the threat of the ungovernable mind
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Chapter3:Fear,Security,Speed:TheThreatofthe
UngovernableMind
Inthepreviouschapter,Idiscussedhowthediscoursesofidentity,subjectivity,and
rightswerebeingre-imaginedinresponsetoadvancesinbrainsciences.Thesere-
imaginingsarelayingthefoundationforanewkindofpoliticalstrugglethat
involvesthecreationandutilizationofnewknowledge-powersemergingfrom
neuralimaging,sensoryprosthetics,andthequantificationofthemind.Aspartof
theoverallexplorationoftheneurocentricgovernmentalitythatismanifestingitself
inpoliticstoday,Iturnnowtothedomainofsecurity,surveillance,andpolicing.
Securityandsurveillancemakeforclearandpresentdemonstrationsof
neuropower,andpointtowardareaswhereinterventionisneededtoavoiditsmore
repressivetendencies.
Three Stories of Fear and Folly
Fear of a box: The Schrammie
FIGURE6:THESCHRAMMIE
ApackagearrivesatastateofficeinWashington.AddressedtoDeptofCorrections
SecretaryHaroldClarkinhandwrittenscrawl,thepackagecontainsnoreturn
addressbutdoeshavestrangestainsthatmakeitappearsomethingisleaking
inside.Amailroomworkerseesthesetelltalesignsofasuspiciouspackageand
notifieshissuperiors,settinginmotionafull-fledgedbomb-scare,includingthe
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evacuationofall350workersinthebuildingandactivatingtheWashingtonState
BombSquad.i
Afterseveraltensehours,abombtechnicianemergesfromthemailroomwiththe
newsthepackagedidnotcontainabomb,butratherabobbleheaddolloflocalTV
commentatorKenSchramm.Apparently,aseveryonecametofindout,asapublicity
stuntforhisopinionsegmentonthenews,Schrammsendsabobble-headdollof
himself,akaaSchrammie,tolocalofficials,businesses,andothersdeemedworthy
ofadubiousdistinctionforderelictionofdutiesorotherwiseunethicalbehavior.
HaroldClarkwassentaSchrammieaftertheannouncementthat83felonswereto
bereleasedearlyfromWashingtonjails.Thecrisisofenclosures,itseems,comes
withmanyunintendedconsequences.
Fear of a sweatshirt: Socket-to-me
FIGURE7:SOCKETTOMEii
StarSimpson,anMITstudentfromKihei,Hawaiiwenttomeetherboyfriendat
LoganInternationalAirportinBoston.Sheworeablack,hoodedsweatshirtsporting
acomputercircuitboard,someconnectingwires,andthewordssocket-to-meandCourseVIontheback--referringtoherelectricalengineeringandcomputer
sciencemajoratMIT.However,thisbitofcreativeschoolpride,madeforcareerday,
carriedadifferentmeaningfortheMAPortAuthoritystaffermanningthe
InformationboothasSimpsonapproached.Simpsonaskedtheguardabouther
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boyfriendsflightarrivaltime.Suspiciousthatthestudentssweatshirtmightbe
somesortofexplosivedevice,thestafferinitiatedanothercascadingemergency
response,leadingtoSimpsonsapprehensionandarrestfordisturbingthepeace
andthepossessionofahoaxdevice.Whileaharrowingpublicarrestmightseem
excessivetomost,ScottPareoftheMAStatePoliceclearlywarnedoftheotherhigh-
stakesalternative,sayingSimpsonwasluckyshefollowedtheinstructions[ofthe
arrestingofficers]ordeadlyforcewouldhavebeenused.Shesluckytobeinacell
asopposedtoamorgue(AssociatedPress2007b).Lucky,forsure,becausethe
gunscarriedbytheMAStatePolicearecertainlynothoaxdevices.
Fear of a fax: The Countdown Begins
FIGURE8:THECOUNTDOWNBEGINSiii
AbankmanagerinAshland,MApullsastrangefaxfromthemachine.Onthefaxis
animageofabomb,andahandjustabouttolightthefuse.Themanager,frightened
bythesuspiciousmessagedutifullycallsthepolice.Youcanimaginewhathappens
nextthebankandallthestoresinthemall,includingadaycarecenter,are
immediatelyevacuated.Apparently,thefaxwassentbythebankscorporateoffice
toraiseawarenessandbuildexcitementfortheupcomingSmallBusiness
CommitmentWeekandrelatedevents.Thisexcitementbuildermessage,
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unfortunately,wasgarbledbyamalfunctioningfaxatthecorporateoffice.Itshould
havelookedlikethis:
FIGURE9:SMALLBUSINESSCOMMITMENTWEEKiv
Whilemanyofthelocalbusinessesthatwereaffectedbytheevacuationcalledfor
thebanktopayforlostrevenueandemergencyservicecosts,similartowhatwas
doneaftertheAquaTeenHungerForcecampaignthatshutdownmuchofBoston
in2007,vAshlandPoliceChiefScottRohmerdisagreed.Supportingthebank
managersresponse,Rohmerbelieveditwasreasonabletoassumetherewasa
threat,basedonwhattheysawonthefax(Drake2007).
Fear and folly
WhilethesethreestoriescertainlyembodySamuelTaylorColeridgesdictum:in
politics,whatbeginsinfearusuallyendsupinfolly,thegovernmentalityemerging
fromthesecuritymindsetofthestateasittriestomaintaincontrolinthesevolatile
andrapidlychangingtimesisoftenfarfromfolly.Thesestories,andthescoreslike
them,areindicativeoflimitationsinourindividualandsocialcapacitiestoanalyze
andrespondtoriskinanappropriatemanner.Itseemswearelosingthetempering
functionsofgovernanceatmultiplelayersdototheincreaseinambiguityand
accelerationofspeed.
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Theneocortexisbeingoverwhelmedbyfearsignalscomingfromthelimbicsystems
andamygdala.Policeofficersandemergencyrespondersaremimickingthepanicof
overreactingcitizens.Overzealouspoliceofficersaresendingcity-wideandnation-
wideemergency-responsesystemsintoaction.Thereseemtobefewerandless
capableinstitutionalandpsychologicaltemperingstrategiestothehair-trigger,
stateofemergencymindsetthatpervadessocietytoday.Thesestoriesrepresentthe
limitationsofourcognitiveanddecision-makingskillsinahigh-risk,high-stakes
stateofalmostconstantemergency.Theydemonstrateashiftintheintensityof
securityandsurveillancebystatesandtheircitizensinresponsetoaccelerating
change,collapseofsafedistances,andtheamplifiedthreatofsuper-empowered
angryindividuals(Freidman1998).Neurocentricgovernanceisbeingdrivenbythis
pervasivesensitivitytorisk,anexaggeratedemphasisonsecurity,andpotentially
repressiveaffinityforpredictionandpreemption.Theexampleswerechosennotfor
theirshockvalueordeathcounts,buttoillustratethemillionseenandunseencosts
ofsocial,economic,andpoliticalfear.
Whilefearisthegatewaydrug,terroristheaddiction,withabusesandinvasionsas
theseeminglypredeterminedoutcomes.Thischapterexaminesthethree
neuropowersthatareconstitutedandreproducedbyagovernmentalityconcerned
withsecurityinanageofacceleratingchangeandamplifiedthreats.These
neuropowersare:treatingsimilaritiesasequalities,mentalsurveillance,and
predictionandpreemptionofbehavior.
Life at Amygdala Speed: Treating Similarities as Equalities
Thephrasetotreatsimilaritiesasiftheywereequalitiescomesdirectlyfrom
politicaltheoristWilliamConnollysNeuropolitics(2002).Inhisgenealogyofideas
aboutthenatureofthemind,ConnollycitesNietzschescritiqueofthehuman
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tendencytocreatebroad,oversimplifiedcategoricalresponsestostimuli.For
Nietzschethisisanillogicalstrategybecauseitmasksdifferencesthatareessential
tothoughtalthoughadmittingthatthesecategorizationsmakeformallogic
possible.Thesestrategiesgiveusquickandreadyreactionstothenovel.But,
neuroethicistErikParensrightlypointsout,theproblemwithreadilyavailable
responsesisthat,bydefinition,theydonotrequirethinking(2004).Categories
habituateusagainstconsiderationofthingsintheirparticularandidiosyncratic
fullness.Thesehabitsofthoughtbecomecorporallyencodedintopatternsof
perceptionandculturalvocabulary,asConnollyobserves,aswellasintothesocial
andpoliticaltechnologiesthatreproducethesehabitsovertimeandacrossspace
(2002,52-53).
Themodelswebuildaroundthesehabitsare,ofcourse,necessarytosomedegree
fordecisionstobemadeandactiontotakeplace.Theseefficienciesinthinking
andperceivingsaveusfromthecurseofBorgesfamouscharacterFunes,the
Memorious.Funesperfectrecordingmemorymeantthattheworldwaswritten
anewateveryinstantofperception.Adoglookingathismasterisnotthesamedog
thatturnstolookoutthewindow.Or,inotherwords,therewasnoneedforthe
efficienciesofcategorieswheneachandeverymomenthasitsowncategoryor
uniqueidentity.
And,insomeways,thisistruewearenottheexactsamebeingfrommomentto
moment.Wechangeinsmallandoftenimperceptibleways.Butthesechangesdont
alwayscarryinformation,i.e.theyarentdifferencesthatmakeadifference,as
Batesondefinedinformation(1972,457).Theymakenodifferencetohuman
existenceandtheprocessofmeaning-making.
Thereisacontinuumofresponse.Ononeextremepolethereisthissortofradical
particularityanduniqueidentifiability.Ontheotherpole,wehavethebroad
generalizationsofperceptionthathelpuselideactualencounterswiththenovel.
Thesegeneralizationshelpavoidencounteringthenew,andthereforethetroubleof
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actualthinking.Betweenthesetwopoles,societytodayseemstofallmoretoward
thelatterthantheformer.Inotherwords,wearelookingforefficienciesinthinking
tohelpuskeepupwithlifeathighspeedsandwithoverwhelminginformation
streams.Butbuildingtheseefficienciesintoeverylayerofthesocial,economic,and
politicalsystemswithoutadequatechecksandbalances(orbrakes)meansthat
deliberation,contemplation,orevensimpleappraisalofsituationsarelosttothe
blur.
Speedandfearareinitiatingafragmentationandre-distributionofthesensible
world.Theresponsestrategyoftreatingsimilaritiesasequalitiesmerelyamplifies
thedilemma,whichis:tryaswemighttouseourwell-rehearsedhabitsof
perception,orreturntotheunearnedcomfortsoffundamentalismsandabsolutes,
thespeedoflifecombinedwithinformationabundanceisforcingpeopleintonew
encountersandnewemotionallandscapesthattheymightnotbeadequately
preparedforasindividuals,oraspopulations.
VUCA for all
Themilitaryworksatthefrontlinesofthespeedandsecurity.AttheU.S.ArmyWar
CollegeinCarlisle,PAtheyhavecometousetheacronymVUCAtodescribethe
grandtheaterofoperationsinwhichtheirofficerswillbetryingtolead(Pang
2007).VUCAstandsforvolatility,uncertainty,complexity,andambiguity.Volatility
reflectsthemassiveamountofchangethathasandcanoccurinaveryshortperiodoftime,makingimprovisationandreassessmentvitalskills.Noveltyandincomplete
informationmakesuncertaintyanirreduciblepartofdecision-makingaswell.
Distributedandmulti-functionalagentsinaninformationrichcontextcreate
enormousamountsofcomplexity.Andfinally,fluididentities,fragmented
information,andaccelerationofchangeleadtoincreasedambiguity.
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VUCAcapturesthissenseofthegroundshiftingunderourfeet.AttheWarCollege,
moretimeisspenttrainingonhowtomakedecisionsinaVUCAenvironmentthan
lookingforwaystoreducethesecomplicatingfactors.Thiswayofthinkinghas
becomesoingrainedattheArmyWarCollegethatinternallyitisoftenreferredtoas
VUCAUniversity(Johansen2007,2).TheVUCAapproachreflectswhatpolitical
theoristMichaelDilloncallscorporealphenomenology(2003).Thisisamilitary
mindset,relatedtotheso-calledRevolutioninMilitaryAffairs(RMA),thatDillon
arguesembracestheviewofmilitaryresponseasafunctionofinformationand
code:
any(military)bodymustbeendlesslymutable,andthatthewaytocommandthismutabilityistodevelopastrategicvirtuosityintheemploymentofinformationinordertorefashion(military)bodies-in-formationaccordingtoanyandeveryeventuality(2003,129).
ButtheVUCAframeworkdoesntjustapplytotheatersofoperationsinwarzones.
Fromtheboardroomtothedomesticabode,VUCAiscomingtodefinerealityfor
peopleintheireverydaylives.Maintainingsituationalawarenessandcultivatingthecapacitytomakewisedecisionsinthefaceofinformationalambiguityisbecominga
necessaryskill-setforalmosteveryindividualinmodernsociety.Associologist
EnginIsinobserves,thisfeedbackloopbetweencomplexityandtheawarenessof
complexitycreatesasituationwherewehavetomakedecisionsandweareheld
responsibleforthosedecisionsthatwewereforcedtomakewithoutadequate
knowledgeofthesituation(2004,218).Asthethreestoriesofemergency
overreactionattest,ourcognitivecapacitiesandourmeta-cognitivesystems,i.e.our
formalsystemsofgovernance,havenotevolvedwiththesamespeedasourVUCA
world.Overcomingmaladaptivebiological,cultural,andinstitutionallegaciesis
extremelydifficult,andmademoredifficultwhendomainsoflifeareacceleratingat
differentratesandwhenthelong-termstakesofourdecisionsaremoresignificant.
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Hijacking the amygdala
Oneofourmostimportantlegacybrainregionsessentialtounderstandinghowwe
reacttopotentiallydangerousoremotionallyheightenedsituationsistheamygdala.
Theamygdalaeareapairofneuronalclusterslocateddeepwithinthebraininthe
limbicsystem,nearthehippocampusinthemedialtemporallobes.Theyareroughly
almondshaped,andtaketheirname,courtesyofanatomistK.F.Burdach,fromthe
Greekwordforalmonds(WhalenandPhelps2009,xi).
Historically,theamygdalahasbeenassociatedwithfearandfearconditioning.
Recentneuroscience,however,hasshowntheamygdalatobesignificantlyinvolved
innotonlyfearandanger,butalsoplaysaleadingroleinoverallmemoryformation
(especiallytheemotionalintensitiesassociatedwithmemories),reward
conditioning,andseveralofthehigher(andslower)brainfunctionsincluding
attention,perception,andsocialbehavior(LeDouxandSchiller2009,43-47).
Theamygdalareliesoninputfromallthesenses,butisparticularlyattunedto
informationcomingfromthevisualsystem,makingittheconsummatedanger
detectorinthebrain(FreeseandAmaral2009).Itisaquickanddirtybrain
regionthatoftenactsbelowourconsciousperception.AsConnollynotesinhis
discussionoftheimportanceoftheunconsciousneurologicalfunctionsthatcolor
perception,theamygdalaparticipatesinasystemthatgeneratesrapid,coarse
judgmentsindangeroussituationsoperatingbelowthecapacityofconscious
assessmentandfeeling(2002,90).Theamygdala,Connollycontinues,both
influencesconductonitsown,andbumpsintensitiesintoconsciousthinkingand
judgment(2002,91).
Wefeeltheresultofouramygdalaworkingwhenwerecoilfromagardenhosewe
firstperceiveasasnake,orwhenwesitupinbed,ourheartracingfromhearinga
bumpinthenight,orevenwhenwetakeevasiveactionwhiledrivingasplit
secondbeforeweconsciouslyrealizethedangerahead.Theamygdalaworksfast
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becauseithastoitevolvedtodealwithtemporarystatesofemergencyand
existentialthreats.Itisasenseandreactorgantakingactionfirstandlettingthe
neocortexaskquestionslater.Itisdesignedtoseealmosteverythingasapotential
threat.Failingtoseeathreatwhenthereisoneismoreevolutionarily
disadvantageoustoanimalsthanseeingathreatwherethereisNOTone.
Whatsimportantforthisdiscussionistheroleoftheamygdalainmanyaspectsof
affectiveinformationprocessing(WhalenandPhelps2009,xi).Accelerating
change,thecompressionofdistance,includingespeciallythelocalizationofaglobal
riskpool,meansthattheamygdalaisprocessingmoreemotionallycharged
encountersthaneverbefore,andtryingtoassessdangerinaglobalizedlandscape
ofphysical,psychological,andevenvirtualthreat.Foranorganthathasevolvedto
seekoutpotentialdangers,thehyperactiveandprecariousworldweliveintoday
(andwillbelivinginfortheforeseeablefuture)meansthattheamygdalabecomesa
centralcharacterintheneuropoliticaldrama.
Speedandglobalreachseemtohavestretchedandstressedthebiologicallytypical
functioningoftheamygdala.Thishascausedincreasedfearresponseoftenby
treatingtoomanydifferencesassimilarities,andsimilaritiesasequals.Psychologist
DanielGoleman,inhisbookEmotionalIntelligence,introducestheconceptof
amygdalahijackingtodescribethistendencyofambientminorthreatstoberead
asurgentandinneedofanimmediateandstrongresponse(2005,14-24).The
amygdala,ifitperceivesanemotionalemergency,cantakeovertherestofthe
brainbeforetheneocortex(thethinkingbrain)hashadtimetoanalyzethesignals
cominginanddecidewhattodo.Thattakesalongtimeinbraintime.Theamygdala
inthemeantimehasdecided(quotedinHughes,n.d.).Anamygdalahijackhasthreemaincomponents:1.Aninitiallystrongemotionalresponse,2.Aresponsethatis
quickandhappensbeforethethinkingbrainhastimetoprocess,and3.Aperiodor
realizationofregretthattheemotionalresponsewasinappropriateoroutof
boundsforthesituation.
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Weveallhadtheseexperiences,butifarecentaccountoftheculturalzeitgeistin
theU.S.isindicative,itseemsthefrequencyandscaleoftheseamygdalahijackings
areontherise.InUSCsociologistBarryGlassnersCultureofFear(2000),he
chronicleshowfearisconstitutedandperpetuatedinAmericansociety.Oneofthe
majorculpritsofincreasedfearisthedisproportionatecoverageoftragedies,
catastrophes,andviolencearoundtheworld,streamingconstantlyintoourliving
roomsandonthescreensthatfillourfieldofvisioneveryday.Thesetraumatic
events,eitherinourownlivesoronesthatweinternalizefromeventselsewhere,
createverystickyandemotionallyresonantmemories.
Thesememoriescanbedebilitatingtoindividuals,especiallyoneswhoareliving
withtraumafromwar,violence,ortheirjob.Psychiatristshavebeenworkingon
techniquestoamelioratetheimpactoftraumaticmemories,tohelpindividualsto
lightentheweightofmemory,ortopreventtheinstallationofphobias.Overriding
fearresponsesinthebrainisdifficult,andsomehavesuggestedtheuseofdrugs
suchasbeta-blockers,whichhavebeenshowntoreducetheintensityofmemories,
byfront-lineemergencyresponseworkerstokeeptheamygdalafromunderlining
particularmemories(Johnson2004,63-64).Thesemorning-afterpillsfor
traumaticeventsmightbecomeabreakfastsupplementifscenariosofclimate
disasters,globaleconomiccollapse,orpandemicdiseasecometopass.
Theseconsciousmemories,oreventheunconsciousmemorytracesleftbythe
constantbombardmentwithemotionallychargedimagesofpast,present,oreven
futuretrauma,createsubterraneanripplesinourmentalprocesses.Neuropower
surfsontheseripplesoffearanddread.Fearisabletoblind,distract,or
incapacitate.Fearplaystricksonthemind.Highanxietyisassociatedwiththoseforcesthatseektoplaywithourmemories,orinstituteaneraofforcedforgetting
insocialanthropologistPaulConnertonsphrase(1992,12).Ofcourse,notallfearis
badandfearisanecessarypartoflife,butthere-calibrationoffearbecomesa
methodofinterventionandcontestationinthepracticeofneuropolitics.
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Neuropoliticallifetodayinvolvesanamplifiedsenseofriskalongwithareduced
feelingofdistancefromrisk.Thisdistanceiswhatallowsouramygdalatoresist
sendingfranticsignalstheneocortexateveryturn.Ourambientfeelingsofthreat
anduncertaintylurkingallaroundushasleadtoageneralsenseofanxietyand
unease.Glassnersbookattemptstoidentifythevendorsofourfears,because
immensepowerandmoneyawaitthosewhotapintoourmoralinsecuritiesand
supplyuswithsymbolicsubstitutes(2000,xxxviii).Peopleneedafullyactivated
neocortextoparticipateeffectivelyinpolitics,butasTimothyLearyobservedinhis
takeonneuropolitics,noonelistensorthinksinafearsociety(1977,62).To
framethisasaneuropoliticalissue,wemightsayfeartransfersgovernanceofthe
mindtoforcesbothintheshadowofindividualconsciousness,suchasthe
amygdala,andoverthehorizonofindividualconsciousness,suchasstateand
corporatepowers.
The Threat of the Ungovernable Mind: Surveillance and Preemption
Governments,corporations,andentrenchedpowersarenavigatingacomplexfield
ofthreatsanduncertainties.Andtheyarenotnavigatingthoselandminessimplyfor
theirownsurvival,buthavetheaddedresponsibilitytoprotecttheirconstituents
andcitizensfromexistentialthreatsaswell.Environmentaldisasters,resource
scarcity,economicinsecurity,energydisruptions,terroristattacks,pandemic
diseases,andevenmoralpanicsarenowsquarelywithinthepurviewofgoverning
bodies.Ashiftingovernmentalityhasandiscontinuingtotakeplacethatstakesits
legitimacyontheprotectionofferedtocitizensfromexistentialrisksandmajor
disruptionsevenifthoseriskshavebeendirectlyorindirectlymanufacturedby
thegoverningbodiesthemselves.TheU.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity,an
agencythatsprungforthfromthe21stcenturysecurityworldview,capturesthis
sensibilityinitslateststrategicplan,weshallidentify,defeat,andmitigatethreats
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tothesafetyoftheAmericanpeople.Wewillconstantlyguardagainstthreats,
hazards,orotherdangersthatthreatenourNationandourwayoflife(2008).
Yetmanygovernmentsarentlookingtoslowthepaceofchangeinordertogeta
betterhandleonrisks.Infact,innovationandchangeisnthappeningfastenoughin
somequarters.Forexample,frustratedbytheslowprogressofnew
pharmaceuticalscomingtomarket,thethrottlingofresearchdollarsintight
economictimes,andthenowdecadeandahalflongdeclineinpharmaceutical
productivity,theU.S.hasdecidedtokick-startdrugdevelopmentthroughthe
creationoftheNationalCenterforAdvancingTranslationalSciences,withan
openingbudgetofabilliondollars(Harris2011).Changeisscary,butlackofgrowth
isoftenevenscariertopoliticalfigures.
Aparallel,butdivergentdynamicisatplayaswell.Whilecitizensexpecttheir
governmentstocarrymoreoftheburdensofprotection,thesesamegovernments
areshiftingmanyoftheburdenofriskstoindividuals.StatetheoristNikolasRose
tracksdevelopmentsinthegovernmentalityofbiopoliticsthatareforcing
individualstosecuretheirownsecurity(2006,4).Foodinspection,disease
tracking,bordercontrol,healthcare,homesafety,andmanyotheraspectsofour
riskenvironmentarebeinglefttocashstrappedstateandlocalgovernments,orto
individualsthemselves,tomanage.Uncertaintysurroundsrolesandresponsibilities
forsecurity.
Theempowermentoftheindividualandshiftinglandscapeofrolesand
responsibilitiesdisruptsmanyestablishedpowerdynamics,makinggovernance
evenmoredifficult.Butgovernmentsandagentsgoverningthroughrisk,asEnginIsinputsit(2004),areactivelyinvolvedinthefundingandincubationofnew
knowledgeregimesmeanttomanageandcontroltherisksgeneratedbythesuper-
empowermentofindividuals,smallgroups,andotherstateandnon-stateactorsall
performingontheglobalstage.Partofthisnewknowledge-powerinvolvedpeering
intothemindsofcitizens.
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Mental surveillance
Networkedindividualsandsmallgroupshaveleveragedopportunitiestoobserve
andexposetheactionsofgovernments,corporations,organizations,andeachother.
Wikileaks,viawebsitewhichprovidesaplatformforcitizenstodisseminatesecret
documentsandinformation,isbutonewell-knownexampleofhowthebarriersto
transparencyarebeinglowered.However,theinfrastructureandsophistication
neededtoperformlarge-scalementalsurveillancecapacitiesthatarestillonlyin
formationrightnowarestillheldbystatesandlargecorporations.Theseentities
havetheresourcesandthelegalorquasi-legalmandatetoengageinpracticesthat
willdrivethegrowthofmentalsurveillance.Aswasintroducedintheopening
chapterofthedissertation,thementalsurveillancetechniquesthataremost
relevanttothemobilizationsofneuropoweraredirectbrainimagingandthe
analysisofourextendedmindsasrepresentedinournetworked,digitalbehavioral
trailsandourpublicandevenprivatedigitalexpressions.Theseprocessesoffer
differentwindowsintothesameblackboxonethroughourprivatethoughts,
andonethroughouroutwardbehaviorsandwords.
Direct Observation
Directneuralimaginghasbeendiscussedinpreviouschaptersparticularlyinthe
contextofclinicalneuroimagingandtheformationofpersonalidentity.However,
PETscans,fMRI,EEGs,andothertechniquesforimagingaworkingbraincarry
differentimplicationsregardingsurveillanceinthesecuritystate.Throughoutthis
chapter,wellseehowinformationpulleddirectlyfromthebloodflowsandelectro-chemicalsignalsofthebrainarebeingusedastoolsforlawenforcement,crime
prevention,counter-terrorism,andevenenhancementofconcentrationand
attention.Whilethetechnologiesarenotadvancedenoughtoconfirmtheparanoid
fearsofthosewhothinkthegovernmenthasmindcontrolmachines,neuroethics
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andtheconceptofcognitivelibertyarebecomingmainstreampoliticalissuesthat
mustbeseriouslyaddressedbyourpolicy-makersandthegeneralpublictoday.
Thetechnicalcapacitytotellwhatapersonisthinkingjustbylookingatabrain
scanisdrawingcloser.Forexample,byplacingaseriesofmicroelectrodesonthe
speechcentersofthebrain,researchersattheUniversityofUtahhavebeenableto
pickoutwhatwordapatientisthinking.Eachwordhasaparticularneuralpattern,
andresearcherswereabletomatchthatpatterntotherightword86%ofthetime.
(Seigel2010).Thisresearchishighlyinvasiverightnowastheelectrodesare
placeddirectlyonthebrain,buthigherdensityelectrodearraysandlessinvasive
techniquesareintheworks.Thenextstep,saysDr.BradleyGreger,headofthe
project,istomakethegridbigger,havemoreelectrodesandgetatremendous
amountofdataoutofthebrain,whichprobablymeansmorewordsandbetter
accuracy(Seigel2010).
DARPAandothermilitaryagenciesarehighlyinterestedinmindreading
technology,notonlyforinterrogationandliedetectionpurposes,butalsofor
increasingcommunicationoptionsforsoldierswherevoice,text,orothersignalsare
inadequateordangerous.AsJonathanMorenopointsoutinhisbookMindWars:
BrainResearchandNationalDefense,philosophicaldiscussionsofmindreading
couldberenderedacademicifcertainDARPAprojectsareevenmodestlysuccessful
(Moreno2006,98).
Acloselookatthetypesofresearchfundingandsupportthatisgoingintoneuro
andcognitivesciencefromthemilitaryshowsthatgovernmentsaroundtheworld
areseriousaboutthebrainasatheaterofmilitaryintelligenceandpersonnelenhancement(Moreno2006,Gusterson2007).Ofparticularinterestintodays
counter-terrorismmindsetistheabilitytopeerinsideanenemysmind.TheAir
Forces711thHumanPerformanceWinghasbeenoneofmanyU.S.militaryresearch
armsthathavebeendevelopingtechnologiesandtacticstoread,disrupt,orcontrol
enemyminds.The711thhasreleasedacallforproposalstodeveloptechnologiesto
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anticipate,find,fix,track,identify,characterizehumanintentandphysiological
statusanywhereandatanytime(Schactman2010).
Optimizingfriendlymindsarealsowithinthepurviewofmilitaryinterest.Moreno
givesalitanyofDARPAprojectsthathecondenseswithinanoverallstrategyto
combineintoasinglesystemtechniquesformeasuringbrainactivityand
wirelesslytransmitallthatinformationtoacomputerthatwillinterpretthe
informationforvariouspurposes(Moreno2006,101).Thesepurposesinclude
monitoringstresslevels,attention,andespeciallyimportantintheVUCAcontext,a
soldieroragentscognitiveload.Thesefeedbacktoolshavebeencentraltothe
conceptualizationandprototypingofso-calledaugmentedcognition,oraugcog
technologies.viiThesetechnologiesnotonlymonitorcognitiveload,butalsoadapt
theusersinformationalinterfacetoanoptimallevel.Inotherwords,ifauseris
overwhelmedorhighlystressed,thescreenwillfilteroutwindows,dashboards,or
otherelementsofthevisualfield,leavingonlythemostimportantandpressing
information.Thesekindofadaptiveinterfacesbasedonneurofeedbackarefinding
theirwayintootherdomainsincludingstocktrading(Djajadiningratetal.2009),
knowledgework(Hirshfieldetal.2009),andpotentiallyalmosteveryendeavorthat
requiresdecision-makinginambiguousandhighstresssituations.
Thecourtsareonthefrontlinesofdecision-makinginnovelsituationsaswell.
Courtsoftenseesocialchangesandnewtechnologieswellbeforethelegislativeor
executivebranchhavetakenthemup.Thisincludesneurotechnology.Inthecoming
years,wecanexpecttoseeanexplosionofneuralimagingtechnologiesand
neuroscientificevidenceintroducedinalmosteverykindofcasefromcriminalto
juvenileandfamilylaw(Garland2004,ZekiandGoodenough2006,Gazzaniga2005).UPENNpsychiatristDavidLanglebenhasconductedneuralimagingstudies
showingthatcognitivedifferencesbetweendeceptionandtruthhaveneural
correlatesdetectablebyfMRI(inMoreno,2006,103).OnlyafewcasesintheU.S.
haveseenbrainscanliedetectionorneuralcorrelatesofpriorknowledgeevidence
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beenintroduced,andsofarnojudgeintheU.S.hasallowedthisevidenceintotrial,
butthestoryisdifferentinternationally.
InarecentmurdercaseinIndia,theBrainElectricalOscillationsSignature(BEOS)
test,developedbyneuroscientistChampadiRamanMukundan,wasadministeredto
theprimesuspect.Thissuspect,AditiSharma,waslaterconvicteddueinnosmall
parttotheevidencefromtheBEOSfMRItestshowingshehadpriorknowledgeof
thedetailsofthekillingthatnooneelseotherthanthekillercouldhave.AWiredUK
storyaboutthecasedescribestheimportanceofthebrainscan:
Evidencefromthescantookupalmosttenpagesofthejudgesruling
whenayearlater,onJune12,2008,hejailedSharmaforlifemakingherthefirstpersonintheworldreportedtobeconvictedofmurderbasedonevidencethatincludedabrainscan.Iaminnocentandhavenotcommittedanycrime,sheimploredPhansalkar-Joshibeforehesentencedher.Evenhe,herlawyersaid,hadtroublebelievingthatthissmall,calm,softlyspokenstudent,fromarespectable,middle-classfamily,wascapableofkilling(Saini2009).
FMRIliedetectionishighlycontroversial,however.Mostneuroscientistsandlegal
expertsbelievethatthelevelofsophisticationofthesetechnologiesareinsufficient
tobedeemedreliableandtrustworthy.Nopersonslieshouldhanginthebalance
giventhelackofverificationofthesetechniques.Nevertheless,thesewarningshave
notstoppedmanyentrepreneursfromdevelopingandaggressivelymarketingtheir
brain-basedliedetectionproductstolawyersandlawenforcementagencies.The
marketingappealreliesonthatveryseductiveassumptionthatwecanpeerinside
theheadsofpeopleespeciallywitnesses,suspects,andotherkeyfiguresinthe
worldoflawandorder.AsIdiscussedinthepreviouschapter,theappealof
objectivemeasuresliesinourdesiretominimizeidiosyncraticbiasesandhuman
limitations.Thisdesireisstrongestwhenthestakesarehighest.
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Butitdoesnttakeexpensiveimagingtechnologiestoreadsomeonesmindatleast
someoftheirattemptsatdeception.PaulEkmanatUCSFhasspenthiscareer
studyingfacialandbehavioralcluesofpeopleastheydeceive.Hesbeentraining
otherstodosoaswell,withremarkablesuccess.Heclaimstohaveachieved80%
accuracyindetectingwhensomeoneislying(Moreno2006,106).TSAagentsand
othersarelearningthesekindsoftechniquesaswell,solargemachineswillnotbe
thefirstoronlywaythatmentalsurveillancewilltakeplace.Moreover,notall
mentalsurveillancerequiresneuralimagingtechnologies,orevendirectaccesstoa
body.Aratherlargeandusefulwindowintoourmindscomesfromtheanalysisof
theproductsofourdistributedcognitionthedigitaltrailsandexpressionswe
leavebehindusonthewebandothernetworks.
Scanning the networked mind
Itseemsthattodaymanypeoplefeellittleneedtointernalizefactualinformation,as
itcanbeaccessedimmediatelyfromnetworkedmobiledevices.Butpeoplearealso
externalizingtheirthoughts,feelings,andmemoriesintodigitalnetworks.This
createsamorepermeableandfluidbarrierbetweenourminds,ourdevices,andour
networks,creatinganewrelationshiptoprivacyandshiftingourlocusofcognition.
AsBritishscientistandcommentatorSusanGreenfieldnotesinhercritiqueofthis
cognitiveoffloading,itismostlikelythattheisolated,privateworldofthe
individualimaginationasweknowitcouldsoonbeasobsoleteastheabilityofour
ancestorstorecitetribalsagasfromauralmemoryistoday(Greenfield2004,167).
Manysocialnetworkcompaniesarelookingtocapitalizeonthepassingofthe
privatemind.Marketersareespeciallyinterestedinfindingawaytoaccessreliableneurologicalpatternsofconsumerdesire.Acottageindustryofwebbehavioral
trackinghasemergedthatusebrowsercookies,viiisocialmediatoolsthatindicate
userpreferences(suchaslike,fan,ordigg),andnetworkanalysistocreate
tasteandbehavioralprofilesforindividual,groups,andfine-graineddemographic
categories.
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Whilecreatingenormousprivacyconcerns,ixthesetoolsprovidemuchmore
nuancedpicturesofconsumerdesiresandaffinitiesthanmarketresearch,surveys,
orfocusgroupscanhopetoreplicate.Socialnetworkresearchoffersthepromiseof
understandingconsumerdesireinmuchmoretargetedandcost-effectivewaysfor
marketers.AstoutedonthewebsiteofthesocialnetworkresearchfirmColligent,
thecompanytracks145millionactiveconsumersfromonlinesocialnetworks,
coveringmorethanhalfoftheUSadultpopulation.Affinitiesto37,500brands,
media,andentertainmentaretracked(colligent.com).
Mobiledevicesandubiquitousclosed-circuitsurveillancecamerasalsoofferanother
avenueforcreatinggroupmentalprofilesthroughbehavioralmapping.Millionsuse
toapplicationslikefoursquare,Gowalla,andFacebookPlacestocheck-inor
otherwisepublicizetheirdailytravels.Thisinformationisamarketersdreamfor
gaugingtheeffectoflocation-basedmarketingandadvertising.Inaddition,facial
recognitionsoftwareandsurveillancecamerafootagecanbecombinedfor
innovativetrackingandcrimefightingtechniques,suchasdetectingaquestionable
observerwhoreturntothesceneofthecrime(Sandhana2011).
Thiskindofmarketingresearchdescribedabovegenerallyfocusesonuser
behavior,preferences,andaffinities(i.e.theconsumermind)atacollectivelevel,
howevernewapplicationsarebeingdevelopedtohelpmakeusefulinferencesabout
individualmindsbysimilarmeansofmonitoringwebclicks,typingpatterns,and
speedofinformationconsumption.OneexampleisMicrosoftsBusyBody.
Weveallhadthosemomentswhenagreatideaortrainofthoughtislostduetoanuntimelyinterruption.ProbablythemostfamousinhistoryisSamuelTaylor
ColeridgebeinginterruptedinthemiddleofcomposingKublaKhanbyaperson
fromPorlock.xAbuddingColeridgeoftoday,however,wouldprobablynoteven
advancetothemomentofdecreeingapleasuredomebeforeadistractionwould
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wakethewriterfromhisorhercreativestate.xiThisneedcreatesanopportunity
spacefordesignersandprogrammers.
BusyBodyisaprototypecomputerapplicationdevelopedtohelpuserscombatthat
baneoftheinformationagetheconstantinterruption,aswellashelpameliorate
itssisterafflictioncontinuouspartialattention(Stone,n.d.)AstheMicrosoft
researcherswhoprogrammedBusyBodydescribeit,itisasystemthat
intermittentlyasksuserstoassesstheirperceivedinterruptabilityduringatraining
phaseandthatbuildsdecision-theoreticmodelswiththeabilitytopredictthecost
ofinterruptingtheuser(Horvitz,Koch,andApacible2004).Bylearninguser
patterns,andpredictingthelevelsofconcentrationandfocusneededtoaccomplish
agiventask,theprogramcanrespondautomaticallyinreal-timetoadaptausers
interfacetotheirparticularcognitiveneeds.Thesemind-readingtoolswillbe
essentialcomponentsofmanyhigh-stress,information-richenvironments,andwill
provideawealthofdataforproxysurveillanceapplications.
Andfinally,mind-readingcanbedonenotonlythroughphysicalandvirtualdeeds,
butthroughactualwordsaswell.Semanticanalysisofourelectronicallycaptured
andstoredtextualandrhetoricalexpressionsprovidesaportalintoourhabitsof
thoughtandevenouremotionalstates.Ourformalwritingandtheminutiaeofour
everydayexpressionsandstatusmessagesonFacebookandTwittercanbe
analyzedforpsychologicalprofilingandidentification.
PsychologistJ.W.PennebakerattheUniversityofTexashasspentmuchofhiscareer
lookingathowourpatternofworduseindicatesadistinctandchangingmental
state.Usinghislinguisticinquiryandwordcount(LIWC)technique,heandhiscolleagueshaveshownthatpoetswhousedfirstpersonpronounsandreferredto
themselvesrelativelymorethantoothersweremorelikelytohavecommitted
suicidethanpoetswhodidnot(StirmanandPennebaker2001).Extendingthese
insights,Pennebakerandothershavecreatedaseriesofpsychologicaland
emotionalassessmenttoolsthatrelyonanalysisofsubjectspeechandwriting
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(Rude,Gortner,andPennebaker2004;Pennebaker,Slatcher,andChung2004;
Pennebaker,Mehl,andNiederhoffer2003).Otherpopularwebapplications,like
TweetPsych(tweetpsych.com),doalgorithmicanalysisofpersonalelectronic
expressions,addingalayerofreal-timeidentityfeedbackandinsightinto
psychologicalandemotionalstatesthathasnotexistedbefore.
Thesetoolsarenotonlyusefulfordescribingourpsychologicalstates,butarebeing
usedtopredictbehaviorsandpreemptunwantedacts.DARPA,forexample,has
initiatedaresearchprogramelegantlydubbedtheIntegratedSystemforEmotional
StateRecognitionfortheEnhancementofHumanPotentialandDetectionof
CriminalIntentthatusesspeechpatterns,behaviors,gestures,facialexpressions,
chemosignals(suchaspheromonesoffear),andthermalimaging(Lynch2003).
Thissearchforpredictionandpreemptioncapabilityisdirectedtowardtheultimate
payoffformanyformsofsurveillancetodetectandthwartthreatsbeforethey
happenanddrivestheformationofaverypotentandpoliticallyfraughtformof
neuropower.
Wecanimagineafutureinwhichthesedataaggregatorsandanalysistoolswill
knowmoreaboutusthanweknowaboutourselves.Thiskindofdatamustbe
handledcarefullyandtransparentlyifwearetomaintainameasureofpoliticalself-
determinationandbalanceofpower.Havinggovernments,corporations,orother
powersastepaheadofitspeopleisarecipeforcontrolandrepression.
Prediction and preemption
Thenewwindowsofthemindarenotonlyopeningupnewspacesofcognitive,emotional,andbehavioralsurveillance,butalsoexpandingthetimesandtacticsof
intervention.xiiStanfordlawprofessorandneuroethicistHenryGreelyconsidersthe
predictionofindividualpsychologicalconditionsandbehaviorstobeoneofthe
mostsociallyandlegallytransformationaloutcomesofadvancesinneuroscience(in
Garland2004,114-156).Anytoolthatcanprovidepredictivecapacity,eventhe
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unverifiedsemblanceofpredictivecapacity,iscovetedinoursociety.Standardized
teststopredictscholarlyachievement,datingalgorithmsforperfectmatematching,
psychologicaltests,marketresearch,evensocialmodelingandsimulationprograms
arejustafewexamplesofthemyriadwaysweseektoseeandforeseehuman
activities.
Theallureofpredictionistiedtoourdesireforcontrol,adesirethatprecedes
neurosciencebutisconditionedinnewwaysbyit.Neurosciencegivesthisdesirefor
controlnewspacesofpossibilitywithinthebrainandoutintotheextendedmind,
andputscontrolleversonwhatwasthepreviouslyunseenandunmodifiable.What
aretheconditionsofpossibilitythatexisttodaythatbringneuroscienceintothe
conversationaboutcontrol?Inotherwords,whynow?
A state of emergency
Manypoliticalobserversbelievethatmostglobalpowerstoday,especiallythe
UnitedStates,canbedescribedasasecuritystate(Stuart2008).Placingthe
originsafterWWIIandassociatedwiththepassingoftheNationalSecurityActof
1947,thesecuritystategovernmentalityreflectsandinstitutionalizesthecore
missionsoftheCIAandDepartmentofDefensewithinthestructureoftheentire
government(Hogan2000).Asecuritystatehasseveraldistinctfeaturesthatdefine
itsparticularflavorofgovernmentality,includingtheprimacyofthemilitaryasthe
highestauthority,thedominanceofthemilitary-industrialcomplexinpolitical-
economicdecision-making,anobsessionwithenemies(bothforeignandhome
grown)andtheneedfortotaldestructionofthoseenemies,andthebeliefthat
secrecy,exceptionalism,andlimitationsonspeechandpoliticalparticipationarenecessaryforcontinuedsurvivalofthestate(Nelson-Pallmeyer1992).
Thiskindofgovernmentalityreflectstheon-goingshiftfromasocietyofdiscipline
toasocietyofcontrol,xiiiandhasalsobeendescribedasthenervoussystemby
anthropologistMichaelTaussig(1991).EchoingWalterBenjaminsobservationthat
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thetraditionoftheoppressedteachesusthatthestateofemergencyinwhichwe
liveisnottheexceptionbuttherule,Taussigarguesthatthenervoussystemofa
risk-oriented,securityandsurveillancestateexistsinaconstantstateofreadiness,
requiringconstantfeedbackfromthebodypoliticinordertoimmediatelysenseany
disturbanceorthreat(1991,2-10).
ItalianpoliticaltheoristGiorgioAgambenseesthishighalertmodeasdefault
positionofgovernancetoday,notingthatthispermanentstateofemergencyhas
becomeoneoftheessentialpracticesofcontemporarystates,includingso-called
democraticones(2005,2).Thishasledtoapermanentstateofexceptionthat
allowsleaderstoindefinitelysuspendcertainlawsandlegalproceduresthatare
deemeddetrimentaltotheoverridingnecessityofmaintainingvitalsecurityand
stability.
Thepeculiarstateofemergencymindsetthatcamealongwiththeadministration
ofGeorgeW.Bushxivisonethatallowedfortheindefinitedetentionofandthe
preemptiveattacksonourenemies(whethernationsornetworks).TheUSA
PATRIOTActallowsfortheincarcerationofenemycombatants,anappellation
determinedbytheexecutivethatcanbeappliedtoawiderangeofhostileenemies
onthebattlefieldoranyotheragentdeemedtobeanactivethreattotheinterestsof
theUnitedStates,againasdefinedbytheexecutive(WhiteheadandAden2002).
CombinetheexpansionsofpowerlegalizedbythePATRIOTActalongwiththeso-
calledBushDoctrine(i.e.preemptivewar),andwehavearadicalshiftinU.S.foreign
anddomesticpolicyonethatchangesthepracticeofdiplomacy,military
intervention,andtheoversightofexecutivepower.Thewholepointofthenervoussystem,Taussigargues,isitsalwaysbeingajumpahead(1991,2).Thepolitical
andlegalsystemsintheUnitedStateshavebeguntore-orientthemselvesaround
thisperceivedresponsibilitytobeajumpahead.Predictionandpreemptionof
violentoreventhreateningactsbecomesavitalcapacityofpower,onethatgoes
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beyond,orbelow,aninternationalstage,andappliedeventosmallgroupsand
individuals.
Super-empowerment
Alineofargumentinthediscourseonglobalizationsaysthatthedigital,networked
infrastructurehasallowedindividualstoscale-uptheirpowerandinfluencewith
rapidspeedandextendedreach.Profoundorpedanticpersonalobservationsonlife
canbebroadcasttotheworldinstantly,overnightsensationscomeandgoonthe
videositeYouTube,andworldeventsarestreamedandwatchedlivebymillions
aroundtheglobe.Wearetechnologicallyconnected,ambientlyaware,andneverfar
fromtheinformationalandevenphysicalresourcesweneedtoaccomplishour
chosenmissionsfromthemundanetothegrandiose.
Analystsandcommentatorsonglobalterrorismhaveobservedthatthesesame
technologies,networks,andloweredbarrierstoaccessthathaveallowed
individualstosharetheirtalentsandamplifytheirpowers,havealsoprovidedthe
infrastructuretoscale-upanindividualscapacityforspreadinghatred,
destruction,andmayhembothfarandwide.NYTimescolumnistThomasFriedman
callsthosewhousetheaffordancesofglobalizationandnetworkedtechnologiesfor
violence,super-empoweredangryindividuals,whoareangry,wired,anddeadly
(Friedman1998).Similarly,terrorismexpertJohnRobbcallsthemglobalguerillas
andglobalentrepreneurs.Theseindividualsbuildcomplexsupplychains,benefitfromglobalmoneyflows,travelglobally,innovatewithtechnology,andattack
shrewdly(2007,146).Theproblem,accordingtoRobb,isthatglobalizationis
quicklylayeringnewskillsetsonancientmind-sets(2007,146).
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Asweknowfromrecenthistoryandcurrentevents,however,thisincongruity
betweenapre-modernmind-setandpost-modernweaponryisnotlimitedtonon-
statesactorsorglobalnetworksofterrorists.ManyWesternleaders,especiallyhave
takenBronzeAgenotionsofgoodandevilastheirguidetoexercisetheir
monopolyonlegitimateviolence.xvNevertheless,thepowerofsingleindividuals
andverysmallgroupstoplan,obtaininformationandweapons,andexecute
massivelydestructiveactshasneverbeengreaterinhumanhistory.
Thismeansashiftinthefocusandresponsibilitiesforpublicprotection.Itmeans
recognizing(eveninventing)threatsfromindividualsbothnearandfarand
increasingthebreadthanddepthofsurveillance.Itmeanstheextensionofthe
doctrineofpreemptionbeyondthreatsfromrogueorungovernablenationsand
applyingthisdoctrinetorogueorungovernableindividuals.Itmeansa
governmentalitythatseeseveryhumanmindasapotentialweaponofmass
destruction.Itmeansgovernancebecomestheactofcontrollingthethreatofthe
ungovernablemind.
Violent Minds
JaredLoughnerwalkedtowardthecrowdgatheredtohearCongresswoman
GabrielleGiffordsinTucson,AZandopenedfire,killing6andwoundinganother20,
includingCongresswomanGiffords.Unfortunately,similarmassmurdersarealltoo
familiar.FromFortHood,TXtoBlacksburg,VAandallaroundtheworld,lone
gunmenhavewroughtterribleviolence.Ineachcaseitseems,thewarningsignsof
animminentsnapwerepresentandobvious.Tracingthesewarningsignsafterthe
factdoesnogoodforthevictimsofthesecrimes,andmanyinthepublicareclamoringformoreproactiveactionfromthemedicalsystemandpoliceforces
(Fahrenthold2011,Allen2009).Whilesomedecrytheeaseofaccesstohuman
killingweapons,thepoliticalwillforanymeaningfulchangetothegunlawsinthe
UnitedStatesislacking.However,thegovernmentandmilitarydoseemwillingto
putsignificantresourcestowardanotherstrategytheuseofdatamining,semantic
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analysis,behavioralpatterning,andbiometricsurveillancetoidentify,locate,and
potentiallydetainthoseindividualswhoappeartobeready,willing,andableto
commitviolentcrimes.Thekindofsafetyandsecuritystrategywechoosereflects
ourvaluesasasociety,andwillconstitutethepossibilityspaceforthedistribution
andaccesstopowerforcitizenstoday,andinthefuture.
DARPA(again)hasbeenattheforefrontofthisresearch,initiatingaprogram
entitledAnomalyDetectionatMultipleScales(ADAMS).Thisprogramsupports
researchintowaysofanalyzingthedigitaltrailsandbehavioralpatterndatawe
actively(andoftenpassively)createaboutourselvesinordertofindtell-tale
signaturesthatindicatehostileintentions(Ackerman2010).Thesciencehasnotyet
reachedthelevelofadvancementtoreliablydetectanomalouspatternsthatactually
indicateimminentorfutureviolence.However,ifthefrequencyandseverityofmass
killingsbyindividualscontinuesorevenrises,pressureforpreemptivemedicalor
policeactionwilllikelyincrease.Thisiswhyprospectiveneuropoliticsisdesperately
needednow,beforeprematuretechnologiesareforcedintoactionbyoverwhelming
politicalpressures.Thesegrowingpressures,potentiallyreleasedbyanotherpublic
tragedy,couldforcegovernmentsintoapositionwherefalsepositives(intervention
onindividualswhoareNOTactuallyathreat)willbemoretolerablethanfalse
negative(non-interventiononindividualswhoeventuallycommitviolentcrimes)
arecipeforinjusticeandamajorthreattofreedom.
Precrime
Everyproxyindicatorforhostileintent(includingdigitaltrails)addsanotherlayer
ofcomplexity,requiringspecializedskillsandnewliteracies,thusslowingdownthefeedbackloopbetweenperceptionandaction.Thusweseeaparallelmovement.On
onehandwehavethedesireforgoingstraighttothebrain,tobeabletodirectly
seewhatsomeoneisthinkingandintendingtodo.But,neurosciencereadsbrains,
notmindsasMichaelGazzanigahaswarned(inMoreno2006,109).However
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dubiousandprematurethistechnologyis,themindissoughtastheultimate
controlpoint.
Ontheotherhandistheexpansionofaprecrimegovernmentality.Asthe
criminologistLuciaZednerargues,weareonthecuspofashiftfromapost-toa
precrimesociety,asocietyinwhichthepossibilityofforestallingriskscompetes
withandeventakesprecedenceoverrespondingtowrongsdone(inMitchell2010,
239).Precrimeisbestexemplifiedinthepopularimaginationbythemajorplot
deviceinthefilmMinorityReport,xvireleasedjustastheBushDoctrinewasbeing
implementedandwhosenarrativerevolvesaroundtheuseofprecognitiveviewing
evidencetoarrestsuspectsbeforetheycommittheircrime.Thisprecrime
governmentality,asitisseeninactualpracticetoday,reliesmoreonstatistical
modelsthanpsychics,istakingshapeinvariouslocations,andcitizensare
beginningtoencounteritintheirdailylives(Beam2011).Soon,however,the
predictivecapacitiesofbrainimagingwillbefurtheremployed,startinginairports.
Fewplacesareasfunctionallyandsymbolicallyimportantforsecuritythanairports.
Airportscarrythefetish-powerofbordersintheevocativephraseofFrench
writerJeanGenet.Theyaretheliminalzonesbetweenhereandthere,homeand
away.Airportreceptionareashousethatmostwonderfulhumaneventthe
reunion,yetairportsarealsozonesofcontagion,terrorism,andsurveillance.Itisa
placeofinspectionandexceptionwhereweareaskedtoforgomanyoftherights
weholddearoutsidetheboundariesoftheairportinordertohavethosereunions
andtoconductthebusinessthatmakesupourlivelihoods.Itmayalsobeoneofthe
firstplaceswherewewillinglycedeovertherightstoprivacyofourinnermost
thoughtsandfeelingswherewewillallowthestatetolookinsideourbrains,bodies,andminds.Theairportiswhere,asKeeleUniversitygeographerPeterAdey
pointsout:
thebodyscirculatorysystems,biologicalrhythms,andaffectiveexpressionshavebecometheobjectofsuspicionmobilesurfaces
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fromwhichinnerthoughtsandpotentiallyhostileintentionsarescrutinized,read,andgiventhreateningmeaningbythenewestmodesofairportsecurityandsurveillance(2009,274).
Predictiveandpreemptiveneuropowerissuper-chargedatthecirculatory
membraneoftheairport.Technologiesandtacticsdescribedearlier,includingthe
IsraeliSuspectDetentionSystem(SDS),DARPAsRemotePersonnelAssessment
(RSA),theDepartmentofHomelandSecuritysFutureAttributeScreeningTest
(FAST),andPaulEkmansScreeningPassengersbyObservationTechnique(SPOT),
arealldesignedtothwartpotentialterroristattacksinthehighvolume,high-stakes
surveillancebattlefieldoftheairport(KarpandMeckler2006,Weinberger2010).
Andthismountainofacronymsisjustthetipoftheiceberg.Neurosciencestillinthe
researchlabpromisesevengreatersophisticationinuncoveringinnerthoughts.
AtBerlinsBernsteinCenterforComputationalNeuroscience,researchersarefine-
tuningdevicesandtechniquesthatcandeterminewhatintentionanindividualhas
inhermind.AttheOceanitInstitute,IanKatijimaandothershavedeveloped
technologiestosenseincreasedheartrateandbloodflowremotely,butsoonhe
says,thetechnologywillbemuchsmarter.Wellscanapersonandtellwhat
theyreactuallythinking(quotedinHawksley2007).Whilethesesanguine
predictionsformindreadingtechnologiesarecertainlynotsharedbyallthose
workinginthebrainimagingandsurveillanceworld,manywouldprobablyagree
withpsychologistToddBraverwhenhesaysthat"thebarriersthatweassumed
existedinreadingourmindskeepgettingbreached(quotedinAssociatedPress
2007).
Researchersaroundtheworldareworkinghardtocrackopenthesecretsofthe
mindtohelplocked-inpatientscommunicate,tohelppeoplemoveprosthetic
limbswiththeirmind,andtohelppeoplewithbehavioralandneurological
disorders,butgiventhepressuresonthoseingovernmenttoprotectcitizensat
higherandhighercosts,accesstotechnologiesthatcanreadthemindofpotential
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terroristsandpreemptcatastrophicviolencemakestheabilitytoresisttheuseof
thesetechnologiesweak.Onedemonstrationofhowthesetoolscouldhavestopped
anactualattack,butwerenotused,wouldendthecareer(orworse)oftheperson
responsibleforthatdecision.Thereforethescrutinizationofthoughts,emotions,
affects,andotherinternalevidencewillbestronglymotivated,andmay
overwhelmourhistoricallycovetedrighttoprivacy.Inshort,wewillbeaskedto
openourmindsatairportsinorderforpoliticiansandofficialstocovertheir
asses.
Thecriminaljusticesystemisfundamentallyorientedtowardissuesofprediction
andpreemption.Frompatroltoparole,goodmetricsforcorrectsentencing,
reducingrecidivism,reducingpublicrisks,andmaintainingfairnessarecentralto
themission.Neuroscienceoffersveryenticingtoolsforimprovingthesedecision-
makingprocesses,andforcraftingmoreaccurate,individualized,andeffective
protocols.Muchlikethepressuresonofficialstopreventafutureterroristattack,
accesstoneurologicaltestsandimagingresultsthatcouldshowifafelonismoreor
lesslikelytocommitfuturecrimeswillmakethesetoolsalmostirresistible.
Knowingtheobjectivemeasureofimpulsecontrolofasexoffenderwouldbe
cherishedinformationforthoseresponsibleforreleasingaprisoner.Thesetools
alsohavetheaddedbenefit(forthoseindecision-makingpositions)whereinthe
responsibilityforanyerrorcanbesafelyabstractedtothesystem,ratherthanthe
actualindividual(s)incharge.
Thiskindofpredictiveandprobabilisticmodelingcouldalsobeusedtoestablish
surveillanceandmonitoringprotocolsforthosewhoshowsignsofneurological
characteristicsassociatedwithcriminalbehavior,buthavenotcommittedanycrime.Youngpsychopaths,forexample,havedistinctbrainabnormalities:
associatedwithstructuralandfunctionaldamagetotheorbitalcortexandstronglyinterconnectedventralprefrontalsystemstructuressuchastheventromedialprefrontalcortex,ventralanteriorcingulate,
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amygdala,andassociatedbasalgangliaandcortico-subcorticalloopcircuits(Fallon2005-2006,341).
Ifbrainabnormalitiescanbeuncoveredbeforeaviolentactoccurs,whatistheroleofthepoliceandmedicalestablishmenttodosomethingaboutit?Thisisoneofthe
centraltensionsinneuropolitics,andonethathasthefamiliarfalsepositive/false
negativeriskprofile.
Rapidadvancesinneuroscienceandneurotechnologyaretakinghypothetical
ethicalquestionsandmakingthemamatterofpolicytoday.Wellseearangeof
responses,ascase-by-caseaggregationwillstarttoconvergeintotrends.Onesignal
doesnotmakeatrend,buttheimplementationofpredictivepolicingbytheSanta
CruzPolicepointstoapossiblefuture.UsingastatisticalmodeldevelopedatSanta
ClaraUniversitythatpredictsthetimesandlocationsofcriminalactivity,SantaCruz
policeareschedulingpatrolsthatprespondtothesepredictedcrimesbeforethey
happen.Theoverallmodelisbasedonthebeliefthatcrimeisnotrandom.Sowith
enoughdatapoints,youcouldpredictwhereandwhenitwillhappen,saysZach
Friend,aSantaCruzPoliceDept.analyst(Baxter2011).Andwhileitiscertainlyan
overstatementtosaythatthesekindsofmodelswillapplytoanindividualsbrain
scan,thelogicofpredictivepolicingisbeginningtoenterintomainstreampolice
strategy.Itisnotastretchtothinkthatsomeaspectsofneurologicalprofilingmight
beaddedtoapoliceforcesrepertoireoffuturedatapoints,andnottooearlyto
considertheneuropoliticalimplicationsofthis.
Anotherkeylocationforthemobilizationoftheneuropowerofpreemptioniswithin
thewarondrugs.Thiswarhasbeenthejustificationofalitanyofexpansionsof
governmentalpowers,intrusions,violations,andsuspensionsofcommonsense.At
itsmostfundamentallevel,nationaldrugpolicyisaboutwhatweasindividualsare
allowedtodotoandwithourmindsandbodies.Itisafightovertherightandthe
freedomtoalterthewaywethinkandfeel.
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Governmentsaroundtheworldseemtobewakinguptothefactthatasupply-side
eradicationstrategyisdoomedtofailure.Initsplace,aslegalscholarRichardBoire
argues,thefederalgovernmenthasbegunpursuinganewtactic,onethatexpands
thedrugwarbattlefieldfromtheColumbiancocafarmsandtheMiddleEastern
poppyfields,toanewterraindirectlyinsidethebodiesandbrainsofdrugusers,
leadingtoapolicyshiftfromdemandreductiontodesirereduction(CCLE2004,
6).
ACenterforCognitiveLibertyandEthicsreporttitledThreatstoCognitiveLiberty:
PharmacotherapyandtheFutureoftheDrugWar(2004)outlinesseveralnew
biologicaltechniquesthatinone-wayoranotherreducedesireforcertaindrugs.
Thesebio-andneurologicaltoolsaredesignedtohelpthosewhoareaddictedto
drugsbutcannoteffectivelyendtheiraddiction.
Pharmacotherapyworksviaseveralmodalities.Onewayistochemicallyblockdrug
receptorsitesattheneuron,preventingdrugmoleculesfrombindingtotheneuron
andproducingtheirmind-alteringeffects.Second,aclassofdrugsworksinthe
bloodstreamtobindtotheillegaldrugmolecule,makingittoolargetopassthrough
theblood-brainbarrier.Andfinallytherearemetabolismmodifiersthatchange
howthebodymetabolizesthedrug,oftengeneratingaveryunpleasantfeelingfor
theuser,aswiththealcoholdeterrentAntabuse.Opiates,cocaine,alcohol,
marijuana,andnicotinearejustsomeofthedrugstargetedbypharmacotherapy
(CCLE2004,6-11).Andnow,enterprisinglawmakershavediscussedtheuseofthe
drugvaccinesnotonlyforthosewhoarealreadyaddictedtoillegaldrugs,butasa
waytoinhibitacitizensabilitytogethighoffofillegaldrugsevenbeforetheirfirstuse.
TheUnitedKingdomhasbeenthemostaggressiveinpursuingthepossibilityof
drugvaccinesaspolicy.Agovernmentcommissionedreport,BrainScience,
addiction,anddrugssuggestedthatinthefaceofregulatingfailurestocurbtheuse
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ofillicitdrugs,wemightimagineanapproachthatresortsincreasinglytoa
technologicalfix(quotedinEaston2009).Thistechnologicalfixincludestheuseof
pharmacotherapyanddrugvaccines.
Whilepublicsentimentisstillsquarelyagainsttheideaofcompulsoryvaccinationof
citizens(includingchildren),andthescientificefficacyofthesedrugsisstill
uncertain,pharmacotherapywillcontinuetobeapromisingareaofresearchand
treatmentforthosesufferingfromdebilitatingaddictions.Torepeattherunning
themehere,oncethetoolsexist,thosewiththepowertousethemtotheirown
advantageortowardtheirownideologicalgoalsoftendo.Itisawell-known
occupationalhazardforscientificlabortobeusedinwaysincongruouswiththe
goalsandvalue-systemsofthoselaborers.NeuroethicistRonaldGreenpointsout
theever-lurkingironythatresearchbeguntoprovideameansforimproving
humanhealthmayeventuallycometobeknownbestforitscontributiontosocial
control(Green2007,119).
Conclusion: Responsibility in the Neurocentric Age
Thischapterbeganwithstoriesoffearandfollyforindividualsandgovernments
tryingtocopewithprofoundthreatsinanacceleratingVUCAworld.Thespeedof
lifeandthecompressionofdistancehavedistortedourcapacitiestorecognizeand
dealwithrisk,leadingtoapandemicofamygdalahijackings.Thesedynamicsareat
theheartoftheemergenceofthreeimportantneuropowerstreatingsimilarities
asequalities,mentalsurveillance,andpredictionandpreemption.
Treatingsimilaritiesasequalitiesisanecessarypartofhumanperceptionand
cognition,butweoftenforgetthatitisashort-cutformorerobustandfullyengaged
kindsofthinking.Theexigenciesofthespeedandconnectednessofourworldwill
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pushus,andmostimportantlyourinstitutions,tousetheseshort-cutsinwaysthat
begintonegativelyimpactourcapacitiesforfairness,justice,andprudence.
Mentalsurveillancewillopenupaspectsofhowwethinkandwhatwethinkinways
neverbeforepossible.Itwillchangethewaywetalkaboutrightsandexpectations
ofprivacy,andwillcreateanewlocusofpoliticalcontestation.Thisincludesnot
onlypeeringdirectlyintothemind,butalsonewkindsofdigitalsurveillanceofour
electronicallyextendedanddigitallydistributedminds.
Predictionandpreemptionarehighlyseductiveandextremelypowerfultoolsthat
arebeingenabledbyneuroscientificresearchandapplications.Perhapsno
neuropowerdiscussedinthisdissertationhasasmuchpotentialforabuseandas
muchneedforwiderexaminationbythegeneralpublic.Everyapplicationand
instantiationofthesetechniquesshouldbethoroughlyinterrogated,andthevalues
behindtheseapplicationsshouldbelaidbareandcritiqued.
Theseneuropowersareenabledbyatechnicalandknowledge-powerinfrastructure
beingbuiltbyresearchersinthebrainsciencesandmembersofthepublicwhoare
activelycreatingdatabasesofextendedcognitiveinformation.Agovernmentalityof
controlisbeingdrivenbytheperceptionofgreaterexistentialrisks,creating
incentivesforexpansionofintrusionsandinvasionsofprivacy.
Alloftheseargumentsleadtotheoverallconclusionofthischapter:whenasecurity
statebecomesneurocentric,wemustbeparticularlyvigilantabouthow
neurosciencedrivespolicy.Itisincumbentuponneuroscientists,ethicists,andall
thosewithapoliticalstakeinneuroscienceoreventhosewhosimplycareaboutdemocracytoexamineandcritiquethemachinationsofneuropower.Theforcesof
controlshouldnotbebolsteredbyexaggeratedresearchclaims,unverified
technologies,prematureapplicationofresearch,andneurologicaldeterminism.If
thesecautionsarenotheeded,thenthepotentialtransformativebenefitsof
neuroscienceandneurotechnologieswillbelost,aswillkeytenetsofdemocracy,
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freedom,andmanyopportunitiesforhappinessforfuturegenerations.
i
http://www.usatoday.com/news/offbeat/2007-05-26-bobblehead-scare_N.htmiihttp://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/21/national/main3285154.shtmliiihttp://thinkingpictures.blogspot.com/2007_05_01_archive.htmlivhttp://thinkingpictures.blogspot.com/2007_05_01_archive.html vIn2007,asaguerillaadcampaignfortheupcomingreleaseoftheAquaTeenHungerForce(ATHF)movie,basedonanadult-orientedanimatedseries,lightedsignsofoneofthecartooncharactersflippingthebirdwereplacedaroundBostonandothercitiesintheU.S.IntheBostoncase,fearsthattheseambiguousdeviceswereterroristbombs,sentthecityintofullemergencymode,causingmassevacuationsandclosingofbuildingsandstreets.Aspartofthesettlement,TurnerBroadcasting,owneroftherightstoATHF,agreedtopaytheBostonPoliceForceandtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity$1millioneach.https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/2007_Boston_bomb_scare
vihttps://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/WikiLeaksviiwww.augmentedcognition.orgviiiCookiesareembeddedsoftwarecodesthattrackuserbehaviorthroughtheirwebbrowser.Typicalinformationgatheredincludedtimeonsite,linksclicked,andpageviews.Cookiesareofteninstalledunbeknownsttousersandraiseprivacyandsecurityconcerns.See.http://www.ghacks.net/2010/07/17/what-is-a-tracking-cookie/ixConcernsthatincludecorporatetracking,aswellasgovernmentsurveillance.See,http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/dec/30/newmedia.usnews.xhttps://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Person_from_PorlockxiForexample,Ivetoggledfromthiswritingscreentootherapplicationsonmycomputersixseparatetimessincestartingthisparagraph.xiiThissectionisaboutthegovernmentalitythatseekstousementalsurveillanceandother
techniquestopredictandpreemptcertainbehaviors.Itisnotabouttheabilityforthehumanbrainandmindtopredictorforecastcertaineventsofrelevancetoindividuals.Thisaspectwillbediscussedinalaterchapter,includingreferencetoagrowingbodyofliteratureonthesubject.xiiiDisciplineandcontrolsocietieswerediscussedinChapter1.xivBefore9/11/01,butacceleratedpost9/11/01.xvSee,forexample,RichardDawkinscommentaryathttp://newhumanist.org.uk/469/time-to-stand-upxviTheplotofMinorityReportconcernsthepolitics,ethics,andcorruptionofindividualsinvolvedintheinstitutionalizationofanexperimentalpolicingprogram.Thisprogramusesateamofprecognitivepsychicstoidentifyandcapturecriminalsbeforetheyhaveactuallycommittedtheircrime.
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