the use of theory.pptx
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The use of TheoryDr. Ayaz Muhammad Khan
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Outline
What is theory
When theory develop
Levels of theory
Forms of theory
Theory use in Quantitative research
Theory use in Qualitative research Theory use in Mixed Method
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Basic Vs. Applied Research
Basic research is conducted to expand knowledge
and understanding by either developing or testing
theory. Its focus is knowledge for knowledge's sake.
It is typically what we think of when we think ofscientific research.
Applied research is research conducted to further the
development of effective policies and programs. It
collects and analyzes empirical data to provide
knowledge that can be used to develop new policies
and programs or evaluate existing ones.
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What is theory
The word "theory" most simply means
"explanation." Theories explain "How" and "Why"
something operates as it does. Some theories arehighly developed and encompass a large terrain (i.e.,
"big" theories or "grand" theories); others theories
are "smaller" theories or briefer explanations
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What is theory? Theory is a carefully constructed set of interrelated
concepts and statements that explain or interpret some
phenomenon.
Theory is never proven, only supported.
Researchers are constantly challenging and questioningexisting theory.
The goal of basic research is to develop theory that is
supported by empirical evidence, or more precisely, that
empirical evidence does not contradict or refute. Theory in a given field consists of those theoretical
statements and propositions that have not yet been
refuted.
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Components of theorya) Assumptions. All theories are based onassumptions.
Positivistic and interpretive assumptions.
b) Concepts
c) Statements and Proposition
Statements and propositions make declarations
about relationships between concepts and
variables.
Statements and propositions are often causal, but
may also be correlational or even declarative in
nature.
Statements and propositions may be simple or
complex.
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Theories and Constructs
In attempting to explain and predict behaviour ,
scientist and philosophers often develop theories
that contains hypothetical mechanism andintangible elements. Although these mechanism
and elements cannot be seen and are only
assumed to exist, we accept them real because
they seem to describe and explain behaviors thatwe see.
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For Example
A bright child does poor work in his class because
he has low motivation.
A kindergarten teacher may hesitate to criticize alazy child because it may injure the students self
esteem
But what is motivation and how do we know that
it low? What about self esteem?
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So
Many research variables, particularly variables of
interest to behavioral scientist , are in fact
hypothetical entities created from theory andspeculations. Such variables are called constructs
or variables of constructs
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Constructs
A construct is a hypothetical attribute or
mechanism that helps explain and predict
behavior in a theory. Although constructs are hypothetical and
intangible yet they play very important roles in
behavioral theories
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Although
Constructs are hypothetical and intangible, they
play very important roles in behavioral theories. In
many theories, constructs can be influenced byexternal stimuli and in turn can influence external
behaviors.
External
Stimulus--- Construct----Behavior
Factors
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For example
External factors such as rewards or reinforcement
can affect motivation (construct), and motivation can
then affect performance. Thus it is possible forresearchers to examine the factors that theoretically
influence construct and study the behaviors that
theoretically result from a construct
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Operational definition
Although a construct itself cannot be directly
observed or measured yet it is possible to observe
and measure the external factors and the behaviorsthat are associated theoretically with the construct.
Research can measure these external observable
events as an indirect method of measuring the
construct itself. Typically a researcher identify abehavior or a cluster of behaviors associated with a
construct, the behavior is then measured and the
resulting measurements are used as a definition
and a measure of construct
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Operational Definition
An operational definition is a procedure for measuring
and defining a construct. An operational; definition
specifies a measurement procedure (a set of
operations) for measuring an external , observablebehavior and uses the resulting measurement as a
definition and a measurement of hypothetical
construct
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IQ test : an example of OD
Intelligence is a hypothetical construct, it is an internal
attribute that can not be observed directly. However ,
intelligence is assumed to influence external behaviorsthat can be observed and measured. An IQ test
actually measures external behaviorresponses to
questions. Although IQ score is really a measure of
intelligent behavior, we use the score both as adefinition of intelligence and as a measure of it.
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Definition of theory
A set of interrelated variables, definitions and
prepositions, that represent a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations amongvar iables, with the purpose of explaining natural
phenomena.
Theory provide explanation of expectation and
prediction.
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A theory is an explanation of a certain set of observed
phenomena in terms of a system of constructs and
laws that relate these constructs to each other.
Consider Piagets theory of intellectual development
. Piagets theory is a set of system and in that it
consists of a set of constructs and their relationship to
each other. Piaget observed how children of differentages responded to a particular task. The children
responses constituted phenomena to be explained by
theory
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Theories are strengthened bytest results
Theories ARE NOT provenbecause you never know
what tomorrow will bring
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The Principle of Evidence
According to the principle of evidence, what is gained in
empirical research is evidence, NOT proof. This means
that knowledge based on business research is ultimatelytentative. Therefore, please eliminate the word "proof"
from your vocabulary when you talk about research
results. Empirical research provides evidence; it does not
provide proof. Also note that, evidence increases when afinding has been replicated. Hence, you should take
NOT draw firm conclusions from a single research
study.
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Uses of theory
Theoretical construct identify commonalities
otherwise isolated phenomena. Piagets theory , for
example, identifies many isolated infant behavior asinstances of SENSORIMOTOR INTELLIGNECE. In
other words , theoretical constructs identify the
universals of experience so that we can make sense of
experience
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continue
Second, , laws of theory enables us to make
predictions to control phenomena. Because
astronomers have a well developed theory, they canmake very accurate predictions about the occurrence
of the eclipse and other phenomena in the universe.
Because professionals in special education work
from a well developed theory of learning (sometimes called behavioral theory ) they can make
instructional interventions that deeply lead to
positive changes in student behavior
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When theory develop
When researcher test a prediction
many times. It recall that investigator
combine independent, mediating anddependent variables based on different
form of hypotheses or research
question. Theory develops as
explanation to advance knowledge inparticular field.
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Level of theories
Micro level (explanation limited to
small slice of time, space or number of
people) Meso-level (link micro and macro
level)
Macro level (explain larger
aggregates)
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Forms of theories
Hopkins (1964) theory as a series of
hypotheses are:
The higher her rank, the greater hercentrality.
The greater his centrality, the greater
his observability.
The higher her rank , the greater her
observability.
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Second form
State theory as a series of if..then
which explain why independent
variable to cause the dependentvariable. (example)
If the frequency of interaction
between two or more person increase ,
the degree of liking with one anotherwill increase.
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Third form
Third form of theory is Visual
Model and it translate variables into
visual picture. Example
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Three independent variable influencing a single
dependent variable mediated by two intervening variable.
X
3
Y
2
Z
1
Y1
X2
X
1
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Placement ofQuantitative Theories
In quantitative study theory use
deductively and place in the beginning
of the study. For testing theory researcher collect
data and results of the test reflect the
confirmation and disconfirmation of
the theory.
Theory provide framework of entire
study.
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Deductive model use inquantitative research
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(Deduction)
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Placing theory inquantitative study
Placement Advantage Disadvantage
In the
introduction
An approach often found in
journal, convey deductive
approach
It is difficult for reader to
separate theory from other
components
In the literature
review
Theories found in literature
is logical
It is difficult for reader to see
theory isolate from scholarly
literature
After hypotheses
and research
question
Theory discussion is logical
because it explain how and
why variables are related
Writer may include theatrical
rational after hypotheses or
research question, leave theextended discussion about the
origin of theory.
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Theory use inqualitative research
Theory employ in qualitative research
as a broad explanation, explanation of
behavior and attitude. Inductive process is use for theory.
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Logic of inductive approach
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Locating the theory in qualitativeresearch
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Mixed Method Approach
In mixed method study the theory
include deductivelyin theory testing
and verification. Inductivelyin emerging theory or
pattern.
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Theory use in Mixed Method
Theoretical lens or perspective theory
use to guide the study.
Greene and Caracelli (1997)mentioned the transformative design,
and this gave the dominance to value
based, action oriented research such as
in participatory action research andempowerment approach.
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