theories of practice: the structural frame mpa 8002 the structure and theory of human organization...
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Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Structural FrameThe Structural Frame
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Since the mid-19th century and throughout the Industrial Era, social scientists have made inquiry into the nature of human organizations. The overall endeavor has been to objectify and analyze those factors which constitute effective and efficient organizations.
The goal has been to characterize how effective and efficient organizations: function well achieve and surpass goals survive and thrive in the environment what competitors emulate
The rational and objective side of The rational and objective side of human organizations...human organizations...
The structural frame upholds the notion that organizations are judged primarily on and by the proper functioning of those elements which constitute good organization...
…giving appropriate emphasis to the process integrating people and technology...
…and enabling the organization to achieve its goals.
The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles.
A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
the structural frame
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
Managerialand
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Factory Machine
Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment
Socialarchitect
ChiefExecutiveOfficer
President
Attunestructure totask,technology,environment
Align people,process, andtechnology
For the greater part of the 20th century, the assumptions and concepts of scientific management have informed most theories of practice.
One of the earliest precursors of One of the earliest precursors of scientific management...scientific management...
Max Weber19th century sociologisthired by Frederick the Great to
reorganize the Prussian armyconceived the “rationalized
bureaucracy”
But, if Max Weber “rationalized” the bureaucracy…
…Frederick Winslow Taylor “hyper-rationalized” the bureaucracy.
Frederick Winslow Taylor...Frederick Winslow Taylor...
originally trained as a statistician
conducted time and motion studies to ascertain the “one best way” in turn, this provided the basis for worker
training, assessment, and improvement
sought an objective, scientific mechanism to improve organizational functioning
the “father” of scientific management
In 1911, Taylor published his theory of practice, The Principles of Scientific Management...
...eventually, Taylor’s book became the standard textbook in management training in the North America and Europe.
The assumptions of scientific The assumptions of scientific management...management...
1. organizations exist to achieve established goals and objectives
3. structures must be designed to fit an organization’s circumstances (including its goals, technology, and environment)
2. organizations work best when rationality prevails over personal preferences and external pressures
4. organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through specialization and division of labor
6. problems and performance gaps arise from structural deficiencies and are best remedied through organizational restructuring
5. appropriate forms of coordination and control are essential to ensure that individuals and units work together although both are subordinate to organizational goals
The Five Principles of Scientific The Five Principles of Scientific Management...Management...
1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager
2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work
3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed
4. train the worker to do the work efficiently
5. monitor worker performance
Although “common sense” by Although “common sense” by today’s standards...today’s standards...
Taylor’s principles were a fundamental assault upon traditional theories of practice
Taylor’s intention was to effect a “mental revolution” aimed at transforming how people looked at work, their lives, and their world
The mental revolution...The mental revolution...
fixed division of labor
reform:
craft guilds and trades where one worker completes an entire job
replaced:
uniform rules govern job performance
reform:
work dictated by the caprice, whim, fancy, or feeling of a superordinate
replaced:
workers would possess technical qualifications
reform:
patrimony, patronage, graft
replaced:
the separation of person from office
reform:
individual assertions, claims, tenure
replaced:
a hierarchy of officers
reform:
dictators, autocrats, monarchs
replaced:
work as a “life-long” career in an organization
reform:
work as a “trade” where workers seek employment wherever available
replaced:
Taylor’s mental revolution also Taylor’s mental revolution also transformed managerial practicetransformed managerial practice......
his principles focused attention upon the manager as a “social architect”
In practice episodesIn practice episodes......
managers apply the principles and concepts of scientific management to resolve the fundamental dilemmas present in the workplace
Although Taylor is oftentimes credited (or discredited) for rationalizing the workplace, he was the first to introduce the concept of “creativity” into the managerial process.
Management and leadership as Management and leadership as creative “social architecture”...creative “social architecture”...
integration: the manager devises a structure to conjoin people, process, and technology in the most efficient and effective way possible
division of labor: the manager designs an appropriate means of control to facilitate vertical and lateral integration
span of control: the manager organizes a system of supervision and accountability
fundamental concepts:
The dilemmas confronting The dilemmas confronting managers and leaders...managers and leaders...
differentiation integrationvs.
gaps overlapsvs.
underuse overloadvs.
lack of clarity lack of creativityvs.
excessiveautonomy
excessiveinterdependence
vs.
too loose too tightvs.
diffuse authority over-centralizationvs.
goal-less goal-boundvs.
irresponsibility unresponsivenessvs.
Scientific management...Scientific management...
focuses on the social context of work specifies goals, roles, and relationships encourages organizational efficiency and
effectiveness
In its inception, scientific management represented a fundamental reform of the workplace. But, as scientific management became an orthodox ideology governing practice episodes, some of its assumptions proved to be problematic.
““Taylorism” as scientific Taylorism” as scientific management came to be known...management came to be known...
dominated the training of managers and leaders for most of the 20th century
eventually became an ideology shaping how people viewed virtually every form of human organization, including for-profit business, not-for-profit social services (e.g., hospitals, municipal governments, schools), and even homes
Some recent kindred cousins of Some recent kindred cousins of scientific management...scientific management...
PERT Analysis (1960s)
Organizational Re-Engineering (1990s)
Management By Objectives (1970s)Total Quality Management (1980s)
Strategic Planning (1980s)
But, the principles contain hidden But, the principles contain hidden assumptions...assumptions...
1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager
managers do all of the thinking related to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation
2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work
managers design the worker’s task by specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done
3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed
job competencies and requirements can be explicitly detailed
4. train the worker to do the work efficiently
training is routinized, involving demonstration, practice, and drill
5. monitor worker performance
managers ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and that pre-determined results are achieved
integration
division of labor
span of control
hierarchies
policies
procedures
rules
assessment
implies
structural elements:
The power of scientific The power of scientific management...management...
the structure will support the work
……can improve organizational can improve organizational functioning...functioning...
As these structural elements align people, process, and technology:
the organizational structure and workforce will complement one another
efficiency and effectiveness will create the circumstances for achieving the organization’s goals
the structure will remain impervious to challenge
……or can become an ideology...or can become an ideology...
When the structural elements become more important than the people in the organization:
new management will re-establish control—or— the organization will flounder until it eventually dies in its environment
tensions between structure and people will mount
inefficiencies and ineffectiveness will contribute to organizational dysfunction
Managing and leading human Managing and leading human organizations requires...organizations requires...
developing a comprehensive conception of the organization
What is its mission and vision?
What are its current strategies and goals?
What does its history say about the organization’s strengths and weaknesses?
What opportunities and threats are present?
How do things really work?
How did things come to be this way?
Gather factual data that support these matters. Do not rely on anecdotal information.
Rather than attempting to “reinvent the wheel,” how might elements of the present structure be used to foster organizational change?
critically examining existing structures and processes
formulate an organizational purpose that responds to an environmental demand, a perceived need, or an opportunity to be seized
mix expertise and generate healthy organizational tension by cross-fertilizing divisions
forge a common commitment to making “working” decisions for which members bear responsibility but, at the same time, are subject to re-assessment and change
designing an organizational structure that takes into account its history, experience, and preferred future:
Using scientific management...Using scientific management...
VISION MISSION
a preferred future
what ought to be
based upon factual data
the motivation
the opportunities
the challenges
VISION MISSION
PURPOSE
PURPOSE STRATEGY
a shared motive
with explicit values
formulate preferred scenario
explicating why we do what we do
define the “game plan”
STRATEGY GOALS
action-oriented, “smart” outcomes
frames subsequent decisions that will be made at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy
which implement the strategy
translate the organizational purpose and strategy into performance goals
S
M
A
R
T
short
measurable
achievable
realistic
time bound
GOALS TACTICS
purposive actions by groups in practice episodes
frame subsequent decision making by the various groups closest to the action where frequent decisions must be made
how we will do what we will do
TACTICS PROJECTS
purposive actions by individuals in practice episodes
frame subsequent decision making by individuals who do the “work” what I will do
TACTICS
PROJECTS
GOALS
PURPOSE
VISION
MISSION
STRATEGIES
regularize a system for individual and collective accountability, one that translates the organizational purpose, goals, and commitments into tangible achievements
All the while, management and All the while, management and leadership endeavors to...leadership endeavors to...
intra-organizational cohesion
adopt the “experimental mentality” associated with practice episodes: to retain what works, to discard what doesn’t, and to refine the structure as needed
flexibility
report back what is being learned through practice
honest and accurate feedback
verticalcoordination
lateral control
To avoid organizational To avoid organizational dysfunction...dysfunction...
The manager’s challenge is to integrate vertical coordination with lateral control
verticalcoordinationone focus:
...to integrate the various levels of the organization’s formal hierarchy
power
Tactics for vertical Tactics for vertical coordination...coordination...
rules and policies
planningand
control systems
legitimatereferentexpert
specify the conditions of work
performance control
action planning
coercive
reward
lateralcontrola second focus:
…to balance the need for autonomy and responsibility at similar levels in the organization’s formal hierarchy
meetings
Tactics to exercise lateral Tactics to exercise lateral control...control...
opportunities for dialogue, feedback about operations, and the honest exchange of facts and insights
Meeting agendas should forge structural redesign that promises to improve organizational functioning not provide a forum to air personal grievances and interpersonal conflicts.
task forces
groupings of stakeholders representing diverse viewpoints
A task force is given a specific charge to integrate structures not to be mired in endless debate about current standard operating procedures.
coordinating roles engaging in
boundary spanning
Boundary spanning enables workers to develop the cross-functional skills needed to coordinate work in a complex organization. This liberates both the organization and its members from co-dependency.
matrix structures
identifying critical linkages between divisions
Matrix structures identify and link otherwise disassociated divisions in the endeavor to eliminate inter-divisional conflict, confusion, and turf protection.
networks
individuals and groups focusing on a particular area of interest
Self-organizing networks provide the much needed cross-functionality and geographical diversity to spur creative thinking about organizational issues. However, networks are unwieldy, difficult to control, and offer no guarantees of positive outcomes.
verticalcoordination
lateral control
Managers and leaders need to be realisticrealistic...
While using these tactics to integrate...While using these tactics to integrate...
A realistic theory of managerial A realistic theory of managerial and leadership...and leadership...
the central issue confronting managers and leaders is that change notnot stability characterizes human organizations
However, scientific management and the structural theories of practice associated with it are constructed on the false premise that change does not characterize organizations.
Some of the significant changes impacting organizational functioning include:
information technology
organizational vision
environmentsize of organization
age of organization
core process
However, the single, most significant change impacting an organization is:
people
Because organizations are Because organizations are primarily human enterprises...primarily human enterprises...
managers and leaders use scientific management by focusing upon developing a “team” a small number of people possessing complementary skills
committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach toward achieving them
for which they hold themselves mutually accountable
change alters the clarity and stability of roles and relationships, creating confusion and chaos
This requires managers and leaders to be attentive to periodically realigning and renegotiating formal patterns and policies.
Structural tasks for managers and Structural tasks for managers and leaders...leaders...
1. set goals and policies under conditions of uncertainty
2. achieve “delicate balance” in allocating scarce resources across different businesses or functions
3. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates
effective managers and leaders are …social architects
Using scientific management...Using scientific management...
whose primary concerns are…honest analysis
…creative design
ineffective managers and leaders are …petty tyrants
Abusing scientific management...Abusing scientific management...
whose primary concerns are
…micro-managing
…ruling by fiat
…issuing memos
…objectivity
Strengths of the scientific Strengths of the scientific management theory of practice...management theory of practice...
…action oriented
…logical
…modes of accountability
…impersonal
Limitations of the scientific Limitations of the scientific management theory of practice...management theory of practice...
…pessimistic
…overly simplistic
…inflexible
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism that managers and leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting
themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the human resources frame
the political frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...This module has focused on...
the scientific management theoriesscientific management theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
the structural frame
as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the
offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of scientific management theory
The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles.
A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO
the structural frame
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
Managerialand
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Factory Machine
Rules Roles Goals Policies Technology Environment
Socialarchitect
ChiefExecutiveOfficer
President
Attunestructure totask,technology,environment
Align people,process, andtechnology
The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...
and the psychological theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes
the human resources frame
People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:
CentralConcepts:
ManagerialAnd
LeadershipImage:
FundamentalChallenge:
Family Tribe Clan
Relationships Self-Interest Needs Feelings Skills
Empowerment Liberation Fulfillment Self-
Actualization
Attuneorganizationaland humanneeds
the human resources frame
ReferencesReferences
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.
Taylor, F. W. (1911/1967). The principles of scientific management. New York: W. W. Norton.
Weber, M. (1930/1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (A. Giddens, Trans.). New York: Routledge.
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