color made
up 70% of these demographics (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Per Sum et al., in this same year,
6.2 million students dropped out of school (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Sum et al. disclosed
data that displays students who are no longer connected to education are profoundly susceptible
to imprisonment: ten percent of boys that dropped out are in juvenile detainment and the lifelong
confinement rate for black male students that decided to no longer attend school is 25 percent (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). Ward and Jones found that youth of color are eight times more likely
than their white counterparts to be placed in juvenile detention facilities (as cited in Nickolson-
Crotty et al., 2009). Rimer stated since the initiation of zero tolerance practice, schools have
become the biggest driver of students into the criminal justice system (as cited in Teske, 2011).
Wald and Losen defined the term school-to-prison pipeline as emphasizing students at risk for
school removal (suspension and expulsion) are in consequence at risk to be placed in the juvenile
justice system (as cited in Monahan et al., 2014).
Geronimo emphasized how armed police officers at school was an important component
under zero tolerance policies, which was endorsed by state legislators and local school districts
(as cited in Thompson, 2016). The harsh nature of zero tolerance practice grew with the arrival
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 13
of police on school campuses, which resulted in increased arrest of students and referrals to
juvenile court for violations usually managed by school administration (Teske, 2011). Several
studies have also reported that in the 1970s there were less than 100 school resource officers
(SROs) stationed in schools throughout the U.S.; these numbers grew to 12, 500 in 1997; in 2007
there were about 20,000, causing this sector of law enforcement to rapidly grow (Simmons,
2017). Per Kim and Geronimo, hypothetically SROs are supposed to enhance safety and security
of school environments, but finite documentation infers an inadequacy of lucidity in the
applicable role of law enforcement in the management of student misbehavior within the
confines of school parameters (as cited in Krezmien et al., 2010). Mukherejee; Kupchik and
Bracy emphasized how the lack of knowledge in education and human development, along with
an enforcement mindset creates a foolproof avenue for student criminalization (as cited in
Simmons, 2017).
Per Skolnick and Fyfe, police are educated to enforce abrupt conformity by using
authoritative rhetoric and overpowering control (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Mukherjee;
Kupchik and Bracy reported that detainment within the confines of school are at their worse
physically abusive (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Several researchers showed that online videos,
generally of black students, illustrates exorbitant police brutality against school age youth (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). For example, Giroux discussed a video of Marshawn Pitts, a black
male special needs student, was attacked by an SRO by being thrown against the lockers for non-
conformity (as cited in Simmons, 2017). In another example, Fausset and Southhall emphasized
a video capturing a police officer tossing a female black student backwards from her desk to the
floor and dragging her across the floor (as cited in Simmons, 2017). A number of studies found
schools serving demographics in which African Americans makeup the majority possess the
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 14
topmost student-to-police ratios, largest use of advanced security components, and most rigid
penalties under zero tolerance practice (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Additionally, Contractor
and Staats found schools serving huge minority student body’s bared increased rates of school
detainment (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Dohrn and the Advancement Project stated police
officers stationed within urban school districts supplemented racial disparities as racial profiling
practices seeped from the streets into school hallways (as cited in Heitzeg, 2009). Skiba,
Arredondo, and Rausch found bias in school discipline and the criminal justice system to be
integral (as cited in Thompson, 2016). According to the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), African Americans represented 17% of the
adolescent population while accounting for 45% of juvenile arrest (as cited in Heitzeg, 2009).
Geronimo reported juvenile detention centers to be detrimental to adolescents (as cited in
Thompson, 2016). Geronimo found detained youth endure an immense level of sexual assaults,
high-level of committing suicide, and increased recidivism (as cited in Thompson, 2016).
Furthermore, on a national level, one in three African American students and one in six Latino
students born after 2001 are at risk of incarceration within their lifetime (Heitzeg, 2009).
Whitely emphasized how rather than spending money on social welfare programs to improve the
quality of life for children, major funding was used for the sustainment of prisons and jail; which
in turn cost taxpayers about six billion dollars in 2010 (as cited in Thompson, 2016). Geronimo
showed from 1991 to 2010, the Federal Bureau of Prisons operation expenditures rose from $1.3
billion to over $6 billion (as cited in Thompson, 2016). Kozol stated “At issue are the values of
a nation that writes off many of its poorest children in deficient urban schools starved of all the
riches found in good suburban schools nearby, criminalizes those it has short-changed and
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 15
cheated, and then willingly expends ten times as much to punish them as it ever sent to teach
them when they were still innocent and clean” (as cited in Heitzeg, 2009, p. 16).
Black Stock
Wacquant emphasized that the criminal justice system consumes and belies millions that
are jobless, lack education, are destitute, and are discrepantly black (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
Jimmy LeBlanc, Louisiana Secretary of Corrections, stated “Our prison intake is fifteen thousand
a year. Our high school dropout rate is fifteen thousand a year. I mean, that tells you the story of
what is happening to us. They’re coming out of these schools and coming to prison” (as cited in
Simmons, 2017, p. 47). Dictionary.com defines stock as “a supply of goods kept on hand for
sale to customers by a merchant, distributor, and manufacturer (Stock, 2018). Wacquant;
Casella; Mora and Christianakis found strict disciplinary practice to monetarily encourage
neoliberal approaches that turn public divisions into private ownership for corporate gain (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). Schools which administer severe discipline endow the notions of the
enlargement of the criminal justice system and have capacitated the chance of monetary
advancement within the web of the penal system (Simmons, 2017). While school officials across
the U.S. during the 1990’s grappled with the misconception of safety, security companies were
exploiting their seemingly despair (Simmons, 2017). Packaged Facts and Chaddock reported
school violence such as Columbine was a golden enterprise for security industries to foster
aggrandized sales (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Packaged Facts found that these industries were
giving away security commodities to entice schools in hopes of a prospective and financial
partnership (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Packaged Facts stated were the industries that created
metal detectors which accounted for 35 percent security pay out (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
Additionally, 30 percent of school safety budgets were spent on cameras and 25 percent on
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 16
access control systems (Simmons, 2017). Pitts stated in 1996, a spokesman of Garrett Metal
Detectors confabulated about how schools were their biggest target sector beyond prisons and
airports (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Noguera found some schools did not have the resources to
afford security gadgets and systems; consequently, they turned to federal government for grant
money or pulled from their instructional accounts (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
IHS Research revealed data showing the totality of the exponential school expenditures
on security during the end of the 1990s into the 2000s (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Together,
public and private schools spent $328 million dollars in 1996 (Simmons, 2017). According to
IHS Research, the school security sector ascended to $3 billion in 2013 (as cited in Simmons,
2017). Lee reported the leading corrections business, the Corrections Corporation of American
(CCA) earns $1.7 billion (as cited in Simmons, 2017). Directly behind the CCA, comes the Geo
Group, which earns $1.6 billion (Simmons, 2017). Wacquant found that the school security
sector will become as large as the four private prison corporations, which gross $6 billion (as
cited in Simmons, 2017). Not only are security industries attracted to school criminality, but
media companies as well, extending the grasp and web of correctional connections (Simmons,
2017). Up till 2013, General Electric (GE) controlled 49 percent of the stake in the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC) (Simmons, 2017). Monahan highlighted that NBC, under GE
umbrella, was heavily entrenched in the political battle on drugs using harbor protection, optical
character recognition of storage bins, school security, and high-tech observation (as cited in
Simmons, 2017). According to Goldberg and Evans, GE provides high-tech safety accessories to
correctional facilities and has contributed financially into private penitentiaries (as cited in
Simmons, 2017).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 17
These companies surreptitiously exploit juvenescence due to the shortfall of education
and austerity of corrective management ahead of definite imprisonment (Simmons, 2017).
SunTrust Equitable Securities presented a financial report for its shareholders perceiving
disenfranchised students as fiscal stock (as cited in Simmons, 2017). The report revealed how
corporations take an ardent outlook at youth in the correctional sector as stock instead of the
rationalization that they are investing in prison beds (Simmons, 2017). According to Press and
Washburn, Luis Lamela, president and CEO of Ramsay Youth Services stated, “It’s a product-to-
market approach…We view everything as a product…What we look for is the achievement of
economies of scale” (as cited in Simmons, 2017, p. 59). Press and Washburn reported that as
students venture through the school system to prison, they are funneled through a multitude of
publicly bankrolled and privately managed facilities (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
Students of Color Perception of Discipline
It is essential to note disportionate disciplinary practice has distinguished connotations
for both students of color and white students (Bottiani et al., 2017). Though African American
and white students may observe incidence of penal treatment of black students, the actual
experience may be more personalized by black students (Bottiani et al., 2017). Whether or not
disparate disciplinary consequences are a cause of school faculty racial bias, African American
students may see racial differences in discipline rates as unequal; consequently, possibly causing
detrimental effects (Bottiani et al., 2017). A number of studies found perception of unequal
treatment is linked to several developmental issues such as problem behavior, anger, depression,
and decline in student engagement amongst children of color (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
Sheets’ study of students’ perceptions of disciplinary practices showed that students are
cognizant of the differential treatment and discern them as unfair (as cited in Bottiani et al.,
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 18
2017). For instance, Howard reported in a qualitive study a black student stated “I watch it all
the time. One of us [Black males] do something, and we get suspended or expelled. A White kid
does the exact same thing, and he gets a warning, or an after-school referral. Sometimes it’s so
obvious that they treat us different than them” (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017, p. 533). In
another qualitative study, an African American student said “There are some really, small rules
that you’ll get kicked out of school for and I don’t think it’s necessary. I remember one of my
friends was wearing flip-flops one day and she got suspended for three days for it, for wearing
flip flops” (Vega et al., 2015, p. 46). Ruck and Wortley found African American students
distinctly report sensitivity to teacher intercommunication and discipline practices that are
unequal (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
Debnam, Johnson, Waasdorp, and Bradshaw found inequitable discipline practice could
have ramifications on African American students sense of belonging and how welcome they felt
at school (as cited in Bottani et al., 2017). Dreikurs stated “The desire to feel belonging to others
is the fundamental motive in man” (as cited in Griffith and Powers, 2007, p. 9). Bottiani et al.
(2017) found greater racial gaps in suspension risk was correlated to decreased levels of reported
school belonging amongst African American students. Bottiani et al. (2017) reported when
African American students are consistently suspended than their white counterparts, it signifies
to a certain extent how welcome and accepted African American students are in school settings
(as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017). Bottiani et al. found data on adaptation complications for
African American students were axiomatically linked to the racial disparities in suspension
exposure (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017). Steele and Aronson reported that a contributor to this
adaptation complication may lay in part to stereotype threat (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
Rydell, Rydell, and Boucher explained stereotype threat the stimulus of concerned thinking and
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 19
brief cerebral defalcation induced by circumstances where an individual’s conduct of a group
possibly validates adverse biases about that group’s capabilities (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
According to Benner and Graham, the degree of racial division in disciplinary practice in schools
may increase African Americans consciousness of racial stigma (as cited in Bottiani et al., 2017).
In addition to this, Noguera found that tough discipline policies create sense of dubiosity that
undermines the future of young individuals and use of suspension and expulsion explicitly
confines their capacity to grasp promising endeavors (as cited in Simmons, 2017).
Implication for School Counselors and Educators
Monahan et al. (2014) found zero tolerance practices in schools led to an upsurge in
students being suspended and expelled, while at the same time placing youth at risk to be
funneled toward the school-to-prison migration. The evidence of student gender and race
continually predicting if students will receive a disciplinary referral, portrays the school systems
conflict with dismantling barriers to achieve fair disciplinary policies amongst all students
(Bryan et al., 2012). Race and ethnic disparities that widen the discipline gap remain prevalent
in U.S. education (Skiba et al., 2011). Toldson; Caldwell, Sewell, Parks, and Toldson reported
personal, family, and community components along with school and teacher characteristics such
as student attitudes of school safety and being respected and supported by teachers influence
discipline disparity (as cited in Skiba et al., 2011). For the last 20 years, it is evident that zero-
tolerance policies have been counterproductive to its intended purpose of creating safe learning
environments (Craig, 2017). Per Nance, still in a plethora of states, the correctional system is
perceived as the default setting for students’ behavioral problems (as cited in Craig, 2017).
Despite the fact school counselors are not supposed to discipline, they are important in
advocating for fair and objective disciplinary policies, because they primarily work with the
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 20
referred students (Bryan et al., 2012). As an educator, school counselors should be cognizant of
student perceptions of their educational experience to handle the concerns of students (Vega et
al., 2015). Parikh, Post, and Flowers conversed that school counselors have an important role in
advocating on behalf of students for equity and access, guiding students and families through
their entanglements of oppression and injustice, and being ambassadors of change in their
schools (as cited in American School Counselor Association, 2015). School counselors have an
essential part in which they can acquaint staff with educational resources on the provenance of
trauma, traumatic influence on student development, and strategies to managing student
problems in the school (Crosby, 2015). Relevant knowledge on current evolution of brain
research, abstract context of functionality, and pervasiveness of traumatic experiences are vital
components of information that is keenly practical for school personnel (Crosby, 2015). Day et
al. noted that school counselors should foster a unified partnership to systematize and disclose
knowledge among administrators, therapist, social workers, child welfare workers, and juvenile
case managers (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Additionally, school counselors can facilitate guidance
and training on trauma-sensitive methods, evidence-based approaches, and auspicious
developing ways to handle misbehavior (Crosby, 2015). Trauma-informed education provides an
alternate approach to exclusionary discipline practices (Craig, 2017).
Trauma-Informed Education
Low engaged students are repeatedly late or absent, and often have failing grades (Craig,
2017). During their time at school, these students employ disruptive behavior that impedes their
learning and their peers (Craig, 2017). The conventional perspective to such misconduct is that
the behavior is happening due to voluntary misdeed or deliberate rebellion (Craig, 2017).
Interventions provided have been contingency-based, implying students will conduct themselves
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 21
accordingly for a reward or to evade unfavorable punishment (Craig, 2017). The ineptitude of
these interventions to make significant change in student conduct have left educators to ponder
on the reasoning of why (Craig, 2017). Siegel found that research examining trauma and self-
regulation incites a reason for such behavior (as cited in Craig, 2017). The prominent medical
analysis conducted by Dr. Vincent Felitti of Kaiser Permanente and Dr. Robert Anda of the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of 17,000 Caucasian middle-class individuals
between 1995 to 1997 coined the term adverse childhood experience (ACE) (Nealy-Oparah &
Scruggs-Hussein, 2018). The study stemmed from an obesity center and showed that being
overweight is associated with traumatic experiences within the first 18 years of life, which are
classified into three components of abuse, neglect, and domestic hardship (Nealy-Oparah &
Scruggs-Hussein, 2018). Further examination into the study showed that the greater an
individuals’ ACE number, the high risk they are for the occurrence of maladaptive behaviors and
considerable long-term health complications (Nealy-Oparah & Scruggs-Hussein, 2018).
Lansford et al.as well as Veltman and Browne found that these difficulties can be disclosed in
school-based settings as maladaptive behaviors such as aggressiveness, not being present for
schooling, dolefulness, abstraction, anxiety, alienation, deferred dialect and mental growth (as
cited in Cavanaugh, 2016). Childhood trauma and its effect on adolescent functionality has
received ample contemplation throughout child-serving professions (Crosby, 2015). Juvenility
emotional, physical, or sexual trauma is a prevailing experience (Cavanaugh, 2016). Pappano
reported that literature shows 68 percent of children experience a traumatic circumstance (as
cited in Cavanaugh, 2016). Several research groups have emphasized that children of color (low
socioeconomic status), and children placed in the foster care and correctional institutions are at a
higher risk (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Lawrence and Hasse reported that children of color
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 22
notably in impoverished neighborhoods are more susceptible to occurrences of community
violence, which fosters persisting effects (as cited in Crosby, 2015). A number of researchers
found that about 90 percent of adolescents confined in juvenile justice institutions have noted
experiencing trauma (as cited in Crosby, 2015). The Substance Abuse and Mental Health
Services Administration (SAMHSA) delineates trauma as “experiences that cause intense
physical and psychological stress reactions. It can refer to a single event, multiple events, or a
set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically and emotionally harmful
or threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s physical, social, emotional,
or spiritual well-being” (as cited in Crosby, 2015, p. 223). Per the National Child Traumatic
Stress Network (NCTSN), one in every four students in the U.S. school systems have laid bare to
trauma that affects their education and conduct (as cited in Deihl, 2013). Further, per Burk et al.
one in three youth experienced with trauma deal with posttraumatic stress disorder (as cited in
Wiest-Stevenson & Lee, 2016). According to Carter, adolescents of color are disparately at a
higher chance of experiencing increased traumatic circumstances due to race-based injustice (as
cited in Craig, 2017).
Trauma and Discrimination
Smith-Bynum, Lambert, English, and Ialongo found that the risk of being disclosed to
bigotry due to cumulative identification (race, ethnicity, socio-economic status, gender identity,
religion) increases during the developmental period of growing from a child to a teen (as cited in
Craig, 2017). This is because social establishments, such as schools, arbitrates their mannerisms
(Craig, 2017). Per Kira, this repeatedly intensifies previous trauma and hinders striving for
restoration (as cited in Craig, 2017). Haslam, Rothschild, and Ernest found that conventionally
Western cultures perceived youth as virtuous and are more safeguarded than adults (as cited in
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 23
Craig, 2017). Yet, the perception of the virtuousness of Black youth is fleeting in comparison to
their white counterparts (Craig, 2017). At age 10, the perception of virtuousness of African
American youth is commensurate to older Caucasian youth (Craig, 2017). Goff, Jackson,
DiLeone, Culotta, and DiTomasso noted African American males ages 14 to 17 are discerned as
possessing equivalent accountability for their conduct as that of Caucasian males 18 to 21 (as
cited in Craig, 2017). Per Kimmel, a few analyses convey that Black children are looked at as
adults by the age of 13 (as cited in Craig, 2017). This view of Black youth as possessing greater
culpability for their behavior in comparison to White youth at the same developmental age
curtails their safety (Craig, 2017). Black children are viewed as less virtuous compared to their
counterparts, consequently making them assailable to severe adult-like punishment (Craig,
2017).
A number of research groups found that the day-to-day situations for teens is defined not
just by continual vulnerability to traumatic circumstances, but that of impoverishment, deficient
community resources, racial prejudice, tumultuous environmental conditions, and social
marginalization (as cited in Craig, 2017). Per Kohli and Solorzano, ostensibly verbal or
behavioral communication which belittles students of color are prevalent within schools (as cited
in Craig, 2017). Griffin found that these “micro-aggressions” though unconsciously biased are
similar to “death by a million tiny cuts” (as cited in Craig, 2017). Rudd found that students of
color given harsher consequences than white students is a typical micro-aggression (as cited in
Craig, 2017). Micro-aggressions infuriate the mental well-being of youth who have dealt with
past traumatic events (Craig, 2017). Fuhrmann, Knoll, and Blakemore emphasized that
adolescence is akin to childhood in the importance of the brain’s augmentation (as cited in Craig,
2017).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 24
The Adolescent Brain
Adolescence is a developmental stage of essential transformations within the brain
(Craig, 2017). Essential changes take place in the limbic compartment that affect youth
connection patterns, emotive responses, reasoning, and aptitude (Craig, 2017). The limbic
section and brain stem serve as the reactor to stimulations (Craig, 2017). The brain stem
becomes active when occurrences create sensations of danger, initiating the reaction of fight,
flight, or freeze (Craig, 2017). Neural functions activate, switching the body into a survival
mechanism until the perceived danger is gone (Craig, 2017). The limbic section expends more
clout upon the cortical parts of the brain during the adolescent period than childhood or
adulthood (Craig, 2017). Therefore, youth seem to have overblown responses to impartial
conduct of other individuals (Craig, 2017). The establishment of peer to peer relations is
significant (Craig, 2017). Steinberg reported that comparably to children’s enjoyment of being
with their caretakers, adolescents are mentally compelled to feel strong gratification around their
friends (as cited in Craig, 2017). The release of dopamine in the brain is the catalyst for teens
searching for positive experiences (Craig, 2017). This feeling of positivity provided by the surge
of dopamine gives way to youth consistently seeking such feelings through oddity and elation,
while disregarding possible dangers (Craig, 2017). According to Siegel, this pursuit of gratifying
feelings against any dangers is bolstered by adolescent mental processes being hyperrational (as
cited in Craig, 2017).
Per Siegel, the cortex and prefrontal cortex compartments grow according to usage,
signifying the more life circumstances that trigger these compartments, the greater adept and
dependable interrelated neurological circulation evolves (as cited in Craig, 2017). The cerebral
cortex consists of four parts linked to greater brain function which includes autonomous
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 25
movement, management of sensory information, acquisition of knowledge, remembering
information, and temperament (Craig, 2017). Siegel as well as Weinberger, Elvevag, and Giedd
emphasized that remarkable modifications take place in the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex
while youth expand their scope for high level reasoning and executive functioning (as cited in
Craig, 2017). These modifications happen due to two instances such as pruning and myelination
(Craig, 2017). Pruning involves the trimming of synaptic connections and neurons that are
unused (Craig, 2017). Pruning functions to ready the brain for favorable adaption and practical
usage (Craig, 2017). Myelination serves to adjust neuron transmissions, thus reinforcing
connections and increasing accelerated communication (Craig, 2017). These conversion
processes advance neurological communications boosting youth capability to manage their
feelings and interpretations (Craig, 2017). As teens move forward upon their educational track,
their psychological development becomes profoundly contingent upon executive functions such
as cognitive pliability, sublimation, and active remembrance (Craig, 2017). Cognitive pliability
gives youth the capability to change their mindset in response to new information, broaden their
beliefs about life, foster new explications to problems, and be skillful at collective alliances
(Craig, 2017). Sublimation provides teens the capacity to withstand distractions (Craig, 2017).
However, in totality, trauma impedes these functions because it reduces cognitive pliability,
confines youth aptitude to adjust their convictions about themselves and others, dwindles
individuals gauge of time and space (Craig, 2017). Further, per Steinberg, increased acuteness of
the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which generates reactions to stress, combined
with a unmatured pre-frontal cortex causes youth to be sensitive to stress (as cited in Craig,
2017). In addition, hormonal variations weaken adolescent attempts to manage their behavior
(Craig, 2017). Emotional strain escalates youth chances of emotional trauma causing
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dysfunctional mental growth (Craig, 2017). This distress heightens preceding traumatic
problems with social isolation and suicidality (Craig, 2017). Murphey, Barry, and Vaughn found
that the maladaptive changes neurologically can produce a descending path for adolescents into
precarious activities, educational decline, use of habituating drugs, and entanglement of the
juvenile justice system (as cited in Craig, 2017).
Trauma-Informed Schools
Schools have an important part in enhancing educational results for students dealing with
traumatic experiences (Crosby, 2015). Wolpow et al. found trauma to be associated with
declined grades and test scores and increased disposition for suspension, expulsion, and
educational deficiency (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Farmer, Burns, Phillips, Angold, and Costello
as well as Ko et al. emphasized that schools have an influential effect on students’ welfare,
because they are the commonplace for mental health services (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Per
Oehlberg, fostering a trauma-informed school setting can increase student educational success
and conduct, school atmosphere, class instruction time, and staff contentment (as cited in Crosby,
2015). Further, it decreases students and educators stress, exclusionary practice, and requisite for
special education assistance (Crosby, 2015). Oehlberg noted that trauma-informed schools need
absolute endorsement from administrators, trauma-sensitive disciplinary guidelines, staff
training, and dynamic relations between school personnel and mental health staff (as cited in
Crosby, 2015).
Trauma-informed methods conducted in schools can help traumatized students indirectly
(Crosby, 2015). Approaches, guidelines, and processes periphrastically impacting students
school atmosphere are essential in affecting educational attainment (Crosby, 2015). Cole et al.
and Oehlberg reported that trauma education can foster a cultivation of school climate sensitivity
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 27
using trauma-sensitive methods and administration support (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Principals
have an imperative part in building a Trauma-Informed School Model (TISM) (Crosby, 2015).
Cole et al. found that administrators can evaluate personnel needs for implementing trauma-
informed strategies, audit policies optically through the knowledge of trauma, and advise
personnel of protocols for student confidentiality, legal reporting, and partnership with multiple
service systems (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Trauma-sensitive school guidelines depend upon
persistent and benevolently conveyed disciplinary procedures that possess applicable
expectations for traumatized youth, while simultaneously helping students be culpable (Crosby,
2015). Per Cole et al and Oehlberg, school policies must encourage positive student conduct
while not impeding classroom instruction by using suspension and expulsion approaches (as
cited in Crosby, 2015).
Teachers communicate with students everyday (Wiest-Stevenson & Lee, 2016).
Accordingly, teachers are essential in the aspects of pinpointing and aiding student needs (Wiest-
Stevenson & Lee, 2016). Employee training on trauma is a component of constructing a trauma-
sensitive school atmosphere (Crosby, 2015). Cole et al .and Oehlberg reported that training on
trauma provides teachers and educational assistants the knowledge of trauma itself, how to aid
students in the classroom, and legal parameters of handling traumatized students (as cited in
Crosby, 2015). Per Australian Childhood foundation, teachers and support personnel gain an
understanding of the development stages and how trauma hinders such distinct developmental
components of students (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Perry conversed that employees are taught to
become aware of crucial indicators of student conduct (tonality and non-verbal communication)
to evaluate student concentration levels and time needed aside from classroom instruction (as
cited in Crosby, 2015). Further, Anderson, Christenson, Sinclair, and Lehr noted that teachers
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 28
learn to incorporate coping strategies and relaxation modus (belly breathing, guided imagery, and
giving break time for students to reestablish self-composure) into lesson plans (as cited in Wiest-
Stevenson & Lee, 2016). Stein et al. highlighted that these methods help students deal with past
problems while giving them ways to deal with impending stress (as cited in Wiest-Stevenson &
Lee, 2016). Perry; Wolpow et al.; Australian Childhood Foundation; Cole et al. emphasized that
staff must be affectionally attuned, display genuine care, and build vigorous relationships to
mend past calamitous relations and increase student forms of social alliances (as cited in Crosby,
2015). However, Wolpow et al. reported some staff come into school buildings with cultural
preconceptions and suppositions that consequently pigeonhole certain students and obstruct their
rapport with these students (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Wolpow et al. expressed that
compassionate teaching advises that staff confront these preconceptions to best illustrate
constructive decision making when handling student conduct (as cited in Crosby, 2015).
Wolpow et al. found that students need an atmosphere of compassionate teaching, which focal
point is about mutual control instead of students being subdued to an environment of absolute
ascendancy (as cited in Crosby, 2015). School staff are at the front-line to witness the conduct,
scholastics, and socioemotional problems of students inflicted by trauma (Crosby, 2015).
Conversely, Ko et al., divulged that staff are not taught about trauma in their academic programs,
thus hampering their knowledge about its effect on students and how to handle such matters
within school (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Evans, Stephan, and Sugai found this to be concerning
due to schools often being an initial place for mental healthcare for students (as cited in
Cavanaugh, 2016). School personnel should also incorporate practices that bolster cultural
competency (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Ming and Dukes reported that the extent to which
cultural competency is instituted is commonly at the circumspection of staff being among
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students (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Craig, Hull, Haggart, and Perez-Selles as well as Ming and
Dukes emphasized that to aggrandize cultural sensitivity within the school system, principals
must consolidate it into their customs and framework, which school counselors are quintessential
for being the point person for this task (as cited in Crosby, 2015). Ming and Dukes emboldened
school faculty to ponder about the dynamics of culture and the students they work with, facilitate
classroom sessions to confer on school problems, designate time for culture and diversity
discourse, talk with students on a one-on-one basis, incorporate multicultural education for
professional training, incorporate multicultural education into lesson plans, use evidence-based
methods with marginalized student bodies, pursue experienced consultancy, and foster tenacious
relations with students’ caretakers (as cited in Crosby, 2015).
Adlerian Perspective and Application
Adlerian psychology or formally known as Individual Psychology was created by Alfred
Adler, a prominent philosopher and psychiatrist in the early 20th century. Though the name
“Individual Psychology” seemly sounds like it focuses on a singular aspect, it is rooted in a
holistic approach to a person’s life. To understand an individual in their wholeness, every aspect
(convictions, sensitivities, emotions, and behaviors) of an individual’s life must be considered.
Adler postulated that people are galvanized by social relatedness and that all movement in life
has purpose. Human behavior is fixed on a purpose and a person’s emotions are the spur for
steps taken toward achieving their intended goal. The underlying force behind an individual’s
striving or movement through life is their self-perceived inferiority to other people. If a person is
encouraged they will strive on the useful side of life making contributions toward social
cooperation. If a person is discouraged they will strive on the useless side of life making
contributions to the self. Adlerian psychology has been impactful in its utilization on the
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 30
development of children (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964; Mosak & Maniacci, 1999; Oberst &
Stewart, 2003).
An educator’s advent to the educational system is rooted in a cinched conception of
human disposition (Dreikurs, Grunwald, & Pepper, 1998). The disposition gives the educationist
the inference of the child’s mannerism and ways to handle them. However, there is
disorientation in dealing with children’s behavior due to a non-established universal idea of
human disposition. Alfred Adler fostered an exemplary template of humanness that contributes
contemporary notions from which to fathom children (Dreikurs et al., 1998). Some of these
dynamic Adlerian principles are: Mannerism is goal-oriented, behavior is comprehensible when
individuals can grasp its purpose, the effort that drives human action is the goal, the totality of a
persons’ conduct, traits, and emotions are discerned due to their attempts at finding their niche in
the community, adults must comprehend the reasons children create false beliefs about
themselves and others, one must understand that humans possess biases of their worldview,
children are keen to their environment and probe within it, and humans seek belonging and to
establish their footing in society (Dreikurs et al., 1998).
Importantly, children are social beings and from this derives their robust inclination to
belong (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990). Their safety or paucity of it relies upon their sense of
belonging within their associations. This feeling is an elemental necessity. From childhood and
thus after, children are probing ways to integrate into communal living (family, school, peer
groups). Concluded from children’s exploration of their environment, they choose the approach
to which they aspire to obtain their goal (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990). The approach is the
instantaneous goal and is the foundation for their conduct. The inclination to belong is a child’s
main goal, while the approach is the instantaneous goal, thus determining that children’s conduct
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 31
is goal-oriented. Children are innately driven and learn from attempts and mistakes. They reuse
the behavior that provides the feeling of belonging and disregards that which makes them feel
isolated. This provides the groundwork for advising and managing children (Dreikurs & Soltz,
1990).
There is a plethora of circumstances that may make a child discouraged such as homelife,
war, criminality, manners of prejudices, and educational institutions (Mosak & Maniacci, 1999).
Educators frequently inquire about the reasoning of children’s misconduct (Dreikurs et al.,
1998). They often ponder upon “What causes them to behave this way?” Educators often
insinuate that these misbehaviors are due to animosity, fatuousness, apathy, and absence of
appropriate rearing without substantial and factual grounding (Dreikurs et al., 1998). Every
individual is different in the way they integrate into social circumstances and finding their place
(Dreikurs et al., 1998). Rudolph Dreikurs, a renowned psychologist, stated “Discouragement is
at the root of all misbehavior” (as cited in Nelson, Lott, & Glenn, 2013, p. 55). As children feel
they do not belong, they use inappropriate behavior, consequently choosing faulty methods to
feel belonging and importance (Nelson et al., 2013). Discouragement is the basis of faulty
methods (Dreikurs et al., 1998). When educators focus on just the behavior (what they can see
externally) alone, they exclude the discouragement (internal feeling) that is the impetus for the
conduct (Nelson et al., 2013). This clandestine covering is called the “belief behind the
behavior” (Nelson et al., 2013, p. 20). Educators are often deluded by assuming student conduct
is the problem rather than the conviction that is underlying the behavior (Nelson et al., 2013).
Students repeatedly make unconscious choices rooted in their conceptions or private logic
(Nelson et al., 2013). An individuals’ private logic is the comatose premise for sensing,
rationalizing, and functioning as they do (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). For example, a student
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 32
conviction about them self may be “I am not important because I am suspended all the time,” or
about someone else, “My math teacher does not like me,” or about the world, “The world is not a
secure place” (Nelson et al., 2013). Youth are not cognizant of making these conviction that is
focalized on belonging and sense of importance, yet these convictions affect their conduct
(Nelson et al., 2013). As youth sense they are safe, belong, and are important they prosper
(Nelson et al., 2013). Students evolve into individuals with traits and skills educators yearn for
them to possess (Nelson et al., 2013). As youth sense they do not belong and feel irrelevant, they
use survival mannerisms (Nelson et al., 2013). Survival mannerisms generally noted as
misconduct are grounded in faulty notions on how to seek belonging and relevancy (Nelson et
al., 2013).
The movements youth make in life are all purposeful and they never expend their
movements unless they attain what they desire (Dreikurs et al., 1998). There exist two
approaches of action, in which individuals socially move: the useful and useless (Dreikurs et al.,
1998). Useful conduct is mannerism that is used for communal living. The individual interest
them self with others and contributes elation and contentment to others and them self. Useless
conduct is mannerism that used for the self. The individual distant them self from others and are
only interested in their own ascent and eminence. The wholesome youth maneuvers toward
communal acknowledgement by their affair with the prosperity of their associations, kinship, or
academic institution and by useful actions. The maladaptive youth that shows misconduct
relinquishes their conviction that they can obtain belonging and significance and abominably
conceives they can obtain acknowledgement by use of misbehavior through ensuing mistaken
goals of behavior (Dreikurs et al., 1998). Per Dreikurs, discouraged youth seek importance
through using the four mistaken goals of behavior: Attention, Power, Revenge, and Inadequacy
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 33
(as cited in Mosak & Maniacci, 1999). Prior to the use of an intervention, educators must
identify the goal the youth seeks through their misconduct (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Determining a child’s belief and mistaken goal can be difficult at times due to children using the
same behavior to obtain one of the goals of misbehavior. Mosak and Maniacci (1999)
highlighted that there are three methods to identifying these goals: Recognizing the situation
when youth act out, examining the situation when effort is made to change the behavior, and
adults assessing their own emotional state when the misbehavior is taking place. An educator
gauging their own emotions is the best method for them to infer the intended goal of the child
(Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Mistaken Goals of a Discouraged Child
Goal of Attention
The youth seeks relevance by using charisma, endearment, or inordinate attention
(Dreikurs et al., 1998). For instance, a common circumstance is that of student generating
clamor during the English teacher’s lesson or pestering another student sitting across from them.
Staff continually feel irritated and irked by the student’s mannerism (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Ostensibly, the student senses recognition when individuals provide them with engrossment.
This is due to the dilemma of attaining attention by completing a task that is highly regarded by
the adult for angst of being spurned, they search for various attention (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
The child believes that “I belong when I am noticed.” Common educator responses to this
behavior are ‘silence please,’ ‘quit bugging others,’ or ‘stop complaining’ and from this the
student has achieved their goal and takes an intermission (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). As promptly
as the educator proceeds with instruction or gives interest to other students, the student
perpetually proceeds with their misconduct, quite possibly escalating its ferocity. For
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 34
reformative action, it is suggested that educators vacate the student’s circumference of behaviors,
be oblivious to the malfeasance, or provide acknowledgment whenever the student displays
appropriate behavior (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Goal of Power
Youth that are motivated by power or dominance must not be disclosed to tension for it
creates a power challenge (Dreikurs et al., 1998). For example, a common circumstance is a
student disregarding the directions given by the instructor, defiance, or behaving the way the
instructor does not regard. Educators commonly feel offended, challenged, incensed, and
compelled to enforce their will upon the student to sustain control and obedience (Oberst &
Stewart, 2003). The child that desires preeminence is further discouraged than one who desires
attention. The student atones for the internal feeling of inferiority by exhibiting that they
important and ensues their own will (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). Further, attempting to decrease
the child’s condescension inflates their hidden feelings of inferiority and aridity (Dreikurs et al.,
1998). The underlying belief of the child is that “I belong when I am in control.” Within the
struggle for power, if the child is victorious the educator feels subjugated and if the educator is
victorious the child feels overcome, disgraced, and indignant (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). The
child may delay the battle for a moment but will continue battling to regain his or her self-
confidence. The deep the battle ensues, the possibility the child might use enhanced sparring
tactics to be victorious at any cost, resulting in them desiring to obtain the goal of revenge
(Oberst & Stewart, 2003). The amdednatory methods suggested are to withhold from battling,
maintain being compassionate and amiable, aiding rather than preaching, averting retribution and
employing natural and logical ramifications, and redirect the youth’s adverse drive toward
efficacious tasks (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 35
Goal of Revenge
Youth that sense individuals are iniquitous toward them, indifferent to their emotions, and
harm them become impelled to take vengeance (Dreikurs et al., 1998). For example, a common
circumstance is a student striking another student after being disciplined, a student ripping up a
failed assignment and tossing it at the teacher due to feelings of unjust grading or damaging their
desk by writing all over it. This type of youth believes that “I do not belong, so I should hurt
others.” The child is substantially inferior due to a plethora of experiences where they have had
to endure embarrassment of discipline (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). Educators commonly feel
somber, marred, and replete with animosity toward this type of student. Further, the response of
educators is to employ more harsh consequences, draws in other educators to oppose this student,
and typically gives up on any effort to aid the student in changing their conduct. Moreover,
astringent disciplinary practices increase the child sense of inferiority (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
These types of students are strenuous to assist, and it takes a substantial amount of time for
change. The emendatory approaches proposed are for educators to not seek retribution, do not
become dismayed, and endeavor to give the youth mutual respect despite reprisal (Dreikurs et
al., 1998). These youth require consistent encouragement from peers, educators, and parents
(Oberst & Stewart, 2003). If they are not given necessary support, they may relinquish efforts
toward progression and retract into repudiation (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Goal of Inadequacy
A child that feels deficient is one who has put forth great effort to obtain relevance by
way of attention, power, or revenge, but has failed and becomes extremely disheartened that they
abjure (Dreikurs et al., 1998). For instance, consider a student that a teacher has encouraged
numerous times and tried to help, but they continually ask to be left alone, isolating themselves
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 36
away. Most often, these youth have concluded they are incapable from their early childhood
experiences of unsuccessful pursuits at attention, they instantly move toward inadequacy
(Dreikurs et al., 1998; Oberst & Stewart, 2003). The child becomes so discouraged from their
failed endeavors of belonging and significance, they believe they are not valuable. The
underlying belief behind their conduct is that “I do not belong, because I am not superb.” These
children disengage from opportunities which may confront their self-confidence, resulting in
minimal effort put forth to contribute to constructive associations (Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Additionally, they ostensibly pursue disappointment academically or socially (Oberst & Stewart,
2003). Typical responses of educators are to totally give up, do for the student what the student
can do for them self, or excessively support (Nelson et al., 2013). Proposed amendatory methods
for educators are to show empathy, outright recognition, and believe wholeheartedly in the
youth’s potentiality (Oberst & Stewart, 2003). To truly believe in changing a student’s life
means provide steady encouragement.
Encouragement
Just as a flower needs soil and water, youth need a sense of belonging and significance.
Children cannot evolve and flourish and attain a feeling of belonging without constant
encouragement (Dreikurs & Soltz, 1990). The development of youth is predicated on their
societal associations. From breakfast with their parents to passing the principal in the hallway to
greeting the cooks in the lunch line to shooting hoops with their friends in physical education
class, one can notice that children put forth efforts of predilection toward others and not
themselves (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1964). Encouragement communicates that the adult
reveres and has faith in the child, despite their imperfections and misdeeds (Dreikurs et al.,
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 37
1998). Dinkmeyer and Dreikurs emphasized a few ways parents and educators can encourage a
child by:
(a) Giving importance to the youth at their present developmental level.
(b) Displaying that one believes in the youth and fosters belief in themselves.
(c) Believe in the youth’s capabilities and grow their self-assurance.
(d) Acknowledge positive experiences and efforts contributed.
(e) Identify and fixate on what youth do well. (as cited in Dreikurs et al., 1998)
Being encouraging also shows children that their behavior is independent of who they are as a
person and discloses that they are valuable. In the knowledge of misbehaving children, adults
fixate on the wrongdoings of the child (Dreikurs et al., 1998). Conversely, encouragement
repositions this fixation toward fostering the courage to be imperfect and instilling belief. If
there is no belief then it is futile to encourage someone else and establish social contribution
(Oberst & Stewart, 2003).
Conclusion
The infiltration of zero tolerance policies into public education has negatively affected
African American students. Literature over the past forty years has displayed proof that students
of color are disparately suspended and expelled in astronomical numbers, which has facilitated
youth to be perceived as fiscal assets and channeled toward correctional institutionalization.
School counselors have an important role to impede discriminatory disciplinary practices
through advocating to administration for applicable alternatives such as trauma-sensitive
schooling and educating staff on the framework of misbehavior and how to manage misconduct.
Using an Adlerian viewpoint, educators may transform cognitively from posing the question
“What is wrong with this student?” to “What happen to this student?” Further, peering from an
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 38
Adlerian lens, one can recognize that disciplinary use of suspension and expulsion extremely
discourages African American students. Furthermore, schools must become a place that fosters
an atmosphere of belonging for all and encourages, inspires, and builds the necessary tools for
children to accomplish their endeavors. Adler stated “An educator’s most important task, one
might almost say his holy duty, is to see to it that no child is discouraged at school, and that a
child who enters school already discouraged regains his self-confidence through his school and
his teacher. This goes hand in hand with the vocation of the educator, for education is possible
only with children who look hopefully and joyfully upon the future” (as cited in Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1964, p.399).
THE RACIAL DISPARITY OF ZERO TOLERANCE 39
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