tms-em11-a-01-02page 1 of 60 global issues environmental awareness
Post on 27-Dec-2015
216 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 1 of 60
Global Issues
Environmental Awareness
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 2 of 60
Global environmental impact:
The optimist’s view is that:
“The ecosystem is a robust process and Man’s presence on Earth does little to disrupt this process.”
The pessimist’s view is that:
“The ecosystem is delicately balanced and man-made effects are relentlessly moving us towards an unstable environmental condition.”
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 3 of 60
Serious Environmental Issues at European Level• Climate change• Stratospheric ozone depletion• The loss of biodiversity• Major accidents• Acidification:• Ground-level ozone and other photochemical oxidants• The management of freshwater• Forest degradation• Coastal zone threats and management• Waste production and management• Urban stress• Chemical risks
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 4 of 60
Environmental effects
• Air: atmospheric emissions are dispersed and chemically converted
• Water: discharges are dispersed down a concentration gradient
• Land: contaminated land can present particularly intractable problems
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 5 of 60
Man’s effects
• Deforestation and desertification
• Limited biodiversity
• Genetic modification
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 6 of 60
Global environmental system
Atmosphere
Biosphere Hydrosphere
Geosphere
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 7 of 60
UK Expenditure (1991-2000) (£bn):
Environmental Problem
UK expenditure (£bn)
Major spillsContaminated LandPersistent organics
VOCs and smellsNoise
Air QualityOzone depletion
Heavy metalsAcid rain
Waste managementWater quality
Greenhouse effect
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 8 of 60
Brundtland report
“The ability to choose policies that are sustainable requires that the ecological dimensions of policy be considered at the same time as the economic, trade, energy, agricultural, industrial and other dimensions. That is the chief institutional challenge of the 1990s.”
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 9 of 60
The Geosphere
“The geosphere is a complex group of
processes that comprise the internal
geological processes of the planet and the
external, more visible, geological features
that shape the world in which we live.”
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 10 of 60
Subsistence agriculture causes
• Deforestation
• Desertification
• Habitat loss
• Soil erosion
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 11 of 60
Intensive agriculture causes
• Depletion of the natural genetic pool
• Aquifer use and contamination
• Contamination of water courses and the soil profile
• Destruction of natural habitats
• Deforestation
• Pollution problems
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 12 of 60
Agriculture in Ireland
• Eutrophication of inland waters by phophorus
• Arises from organic wastes and chemical fertilizers
• Current surplus of phosphorus
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 13 of 60
Land degradation• 15% of the total land area has been degraded by
Man’s activities
and of this land• 55% is due to water erosion• 28% is due to wind erosion• 12% is due to chemical change - such as pollution
effects, salinisation and acidification; and• 5% is due to physical change - such as compaction
and subsidence
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 14 of 60
The atmosphere
“The Earth’s atmosphere is a product of
physical, chemical and biological
interactions. These interactions occur on
both land and sea, and occur over long time
scales.”
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 15 of 60
Atmospheric bands 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Alt
itud
e km
)
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10 -1 10-0
Thermosphere
Mesopause
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Stratosphere
Tropopause
Troposphere
Concorde
Subsonic aircraft
D/kgm-3
T/K
Temperature (K)
Density (kgm-3)
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 16 of 60
Factors affecting air pollution:
• type of source - natural & anthropogenic
• number and spatial distribution of sources– single and point sources e.g. incinerators
– area-wide or multiple sources e.g. commercial buildings
– line sources e.g. motorways
• type of emissions, properties– physical e.g. particle size and density
– chemical e.g. acidity, alkalinity, solubility and corrosiveness
– biological e.g. toxicity to human, plant & animal tissue, taste and odour
• rate of emission
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 17 of 60
Sources - Air Emissions
Estimated rates of natural and anthropogenic nitrogen fixation
Source Process Rate (Tg N/yr)
Natural Biological 60
Atmospheric 7.4
Anthropogenic Biological 69
Industrial 40
Combustion 20
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 18 of 60
Natural Sources• geological activity, volcanic eruptions and wind-
blown erosion
• biological activity, microbiological, animal and
human gaseous exchange
• meteorological activity, solar radiation
• natural combustion, forest fires and biomass
burning
• background radiation, radon gas from igneous rock
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 19 of 60
Classification of man-made (anthropogenic) sources
• fuel-burning for heat and power generation
• incineration
• transportation
• industrial and commercial
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 20 of 60
People sensitive to air pollution
• The very young
• The elderly
• Those with pre-existing disorders:– asthma– emphysema– heart disease
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 21 of 60
Types of exposure to air pollution
• Endemic (single large dose to a limited
population)
• Catastrophic (significant dose to a large
population)
• Concomitant (small dose to a whole
society)
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 22 of 60
Approaches for obtaining health information
Discipline Population Strengths Weaknesses
Epidemiology Communities Natural exposure
Difficulty in quantifying natural exposure
Diseased groups
No extrapolations
Many covariates
Susceptible groups
Minimal dose related data
Long-term, low-level effects
Association vs. causation
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 23 of 60
Approaches for obtaining health information
Discipline Population Strengths Weaknesses
Toxicology Animals Maximal dose related data
Realistic model of human disease?
Cells Rapid acquisition of data
Threshold of human response
Biochemical systems
Cause-effect
Mechanism of response
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 24 of 60
Specific air pollutants & associated health effectsCO - reduction in ability of blood to transport oxygen
- impairment of performance on tasks requiring vigilance
- aggravation of cardiovascular disease
NO2 - increased susceptibility to respiratory pathogens
O3 - decrease in pulmonary function
- coughing, chest discomfort
- increased asthma attacks
PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) - eye irritation
Aldehydes - eye irritation
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 25 of 60
Specific air pollutants & associated health effects
SO2 & - increased prevalence of chronic respiratory disease
Particulates- increased risk of acute respiratory disease
VOCs - toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic
Benzene - carcinogenic (leukaemia)
1,3 Butadiene - carcinogen (leukaemia,lymphomas, and cancers of the bone marrow)
Particulate matter (Pm10) - lung disease
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 26 of 60
Response to air pollution by flora
Deg
ree
of in
jury
(Concentration) x (Time)
DEATH
visible symptoms
no significant effect
possible nutritional value
biochemical alterations
physiological response
Examples
Chlorosis, flecking,reduced crop yield
Altered photosynthesis,suppression of transpiration
Reduced enzyme level
SO2 serves as a source of S for plant
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 27 of 60
Examples of injury to flora by air pollutants
Pollutant Injury threshold
V/vppm time (hrs)
Symptoms
SO2 0.3 8 Bleached spots, chlorosis.
O3 0.03 4 Flecking, stippling, bleached spotting; conifer needle tips become brown and necrotic.
PAN 0.01 6 Glazing, silvering or browning on lower surface of leaves.
NO2 2.5 4 Irregular, white or brown collapsed lesions.
n.b. these concentrations are very much above ambient)
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 28 of 60
Major pollutants affecting the built environment• Sulphur dioxide
• Sulphates
• Nitrogen oxides
• Nitrates
• Chlorides
• Carbon dioxide
• Ozone
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 29 of 60
Indoor air pollutants
• Common pollutants– Carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, sulphur
dioxide, ozone, formaldehyde, organic vapours• Sources
– Faulty domestic heating/cooking appliances, granite, building materials, cavity foam insulation, certain textiles, paints, plywood, cigarette smoke, synthetic materials, household chemicals
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 30 of 60
Greenhouse gases
• Carbon dioxide (atmospheric levels predicted to rise at 0.4% per annum)
• Methane• CFCs• Nitrous oxide
- global warming (increase between 1.5 and 4.5 C)
- rise in sea-level (30-60 cm by 2050)
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 31 of 60
Greenhouse gases
• Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels (coal, peat and oil) release carbon dioxide (CO2), the main greenhouse gas.
• The major source in Ireland of the greenhouse gases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) is agriculture.
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 32 of 60
Greenhouse gases• A significant contributor to national emissions of
greenhouse gases is the production of cement which is a growing industry in Ireland.
• The impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect in Ireland are expected to include:
– enhanced agricultural production
– drying out of peatlands
– serious winter storms and flooding
– lower summer flows in rivers and a rise in sea levels
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 33 of 60
Effect of sea-level change• Erosion of beaches and coastal margins• Land use changes• Wetland loss• Increased frequency and severity of
flooding• Loss of water resources• Damage to ports, coastal defences, water
management systems
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 34 of 60
Ozone depletion
• Chlorine-based chemicals (such as CFCs) largely to blame for ozone depletion
• The ozone layer (15-20 km above the earth’s surface) acts as a protective filter from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
• Increased ultraviolet light on earth can:– increase the risk of skin cancer/eye cataracts– depress the human immune system– harm aquatic systems and crops
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 35 of 60
Summary - Major impacts of air pollution on the environment• Adverse effects on:
– humans– fauna– flora– built environment
• Global warming
• Ozone depletion
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 36 of 60
Specific air pollutants & associated environmental effects
• SO2 Acid rain
• CO2, NOX, CFCs Greenhouse gas
• VOCs Greenhouse gas, formation of
tropospheric ozone, stratospheric
ozone depletion
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 37 of 60
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
• Produced by fossil fuels
• Electricity generation is the principle source
• Has adverse effects on human health
• Causes acid rain
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 38 of 60
Sources of Nitrogen Oxides in Ireland (1990)
Power
Industry
Shipping
Derv
Railways
Motor Spirit
Other non transport
Civil aircraft
Power
IndustryShipping
Derv
Railways
Motor SpiritOther non transport
Civil aircraft
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 39 of 60
Sources of Carbon Monoxide in Ireland (1990)
Motor spiritOther industriesPower stationsDomesticDerv
Motor spirit
Other industriesPower stations
DomesticDerv
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 40 of 60
Sources of VOCs in Ireland (1990)
Road Transport
Civil aircraft
Other transport
Processes andsolventsOther non-transport
Other transport
Processes and solvents
Civil aircraft
Road transport
Other non-transport
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 41 of 60
Sources of particulates in Ireland (1990)
DomesticOther TransportDervMotor SpiritOther industriesPower StationsDomestic
Othertransport
Derv
Motor Spirit
OtherIndustries Power
Stations
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 42 of 60
Sources of CO2 in Ireland (1990)
Domestic
Industrial
Power stations
OthertransportDerv
Motor spriit
Others
Refineries
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 43 of 60
The HydrosphereThe hydrosphere comprises all the saltwater and freshwater resources of the Earth. Of the total volume of water on the Earth:
94% is saltwater
6% is freshwater
and of this
27% is glacial
72% is groundwater
1% is usable surface water
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 44 of 60
Freshwater resources
• Surface waters
• Ground waters
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 45 of 60
Main pressures
Our freshwater resource is under threat from two main pressures:
• The rate of water abstraction is often higher than the rate of addition, resulting in a gradual decline in total reserves.
• Freshwater pollution is creating a water quality problem that is requiring a large and growing financial investment to resolve.
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 46 of 60
Global water use (1360km3 in 1990) Agriculture
DomesticAppliances
IndustryAgriculture
DomesticAppliances
IndustryIndustry
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 47 of 60
Total Waste Load Discharged to Receiving Waters and Land from Point Sources in Ireland
Lakes
Rivers
Land
Estuaries/Coastal
Lakes 1%Rivers 20%
Land 1%
Estuaries/Coastal 78%
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 48 of 60
River Water Quality
River Quality (13,200km baseline)
0
50
100
150
% C
hann
el le
ngth
Seriously Polluted 0.9 0.6 0.9
Moderately Polluted 9.7 10.9 14
Slightly polluted 12 16.3 18.2
Unpollutted. 77.3 72.2 66.9
1987-90 1991-94 1995-97
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 49 of 60
Major Categories of Water Pollutants
Category Major Effects
Substances exerting anoxygen demand
Oxygen depletion
Infectious agents Spread of disease,mortality
Plant nutrients Eutrophication(excessive plant growth)
Organic compounds Toxicity, oxygendemand
Inorganic elements andcompounds
Mainly toxicity
Radioactivity Toxicity, mutagenicity
Heat Variety of effects
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 50 of 60
The biosphere
“The biosphere comprises all living
organisms on the earth including plants,
animals and micro-organisms.”
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 51 of 60
Numbers of Threatened Fauna
SpeciesStatus
Extinct Endangered Vulnerable Rare Indeterminate TotalSpecies
Mammals 1 0 0 1 2 31
Birds 6 8 3 15 3 168
Reptiles 0 0 0 0 0 1
Amphibians 0 1 0 0 0 3
Fish 0 3 3 0 3 27
Total 7 12 6 16 8 230
Source: Whilde, 1993; Department of Arts,Heritage, Gaeltacht & the Islands.
Numbers of Fauna Species in Categories of Threat in Ireland
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 52 of 60
Typical Sound Levels• 140 dB(A)
• 130 Military jet takeoff at 15m
• 112 Pop group
• 105 Lawnmower at 1m
• 95 Pneumatic drill at 7m
• 90 Motorcycle at 8m
• 87 Heavy truck at 15m, Street traffic
• 75 Car at 7m
• 70 Inside a small car
• 60 Loud conversation at 1m, busy general office
• 40 Secluded suburb at night
• 30 Quiet countryside at night
• 0 Threshold of hearing
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 53 of 60
Use/fate of Selected Chemicals
Lost to ProductList I 608 tList II 577,439tSolvents
TreatedList I 0.11tList II 2,788tSolvents 3,529 t
Emitted to AirList I 0.13 tList II 675 tSolvents 404 t
Emitted to Waste
List I 6 tList II 2,518 tSolvents 2,090 t
UnaccountedList I 52tList II 531 tSolvents 988 t
Emitted to EffluentList I 0.68 tList II 226tSolvents 64t
Recovered/RecycledList I 1.5tList II 21,419 tSolvents 42,064
Fate of Pollution Emissions Register Chemicals from IPC Licensing Activities 1998
Note: Listed substances are substances that have toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulationproperties. List I substances must be eliminated and are legislated for at European Level.List II substances must be reduced and are controlled at national level.
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 54 of 60
Hazardous Waste Generation
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
Breakdown of Reported and Unreported Hazardous Waste in 1996
Reported Unreported (Estimate
Unreported (Estimate 0 32248 34742 5688 8750 16802 98229
Reported 182504 16225 0 28273 0 2631 229633
IPC Industry
non-IPC Industry
Agricultre Commerce Households O ther Total
0
20
40
60
Percentage
Fate of Hazardous Waste
Disposed Recovered Unspecified
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 55 of 60
Household and Commercial Waste Arisings
0200,000400,000600,000800,000
1,000,0001,200,0001,400,000
Tonnes per annum
Household and Commercial Waste Arisings
1984 854,866
1993 1,186,312
1995 1,385,439
Source: Environmental Protection Agency
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 56 of 60
Household and Commercial Waste Arisings
0%
50%
100%
Landfill Incineration Composting Recycling Other
Other 0 0 0.3 1 0 1
Recycling 7.8 15.5 0 12.2 5.7 9
Composting 0 22.5 6.9 11.1 0 6
Incineration 0 26.9 45.7 54.4 14.3 18
Landfill 92.2 35.2 47 21.7 80 66
Ireland Netherlands France Denmark U.K. Europe(average
Source: Environmental Protection Agency
Management Method %
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 57 of 60
Recycling Rates
0
20
40
60
% Recycled
Recycling/Recovery Rate for Packaging Materals
1993 1995 1999 Target(set in 1994)
1993 4.1 0.3 21 14 0.1 10.3
1995 12.5 1.6 32.4 21 0.1 15.6
1999 Target(set in 1994) 25 25 55 25 25 33
Aluminiu
Ferrous
GlassPape
rPlast
icsTotal
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 58 of 60
Eco-efficiency Performance in Ireland 1990-1997
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Inde
x 19
90 =
100
GDP
Vehicle Numbers
SO2 Emissions
Household Waste*
Energy Demand
Basket of GreenhouseGases
slightly & moderatelypolluted rivers
*Some data extrapolated
Eco-efficiency at National Level
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 59 of 60
Environmental Awareness and AttitudesAttitudes to the Environment
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% o
f re
sp
on
de
nts
wh
o v
iew
ed
as
ex
tre
me
ly
da
ng
ero
us
Europe % Ireland %
Europe % 20.6 27.9 19.7 29 29.3 27.5
Ireland % 16 26.5 24 27.2 53.7 36.3
Air Pollution (Cars)
Air Pollution (Industry)
Chemicals & Pesticides
Climate Change
Nuclear Power
Water Pollution
Source: Environmental Protection Agency
TMS-EM11-A-01-02 Page 60 of 60
Environmental Strategies and Management Plans
Issue National Regional/Local
Sustainable Development and Environmental Protection
Environmental Action Programme (1990) Sustainable Development (1997)
Local Agenda 21
Aquatic Environment including Groundwaters
Catchment-based strategy against eutrophication in rivers and lakes (1997) Setting out proposals for phosphorus control in subsequent Regulations (1998)
Water Quality Management Plans for major catchments (see map) and for certain bays/estuaries Catchment monitoring and management systems being developed for certain rivers and lakes Groundwater protection schemes for 6 counties completed with 7 more in preparation
Waste Recycling for Ireland (1994) Waste Management: Changing our ways (1998) National Hazardous Waste Management Plan (2000)
Local Authority Waste Management Plans- to be adopted 1999.
Climate Change and Air Quality National Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy (2000) Preliminary assessment of air quality to guide programmes under the EU framework directive on air 96/62/EC
Air quality management plan for Dublin
Biodiversity and Heritage National Biodiversity Plan (in Preparation) National Heritage Plan (2001)
National Park Management Plans 5 completed; to be revised Consevation plans for SACs in preparation
top related