transformation and innovation
Post on 11-Sep-2021
5 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Transformation and innovationSystem leaders in the global age
An account of the International workshop for school principals (Beijing, October 2006)
Edited byDavid Hopkins HSBC iNet Chair of International Leadership
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
EditorProfessor David Hopkins holds the inaugural HSBC iNet Chair in International Leadership at the London Centre for Leadership in Learning, Institute of Education, London
ContributorsProfessor Yong Zhao, University Distinguished Professor at the College of Education, Michigan State University. Professor Brian Caldwell, Associate Director of iNet and Director of Educational Transformations, Melbourne, Australia; formerly Dean of Education, University of Melbourne. Professor Barry McGaw, Professorial Fellow and Director of the Melbourne Education Research Institute, University of Melbourne; and consultant for McGaw Group Pty Ltd; previously Director of Education at OECD Paris. Dr Jessica Harris, Director of Research Educational Transformations, Melbourne, Australia. Dr Jing Lei, Assistant Professor at the School of Education, Syracuse University, New York. Sylvia Paddock, Head of iNet (International Networking for Educational Transformation), Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, London
Series editorPeter Chambers
© Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, 2008
Abstracting is permitted with acknowledgement to the source.
For other copying or general enquiries contact:
Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, 16th Floor, Millbank Tower, 21–24 Millbank, London SW1P 4QP
Tel: 020 7802 2300 Fax: 020 7802 2345 Email: info@ssatrust.org.uk
Websites: www.ssatrust.org.uk www.schoolsnetwork.org.uk www.ssat-inet.net
Charity no. 296729. Registered in England. Company no. 2124695.
ISBN 1-905150-99-7
THiS PuBLiCaTion
audiencePolicymakers, leaders and practitioners in education around the world
aimsTo capture the content, spirit and ambitions of a group of 100 outstanding school leaders from 14 countries who met in Beijing in October 2006 at the at the International workshop for school principals, and:• Tosummarisecurrenteducationreformeffortsinvariouspartsoftheworld• Toanalysetheexperiencesofschoolleadersandtheirviewsonthereformstheyhave
undertaken• Toidentifysuccessfulandeffectivepolicies,strategies,andpractices
acknowledgements
The concept behind the international workshop for school principals owes
much to the creative thinking of Dame Mary Richardson, leader of the HSBC
Education Trust, whose vision for schooling has found a global reach. The
realisation of the idea was made possible by the advocacy of David Hall
of HSBC Hong Kong, who championed the proposal with the Hong Kong
Foundation. That foundation generously funded the workshop; we hope that
this account of the workshop goes some way towards demonstrating that
their investment was worthwhile.
My colleagues Brian Caldwell and Yong Zhao deserve much of the credit for
the success of the workshop. Not only did they work with me on designing
and then facilitating the workshop, but as will be seen prepared significant
contributions to this book. Yong contributed a powerful keynote presentation
during the workshop as well as the overview of global trends in school
education to this volume.
Professors Chen Yukun, Barry McGaw and Shen Jiliang gave challenging
and thoughtful keynote presentations during the workshop. Brian Caldwell
and Jessica Harris prepared the national case studies; and Brian with
Sylvia Paddock chronicled and collated the workshop discussions. Jing Lei
conducted and prepared the interviews case studies.
Colleagues in iNet and the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT)
were supportive throughout the process of preparing for the workshop and
were key figures during it. This was particularly the case with Elizabeth Reid,
SSAT’schiefexecutive,whoalsoopenedandclosedtheworkshop.Sue
Williamson,theSSATdirectorresponsibleforiNet;TonyBloxham,thenhead
of iNet; and Lyn Simmons, the SSAT’s conference manager; were pivotal in
ensuring the smooth running of the workshop. My colleague Elpida Ahtaridou
gave great support during the editing process.
All these colleagues deserve acknowledgement and thanks for making
this unique event such an outstanding success. But most of all it was the
participants in the workshop itself who need acknowledging; for it is their
vision and commitment that shines through the pages that follow and in
whose safe keeping the future of global education lies.
David Hopkins
HSBC iNet Chair of International Leadership
Contents
introduction David Hopkins ............................................................................. 4Prospects for school transformation and the role of school leadership in achievingthis,inthecontextoftheinternationalworkshopforschoolprincipals held in Beijing in October 2006
1 issues in global school transformation ........................................................ 8Fourkeytrendsinglobaleducationprovideacontextfordiscussionsofthe prospect for school transformation
1.1Aparadoxofchange:educationreformsintheeastandwest Yong Zhao
1.2 Use of data in innovation and transformation in schools and school systems Barry McGaw
1.3 The personalisation of learning David Hopkins
1.4 Realising the potential of system leadership David Hopkins
2 Global context of school leadership ............................................................ 62Overview of the trends in school age education in the 14 countries represented at the workshop
2.1 Fourteen national case studies reflecting the educational systems represented in the workshop Brian Caldwell, Jessica Harris
3 Re-imagining schooling: leadership voices ................................................. 103Analysis of the hundreds of hours of conversation between the school leaders during the international workshop for school principals; emerging themes that reflected the challenge of globalisation; followed by a selection of national school case studies
3.1 Workshop themes Brian Caldwell, Sylvia Paddock
3.2 School case studies from interviews with workshop principals Jing Lei
4 a manifesto for the future of schooling ....................................................... 128The communiqué prepared by the principals at the end of the workshop, expressingthevisionofagroupoftheworld’sleadingeducatorsandsetting out an ambitious but realisable agenda for global action
4.1 Communiqué from the International workshop for school principals The workshop principals
4.2 The prospect David Hopkins, Yong Zhao
4 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
introduction David Hopkins
Recently many nations, both developing and developed, have engaged in
massive reform efforts to better their education systems and practices.
Generally speaking, all these efforts are intended to ensure that schooling is
more effective and efficient in preparing and educating all citizens for the
rapidly emerging global economy. But due to historic, cultural, and economic
differences, different countries have adopted different, sometimes even
contradictory, approaches in their reform efforts. This has resulted in different
policies, strategies, and practices, as well as different challenges. Interestingly
however many of the policies, strategies, and practices in one country rapidly
become the focus of reform by other countries. This is what some
commentators have referred to as the ‘policy epidemic’. So what we are
witnessingisaprofoundparadox.Ontheonehandsomecountriesareatone
levelpursuingquitedifferentpolicies–forexample,whilestandardisationand
centralisation of curriculum have been the core features of reform in the USA,
China has been moving toward decentralisation. On the other hand a global
policy agenda is emerging, narrowing its focus on a small number of key
drivers such as the personalisation of learning, increasing the quality of
teaching, using the pressure for accountability more formatively, and placing
increased emphasis on the role of the school (and networks of schools) in
making the journey towards transformation (Hopkins 2007).
Consequently, the differences and similarities in countries’ policies,
strategies, and practices to improve education provide natural opportunities
for substantive and sustained dialogues among education policymakers,
school leaders and practitioners. These dialogues, when properly framed,
can prove to be rich sources of innovative ideas, mutual understanding and
respect, leading to a healthy international network of educational innovators
and innovations. Even a relatively superficial analysis of these global trends
leads to the realisation that there is a meta-driver at work here – the ubiquity
of globalisation. The pervasive commitment to globalisation transcends the
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 5Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
apparentpolicyparadoxandprovidesacommonlanguageandpurposefor
educational reform. In short, this is the moral purpose: ensuring that every
student irrespective of their background has the opportunity, and is actively
encouraged, to reach their potential and to understand the world in which
they live and are helping to create.
Inevitably globalisation is a plastic term open to misinterpretation, and
sadlycancreatefalseexpectations.Simplyput,globalisationreflectsthe
consequence of technology in bringing the people of the world closer
together. This idea has been well caught by Thomas Friedman (2006) in the
title of his book The World is Flat, or more felicitously in Marshall McLuhan’s
phrase ‘the global village’ (1964).
So far so good, but the great fallacy is to believe that technology by itself will
deliver the good society. Technology may be creating the enabling conditions,
but as it is value neutral it cannot ensure political stability, economic
convergence or social cohesion. It is for us to grasp the opportunities created
by technology and the fortuitous confluence of forces and to create for and
by ourselves a more unified, equable and global world. And this of course
is why the role of education is so vital. Unless the coming generations learn
about the value of interdependence and acquire the skills to sustain the
global economy and the knowledge society, the opportunity created by
technology will be squandered and the cancer of nationalism will once again
reassert itself.
Local education leaders (school principals and district superintendents,
forexample)arepivotaltoareformmovementdeterminedtorealisethe
potential of globalisation. Leadership is the missing piece of the global policy
jigsaw. It is leadership that moulds the policy drivers such as personalisation,
professionalism, formative assessment and collaboration. The many reform
efforts aimed at transforming schools – new governance frameworks, more
accountability, and more decentralisation – require leadership to shoulder the
greatest responsibilities and to bear the most direct consequences. These
leaders are also key to the eventual fate of any reform efforts. The best global
school leaders are embracing these challenges with enthusiasm and integrity;
and in so doing they are taking on a responsibility for the system as a whole.
6 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
These ‘system leaders’ are willing to shoulder-system wide roles; they are
almost as concerned about the improvement of other schools as they are
about their own. They also realise in a deep way that the classroom, school
and system levels all impact on each other. Crucially they understand that in
order to change the larger system one has to engage with it in a meaningful
way. For all these reasons, transformed education must start with transformed
school leaders and school leadership. By developing the concept
of leadership for globalisation we begin the journey towards globalised
leadership.
To enable a global dialogue among education leaders and to initiate
an international network of innovative leadership, iNet, with the
support of the Hong Kong Foundation and in collaboration with China’s
National Academy for Education Administration, invited about 100
outstanding principals (known colloquially as the G100) from 14 different
countries to participate in a workshop on education reform in Beijing in
October, 2006.
During the three day workshop, the principals engaged in serious
conversationsabouttheirexperiencesandviewsofeducationreformsin
their own schools and education systems. The event was not a normal
conference, where participants listen and learn from keynote speakers, and
where workshops provide a limited opportunity for participants to contribute
ideas and make recommendations. The main purpose of the workshop,
involving outstanding principals from around the world, was for participants
to be the chief source of information and proposals for policy and practice in
the future. The keynote sessions were therefore much shorter than normal,
serving simply to introduce a theme, outline major developments, and
stimulate discussion in working groups.
At the end of the workshop the principals prepared a communiqué that
expressedtheirvisionfortheglobalfutureofschooling.Theyclaimedthat
their mandate was based on three factors:
The schools that they are privileged to lead are regarded by others •
as outstanding
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 7Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Collectively they represent the voice of many school systems around •
the world
They believe that there should be a global sense of moral purpose in •
education
Thisbookhasbeenpreparedtohighlighttheexperiencesandviewsofthese
principalsandtoextendthebenefitsofthisuniquegatheringtoabroader
audience. Based on the presentations at the conference, the workshop
discussions and interviews with school leaders from all over the world, as well
as country reports and individual profiles, it aims to:
Summarise the current education reform efforts in various parts of the world •
(Asia, Africa, Australia/New Zealand, Europe, North and South America)
Analysetheexperiencesofschoolleadersandtheirviewsonthereforms•
they have undertaken
Identify successful and effective policies, strategies, and practices•
This book captures the spirit of their discussions and as such provides a
remarkable testimony to the commitment and passion of our contemporary
educational leaders, as well as an agenda for transformation. The book is
no mere collection of conference papers: on the basis of careful analysis of
contemporary educational practice and a synthesis of the voices of the very
best of our global educational leaders, it presents a compelling vision for all
our educational futures.
References
Friedman, T. (2006). The World is Flat. Penguin, London
Hopkins, D. (2007). Every School a Great School. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead
8 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
1 issues in global school transformation
1.1 Aparadoxofchange:educationreformsintheEast and West Yong Zhao
Among the devices that we use to impose order upon a complicated world,
classification … must rank as the most general and most pervasive of all.
And no strategy of classification cuts deeper – while providing such an even
balance of benefits and difficulties – than our propensity for division by two,
or dichotomy. Stephen Jay Gould
Hence in respect of its substance and the definition which states its essence
virtueisamean,withregardtowhatisbestandrightanextreme.
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (trans. W. D. Ross)
Junzi, Zhongyong, Xiaoren, Fan Zhongyong. (The superior man embodies the
course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to the course of the Mean.)
Confucius, The Doctrine of the Mean.
The year 2002 witnessed a dramatic change of fate for testing or academic
assessment in China and the US, both of which are aiming to reform their
education to prepare capable citizens for the 21st century. On January
8th, 2002, the 107th Congress of the United States of America enacted
Public Law 107–110. Widely known as The No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Act of 2001, this law dramatically increased the importance of testing in
education. The law requires that each state administer state-wide assessment
programmes in core academic areas to all students. Test results are made
public and used to determine actions for schools and teachers. Recognition
or monetary rewards are given to schools and teachers whose students
perform well, while schools whose students perform poorly will be publicly
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 9Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
identified and required to take corrective actions. Considering the historical
status of academic testing in the US, this indeed is an unprecedented victory
for testing, which did not fare well at all in its country of origin – China.
About 11 months later, on December 27, 2002, the Chinese Ministry of
Education issued a policy authorised by the Chinese State Council to reform
assessment and evaluation in elementary and secondary schools. With the
title of Ministry of Education’s Notice Regarding Furthering the Reform of
Evaluation and Assessment Systems in Elementary and Secondary Schools,
this document calls for alternative ways of assessment to simple testing of
academic knowledge. It specifically forbids ranking school districts, schools,
or individual students based on testing results or making them public
(Chinese Ministry of Education, 2002).
ThecontrastingfateoftestinginChinaandUSatthatpointexemplifiesa
trend in educational reform efforts around the world: while some countries
seem to abandon their practices and policies, other countries are taking
themup.Thistrendismostobviouswhenexaminingtherecentreformefforts
undertaken by East Asian countries and countries that share a Western
tradition, such as the United States, England, and Australia.
Reforms in Eastern Asian countries
China
Following the policy issued in 2002, in 2003 the Chinese Ministry of Education
released its plan for high school curriculum reform, which was scheduled to
start in 2004. The primary goal of this reform is consistent with the previous
curriculum reform for primary and middle school: foster creativity and the spirit
to innovate and develop practical and life skills. The specific strategies include
moreflexibilityandautonomyforstudentsandschoolsindecidingwhatto
learn, more courses outside traditional disciplines, and a more authentic
assessment and evaluation scheme. The reform pushes for more elective
and fewer required courses for students, more local/school based content,
integrated studies, and new subjects such as art, environmental studies, and
technology.Astrongcommunityserviceandexperiencescomponentisalso
included (Chinese Ministry of Education, 2003).
10 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
South Korea
In 2001, South Korea, one of the constant top performers in international
comparative studies such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS), released a new national curriculum. It aims to cultivate
creative, autonomous, and self-driven human resources who will lead the
era’s developments in information, knowledge and globalisation through a
number of strategies:
Promote fundamental and basic education that fosters sound human beings •
and nurtures creativity
Help students build self-leading capacity so that they well meet the •
challenges of today’s globalisation and information development
Implement learner-oriented education that suits the students’ capability, •
aptitude and career development needs
Ensureexpandedautonomyforthelocalcommunityandschoolsin•
curriculum planning and operation (Ministry of Education and Human
Resources Development, 2001)
Singapore
Since 1997 Singapore, another frequent high flyer in international comparative
studies, has engaged in major curriculum reform. The initiative entitled
Thinking Schools, Learning Nation aims to develop all students into active
learners with critical thinking skills, and to develop a creative and critical
thinking culture within schools. Its key strategies include:
Theexplicitteachingofcriticalandcreativethinkingskills•
The reduction of subject content•
The revision of assessment modes •
A greater emphasis on processes rather than outcomes when •
appraising schools
In 2005, the Ministry of Education released another major policy document,
Nurturing Every Child: Flexibility and Diversity in Singapore Schools. This
called for a more varied curriculum, a focus on learning rather than teaching,
and more autonomy for schools and teachers (Ministry of Education, 2005).
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 11Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Japan
Since 2001, Japan has been working to implement its Education Plan for
the 21st Century, which has three major objectives. The first is ‘enhancing
emotional education,’ that is, cultivating students as emotionally well-rounded
human beings. The second is ‘realising a school system that helps children
develop their individuality and gives them diverse choices’ by moving towards
adiverse,flexibleeducationalsystemthatencouragesindividualityand
cultivates creativity. The third is ‘promoting a system in which the school’s
autonomy is respected’ through decentralising educational administration,
enhancing local autonomy, and enabling independent self-management at the
school level (Iwao, 2000).
Reforms in some Western countries
USA
The most significant reform effort in the USA is certainly the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001. The law is now up for reauthorisation in the US
congress. While there are debates and different opinions about the law,
its basic strategies for improving US education are unchallenged and
havethepotentialtoexpandtohighergradesandmoreareas.According
to the proposal for reauthorisation of the US Department of Education
(US Department of Education, 2007), accountability, centralised testing,
standardisation,andexpandingthelawtoincludehighschoolsarethe
priority areas the Bush administration want from the new law. There are also
proposals to develop national standards, which is unprecedented in the US,
a nation that has constitutionally delegated the authority of education to
individual states rather than the federal government (Olson, 2007).
England
Over the past two decades, major reform efforts have taken place in England
as well. The major thrusts of these reforms are best summarised by Michael
Barber, the chief architect of the education reform efforts of the Tony Blair
government, during a recent interview:
‘So we’ve had 18 years of reform with a series of consistent threads:
devolution of resources, strong accountability, setting standards, national tests
and introduction of school inspection.’ (Mead, 2006)
12 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Australia
The recent controversies surrounding a national curriculum proposal by the
Australian central government is a telling case of its attempt at centralisation
of what should be taught in schools. In 2006, the Australia Federal Education
Minister Julie Bishop called for a national curriculum for Australian schools
(Topsfield & Rood, 2006). In 2007, the Labor party introduced its proposal for
national standards for all students in all Australian schools (Maiden & Ferrari,
2007). While the proposal for national standards and curriculum have met
with resistance, criticism, and scepticism from some states and the teaching
professional organisations, their intention is clear and they have by and large
attracted support, at least in spirit, from a wide spectrum of people.
It is not difficult to see the trend that a seemingly innovative approach one
nation takes may have already been tried by other nations, which may actually
bereadytotradeitinforsomethingelse.Astheaboveexamplesillustrate,
while Japan (The Ministry of Education, 2001) and Hong Kong (Hong Kong
EducationCommission,2000)areworkingtorelaxcentralgovernment
control of school curricula so as to give local schools the autonomy for
developing more individualised, school-based learning opportunities for
students, the United States (US Congress, 2002) and Australia are looking
for ways to promote more centralised curriculum standards to ensure all
students master a set of common knowledge and set of skills. In a similar
fashion, while Singapore has worked to take out content from its curriculum
so as to provide more space for students to engage in other learning activities
besides the core curriculum, the US is working to put more content into the
curriculum and find ways to have students spend more time on academic
learning.
The paradox and the dichotomies
Underlyingtheseseeminglyparadoxicalreformeffortsareanumberof
dichotomies:individualexcellencevscollectiveresponsibilitiesineducational
goals, accountability vs autonomy in governance, knowledge vs skill/ability in
learning, teacher-centred vs student-centred in instruction, depth vs breadth
in curriculum, and form vs function in content. Ideally, every system wants
to have both, and to their fullest potential. However, in reality we haven’t yet
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 13Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
been able to achieve both ends of these dichotomies. Some educational
systemsdowellatoneend,whileothersdowellattheother.Forexample,
countries such as Japan and Singapore have often been recognised as
examplesofacademicexcellencebecausetheirstudentsseemtohave
superior mastery of content knowledge in mathematics and science, whereas
US education has been viewed as a model by many Asian countries for
fostering creativity and problem solving skills. Japan, Singapore, and other
countriesthatexcelinimpartingknowledgehavebeendeeplyconcerned
about their students’ lack of creativity and problem solving skills, while the US
has been worried that its students lack basic knowledge.
The differences in educational achievement along these dichotomies seem to
align with the traditional cultural and philosophical differences seen between
theEastandtheWest.Althoughtremendousdiversityexistswithineach
traditionandplentyofcommonalitiesexistbetweenthetwo,thedichotomyof
the East (rooted in Confucian philosophy) and West (with roots in the thinking
of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle). These two traditions have had
significant impact on education. Due to their different views of knowledge,
the world, and the person, they have resulted in quite different educational
practices that epitomise the dichotomies of education, despite the fact that
themoderneducationsystemsintheEastareverymuchaWesternexport.
Generally speaking, educational systems in the East, where the collective
comes before the individual, have traditionally taken a centralised approach
with the central government playing the role of developing, designing,
andexecutingpoliciesandstandardsonfinance,curriculum,textbooks,
assessment, and teachers. In the West, where a more decentralised
approach has been taken, local communities have more autonomy to decide
how schools are funded, what students should learn and how they are
assessed, and who can become teachers. Likewise, Eastern educational
practices, influenced by the belief that knowledge comes before action and
that education is to pass on what great minds have already discovered, have
historically emphasised knowledge acquisition. In the West, where individuals
are considered capable and responsible agents, educational practices have
emphasised the ability to think and act as individuals. Thus distinct differences
have been observed between eastern and western schooling in terms of
14 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
how the curricula are structured and how students are taught to behave in
schools.
Different practices lead to different outcomes. The Eastern approach seemed
to have resulted in more school accountability, better student learning of
disciplinary content, and more focus on academic aspects. The Western
approach seemed to have produced more autonomous school management,
creativity and critical thinking skills among students, and more focus on
student non-academic skills. Faced with these results, those working in
neither system are completely satisfied, because they want to achieve
more – ideally both autonomy and accountability, knowledge and creativity,
academic and social skills. They all want to bring all students up to individually
challenging levels of academic performance, while fostering students’ ability
to creatively apply knowledge to new learning situations.
Because of their strong desire to do well with both ends of the dichotomy,
those managing education systems make efforts to move towards the other
extreme.Thusatpresentweseemanynationsre-examiningandreforming
their educational systems as a result of the realisation that they are not doing
well with one or the other end of the dichotomy, especially when compared
with other nations that have been traditionally focusing on the opposite end.
Quite often other nations’ achievements are cited as not only evidence to
show our own failures but also warning signs that we may be losing the
economic and political advantage in future competitions. Consequently, the
corrective actions begin with the employment of strategies and practices
that appear to be effective in achieving what has been missing. Often these
strategies and practices have already been used by other nations, especially
those that have been doing well with the opposite end of the dichotomy.
Hence we see the different fates met by the various educational practices and
strategies: testing being promoted in some nations and demoted in others;
local curriculum autonomy being advocated in some nations while central
standardised curriculum is being pushed in others; systematic mastery of
content knowledge being emphasised in some nations while creativity and
real-life problem solving skills are being emphasised in others.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 15Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
A common goal
It is not difficult to find that although different educational systems seem to
undertake different approaches to reform their practices, they all appear to
do so for the same goal: to prepare capable citizens for the 21st century. For
example,allmembersoftheAsianPacificEconomicCooperation(APEC),
an international organisation of 21 member economies around the Pacific
Ocean, have come to the agreement that to fully participate in the 21st
century world, students must develop a common set of skills:
Mastery of core knowledge in content areas, such as maths/science and
foreign language, gaining:
Conceptual comprehension of the content knowledge•
Procedural competency to use concepts •
Problemsolvingabilitytoapplyknowledgeinareal-world,globalcontext,•
both individually and as members of teams
Personalresponsibilityandexcitementaboutlearning,including:
Lifelong learning skills to continually value and enjoy learning•
An ethic that encourages participation as a team member and global citizen•
Skills to communicate clearly with others, both orally and in writing•
Ability to use 21st century tools (ICT) for mastery and motivation, including:
Instruction in computer literacy•
Accesstoappropriatetechnologytomaximizelearningandcommunication•
These common set of skills encompass both content knowledge and the
ability to use the knowledge. The common goal also reflects a commitment to
excellenceforallstudents,regardlessoftheirbackground.Allreformefforts,
despite their differences in the approaches taken, generally aspire to ensure
that all children receive the same quality education so that they can develop a
common set of skills and knowledge.
16 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
A few cautionary notes
TheparadoxicalphenomenonineducationreformsintheEastandWest
demonstrates that indeed nations can learn from each other. What is
considered innovative in one country or set of countries may often be
longstanding practice in other countries. It thus behoves these nations
to seriously study and understand the consequences, both positive and
negative, of these practices from nations that have long been using and
are ready to abandon or reform them. However, as nations move forward
with their efforts to make up the missing end of the various educational
dichotomies by replacing their traditional practices with new ones or trading
their own practices with foreign ones, it is important to keep in mind a number
of obvious problems associated with reforms, particularly reforms supported
by international comparisons.
First, we tend to throw the baby out with the bathwater. In the attempt
to learn from others, we can forget that what we have achieved is still
worthwhile.Forexample,whilethelackofanationalcurriculumornational
standards in the US and Australia may have resulted in uneven educational
outcomes in different states or localities, as has been claimed by advocates
ofstandards,theflexibilityandlocalcontrolcreatedbythelackof
standardisation may have provided more room for diversity, local innovations,
and creativity. Similarly, the strict national standards and curricula in China
and Korea may be blamed for the lack of individualisation and creativity; they
couldalsobethereasonsforexcellentacademicachievementwithlimited
education resources. Therefore, it would serve us well to seriously consider
what we are throwing out while adopting new polices.
Second, we tend to just focus on only the good part of others’ achievements
while overlooking the negative. There is no good without evil. No policies
or practices are free of problems. Hence when drafting new policies and
implementing new practices, especially those that have been in practice in
othercountries,itisnecessaryforustoexaminetheirpositiveandnegative
consequences.Forexample,high-stakestestinghasbeenapracticein
China and other East Asian countries for a long time and indeed it seems
to have the power to hold schools, teachers, students, and even parents
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 17Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
accountable. It also seems to have the power to seriously enforce national
standards and curriculum and ensure that all classrooms in a nation can
teach the same content at the same pace. However, it also has been blamed
in these countries as one of the primary killers of creativity and innovation in
students and schools.
Third, we tend to ignore the conditions that enable the outcomes of certain
practices in other nations and thus focus on only borrowing the mechanics
ofthepracticebutignorethecultural,social,andsystemiccontextsthat
make the practice effective. For instance, there has been much admiration
of teaching practices in China and Japan, especially how young teachers
are inducted into the teaching profession and how teachers work together
to co-plan lessons (Britton, Paine, Pimm, & Raizen, 2003) (Stigler & Hiebert,
1999). However, these practices work partly because of the way teachers
are organised in China and Japan, the cultural tradition of seniority among
teachers, and the standardised curriculum. In contrast, teacher unions,
teacher-school relationships, and the individualistic nature of teaching in
the US and some other Western countries present tremendous institutional
and cultural obstacles to truly borrowing these practices and making them
effective in the West.
Fourth, we need to avoid homogenising our practices. From a global
perspective, it appears that the attempts to emulate practices of other nations
are likely to drive out the uniqueness of educational practices in different
countries.‘Ifcurrenttrendscontinue,weshouldexpecttoseecontinued
standardisation of core teaching practices within academic subjects around
the world,’ as Baker and his colleague observed, ‘The globalisation of
curriculaanditsimplementationinclassroomswillexertasoftbutsteadypull
on nations toward a world norm, to the point where little variation in curricula
existsacrossnations’(Baker&LeTendre,2005).Thistrendisworrying
because as the world continues to globalise, it will be important to maintain
and encourage diversity, variation, and uniqueness in policy and practices.
It is out of diversity and variation that vitality and energy of innovation grows.
Moreover, in a global and ever changing world, we are unable to predict
what talents, skills, and abilities will truly be valuable and needed to maintain
diversity in curriculum, policy, and practices.
18 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Thus it would serve a nation well when embarking on major educational
reforms to consider its own culture, history and economy, and its relative
position in the world. It is important that each nation maintains its strengths
and uniqueness before emulating practices and policies that seem to have
been effective in other nations. And it is imperative that we, as educators,
education leaders, and policymakers develop a comprehensive understanding
of the global nature of the education enterprise so as to develop innovations
that meet the needs for preparing citizens of the global world.
References
Baker, D. P., & LeTendre, G. K. (2005). National Differences, Global
Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, CA.
Britton, E., Paine, L., Pimm, D., & Raizen, S. (2003). Comprehensive Teacher
Induction: Systems for Early Career Learning. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Amsterdam.
Chinese Ministry of Education. (2003). Putong Gaozhong Kecheng Gaige
Gangyao (Shiyan) (A Framework for High School Curriculum Reform (Pilot)).
Chinese Ministry of Education, Beijing, China.
Hong Kong Education Commission. (2000). Recommendations for Education
Reforms in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Education Commission, Hong Kong
Iwao, S. (2000). Educational Reform [Electronic Version]. Japan Echo, <http://
www.japanecho.com/sum/2000/270603.html> Accessed 30/11/06.
Maiden, S., & Ferrari, J. (2007). Rudd Pushes for National Standards. The
Australian. March 01, 2007.
Mead, S. (2006). Education Reform Lessons from England: An Interview with
Sir Michael Barber. January 13, <http://www.educationsector.org/analysis/
analysis_show.htm?doc_id=344385> Accessed 14/06/07.
Ministry of Education. (2005). Nurturing Every Child: Flexibility and Diversity in
Singapore Schools. Ministry of Education, Singapore.
Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. (2001).
7th National Curriculum. Ministry of Education and Human Resources
Development, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 19Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Olson, L. (2007). Standards Get Boost on the Hill. Education Week, 26, 1, 25
January 17.
Stigler, J. W., & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the
world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. Free Press, New
York.
The Ministry of Education, S., Sports and Culture. (2001). Japanese
Government Policies in Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
2001: Educational Reform for the 21st Century.
Topsfield, J., & Rood, D. (2006). Lib Calls for National Curriculum. The Age.
October 6.
U. S. Department of Education. (2007). Building on Results: A Blueprint for
Strengthening the No Child Left Behind Act. US Department of Education,
Washington DC.
20 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
1.2 Use of data in innovation and transformation in schools and school systems Barry McGaw
In recent years, the use of data has attracted significant attention across the
world. Demands for accountability and transparency are strong in many areas
of public life in many countries, so the demand for data is almost irresistible.
However, from the point of view of the profession the demand for data should
also be there to ensure informed professional practice – without data, how
can the profession establish whether or not its practice is effective?
This chapter discusses the use of data as a driver for school and system
innovation and transformation and in particular, it:
Explorestheuseofdataonassessingeducationalqualitythroughcross-•
national comparisons and system level monitoring
Identifies a range of school-level analyses that become possible when all •
school data are available
Assessing educational quality
The evidence on the quality of the outcomes of education systems is drawn
from the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA).
PISA provides direct, internationally comparable evidence of the quality of
national education systems with its assessments of the achievements of 15
year olds. The population assessed is 15 year olds in schools of any type but
itexcludesthosewhoarenotinschool.
In PISA 2000, students were assessed in reading literacy, mathematics
and science, with reading literacy as the main domain and mathematics
and science as minor domains. In PISA 2003, mathematics was the main
domain and reading and science minor domains together with an additional
domain, problem solving. In PISA 2006, the three original domains are being
assessed, with science as the main domain.
PISA does not assess whether students have learned the specific content of
their curricula but rather their capacity to use the knowledge and skills they
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 21Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
have acquired. Both open-ended and multiple-choice questions are used. In
thePISA2003mathematicsassessments,forexample,therewere85items,
17ofthemsimplemultiplechoice,11complexmultiplechoiceand57that
required students to construct their response. Sample items are provided on
the PISA website, www.pisa.oecd.org/.
All potential assessment materials are first reviewed in all participating
countries for prima facie evidence of cultural bias, with doubtful items being
removed. All material that survives is then used in an internationally controlled
trial in all participating countries a year before the actual PISA assessment.
The performances of students on the trial material provide empirical evidence
on whether tasks work consistently in all countries. Tasks that do not are
removed from the pool of tasks from which those to be used in the final tests
are selected.
Fifteen-year-olds have not learned all they will need to know as adults, but
they should have a solid foundation of knowledge in areas such as reading,
mathematics and science, which are assessed in PISA. To continue learning
and to apply their learning to the real world, they also need to understand
fundamentalprocessesandprinciplesandtousetheseflexiblyindifferent
situations. Recognising this, PISA assesses the students’ ability to complete
tasks relating to real life, depending on a broad understanding of key
concepts, rather than limiting the assessment to the possession of subject-
specific knowledge.
Figure 1 on page 22 shows the mean performances of OECD countries in
mathematicsinPISA2003.Thelineinthemiddleoftheboxforeachcountry
gives the mean performance of 15 year olds in the country. The results reveal
marked variations in performance levels among the 27 OECD countries
– ranging from Hong Kong-China to Brazil.
Thesizeofaboxreflectstheprecisionwithwhichacountry’smeanis
estimated, the least precise in PISA 2003 being that for Turkey. Where the
boxesoverlapontheverticaldimension,thereisnosignificantdifference
between the means for the countries.
22 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
The simplest way to interpret this figure is from the perspective of a particular
countryofinterest.Finland,forexample,rankedin2ndplacebutitsmean
is not significantly different from those of Hong Kong-China ranking above
it or Korea, Netherlands, Liechtenstein and Japan below it. Therefore, it is
appropriate to say that Finland ranked between 1st and 6th or that Finland
tied in 1st place with five other countries.
Assessing the equity of educational achievements
However, performance data are not enough on their own. An essential factor
that also needs to be taken into consideration when assessing educational
quality is that of equity of educational achievements. An important indicator
of the equity of educational achievements in a country is the strength of the
relationship between students’ achievements and their social background.
Hon
g K
ong
Finl
and
Kor
eaN
ethe
rland
sLi
echt
enst
ein
Japa
nC
anad
aB
elgi
umM
acau
– c
hina
Switz
erla
ndAu
stra
liaN
ew Z
eala
ndC
zech
Rep
600
550
500
450
400
350
Icel
and
Den
mar
kFr
ance
Swed
en
Aust
riaG
erm
any
Irela
ndSl
ovak
ia R
epN
orw
ay
Luxembourg
Pola
ndH
unga
ry
Spai
nLa
tvia
USA
Rus
sian
Fed
Portu
gal
Italy
Gre
ece
Serb
iaTu
rkey
Uru
guay
Thai
land
Mexico
Indo
nesi
aTu
nisi
aB
razi
l
OECD (2004) Learning for tomorrows world: First results from PISA 2003
Finland ranked between 1st and 6th Or tied for 1st with five others among 40 countries
Mean mathematics results (PISA 2003)
Figure 1 – Mean mathematical results PISA 2003 in OECD 2004a
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 23Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
But disadvantaged background is not necessarily associated with poor performance
High
Social background and reading literacy (PISA 2000)
PISAindexofsocialbackground
Social advantage
Rea
ding
lite
racy
Each dot in this diagram represents 20,000 students in the oECD area
Social background has a reasonably strong relationship with student performance (Parental occupation, wealth, cultural resources, parental education, family structure, immigrant status
Source: OECD (2001) Knowledge and skills for life: Appendix B1, Table 8.1. p308
Low
Spai
nLa
tvia
USA
Rus
sian
Fed
Portu
gal
Italy
Gre
ece
Serb
iaTu
rkey
Uru
guay
Thai
land
Mexico
Indo
nesi
aTu
nisi
aB
razi
l
The 15 year olds involved in PISA complete a questionnaire that collects
information important for the interpretation and analysis of the results.
Students are asked about characteristics, such as gender, economic and
social background, and activities at home and school.
The information on economic and social background – parents’ education
and occupation, cultural artefacts in the home – permit the construction of an
indexofsocialbackgroundthatrangesfromsociallydisadvantagedtosocially
advantaged. This scale is comparable across countries.
The relationship between social background and reading literacy in PISA
2000 is shown in figure 2, in which the results of the 265,000 15 year olds in
the sample on both variables are plotted.
Figure 2 – Social background and reading literacy PISA 2000
in OECD 2001.
24 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
The correlation is relatively high (around 0.45) indicating quite a strong
relationship between the two variables. The slope of the regression line that
summarises the relationship is quite steep, indicating that increased social
advantage, in general, pays off with considerable increase in educational
performance.Itcan,nevertheless,beseenthattherearemanyexceptions
– socially advantaged individuals who do not perform well (towards the
bottom-right of the graph) and students from disadvantaged backgrounds
who perform well (towards the top-left of the graph).
This result has been long established in research in many individual countries
and it can lead to a counsel of despair. If the relationship between social
background and educational achievement is so strong, education can
seem to be impotent, unable to make a difference. There is other research
evidence that provides assurance that schools can make a difference to the
life chances of their students but the PISA also provides additional insights
because it is possible to compare regression lines of the type above for
individual countries.
Anexaminationoftherelationshipbetweensocialbackgroundand
educational achievement country-by-country reveals marked differences
amongcountries.Figure3showstheresultsforsixcountries.
The lines for Finland and Korea are significantly less steep than the one for the
OECD as a whole which was shown in figure 2. Increased social advantage
in these countries is associated with less increase in educational achievement
than in the OECD as a whole. The results in these countries are more
equitable than those of the OECD overall. Students differ in achievement but
not in a way that is so substantially related to their social background.
The lines for the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States and Germany
are all significantly steeper than the one for the OECD as a whole. In all
of these countries, social background is more substantially related to
educational achievement than in the OECD as a whole. Their results are
inequitable in the sense that differences among students in their literacy levels
reflecttoamarkedextentdifferencesintheirsocialbackground.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 25Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Social background and reading literacy (PISA 2000)
PISAindexofsocialbackground
Social advantage
Rea
ding
lite
racy
Steeper slope = less equitable results
Source: OECD (2001) Knowledge and skills for life: Appendix B1, Table 8.1. p308
Low
High
Finland
Korea
united Kingdom
australia
united StatesGermany
The differences between these five lines at the left-hand end are substantial.
Socially disadvantaged students do very much worse in some of these
countries (most notably Germany but also the US and the UK) than in
the other two. The gap in educational achievement between socially
disadvantaged students in Germany and similarly socially disadvantaged
students in Finland and Korea represents around three years of schooling.
Figure 3 – Social background and reading literacy PISA 2000 in
OECD 2001.
More detailed analysis of the German data shows the pattern to be strongly
related to the organisation of schooling. From age 11–12, students are
separated into vocational and academic schools of various types on the
basis of the educational future judged to be most appropriate for them.
Students from socially disadvantaged backgrounds generally end up in low-
status vocational schools and achieve poor educational results. Students
26 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Source: OECD, UNESCO (2003) Literacy skills for the world tomorrow: Table 6.1a, pp.334-335
550 –
525 –
500 –
475 –
450 –
425 –
400 –
375 –
350 –
325 –
High qualityLow equity
Low qualityLow equity
High qualityHigh equity
Low qualityHigh equity
| | -25 -20
| | -15 -10
| -5
| 0
| 5
| 10
| 15
| 20
| 25
Finland•
Hong Kong• Korea••JapanIceland•
Canada•Ireland•
Sweden•Norway•Austria•France•••United States
Belgium
New Zealand•Australia•United Kingdom•
Switzerland•Czech Republic•
Liechtenstein•Denmark•
Hungary•Germany•
Bulgaria•
Israel•Luxembourg•
Peru•
Spain•Italy•
Poland•Greece•
Portugal• Russian Fed.•Latvia•
Thailand•Mexico•
Argentina•Chile•
Brazil•FYR Macedonia•Indonesia•
Albania•
Reading literacy vs social equity
from socially advantaged backgrounds are directed to high-status academic
schools where they achieve high-quality results. The schooling system largely
reproducestheexistingsocialarrangements,conferringprivilegewhereit
alreadyexistsanddenyingitwhereitdoesnot.
If lines for more countries were to be added to figure 3, the pattern would
become difficult to discern. The figure below provides a clearer picture in
which the locations and slopes of the lines for all countries assessed in PISA
2000 are shown.
Figure 4 – Reading literacy Vs social equity in OECD, UNESCO 2003
Mean performances of countries in reading literacy are represented on the
verticalaxis.Theslopeoftheregressionlineforsocialequityonreading
literacyisrepresentedonthehorizontalaxisasthedifferencebetweenthe
slope for the OECD as a whole and a country’s own slope. This places to
the left countries where the slope is steeper than in the OECD as a whole
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 27Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
| 20
| 25
(that is, countries in which social background is most substantially related to
educational achievement) and to the right countries where the slope is less
steep than that for the OECD as a whole (that is, countries in which social
background is least related to educational achievement).
Countries high on the page are high-quality and those to the far right are
high-equity. The graph is divided into four quadrants on the basis of the
OECD averages on the two measures. The presence of countries in the
‘high-quality, high-equity’ quadrant (top right) shows that there is no
necessary trade off between quality and equity. They show that it is possible
to achieve both together, as Korea, Japan, Hong Kong-China, Finland and
Canada have done.
The 15 non-OECD countries involved in PISA 2000 all fall relatively low on
the graph because of their low means in reading literacy. Many of them
appear to be high-equity but this is somewhat misleading. The population
that PISA assesses is ‘15 year olds in school’ and, in many of these non-
OECD countries, many 15 year olds are no longer in school. Results may be
equitable among those who remain but the inequity in the system occurs in
the early departures of many before age 15.
Afurtherwayinwhichtoexaminetheequityofeducationaloutcomesisto
investigate the sources of variation in student performances. Figure 5 on page
28 divides the variation for each country into a component due to differences
among students within schools, shown above the zero line, and a component
due to differences between schools shown below that line.
In Iceland, Finland and Norway there is very little variation in scores between
schools. For parents in these countries, choice of school is not very important
because there is so little difference among schools. Among the countries
in which there is a large component of variation between schools, there are
some in which this occurs by design. In Hungary, Belgium and Germany, for
example,studentsaresortedintoschoolsofdifferenttypesaccordingtotheir
school performance as early as age 11–12. The intention is to group similar
studentswithinschoolsdifferentiatedbytheextentofacademicorvocational
emphasis in their curriculum. This is intended to minimise variation within
28 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
schools in order then to provide the curricula considered most appropriate
forthedifferentiatedstudentgroups.Ithastheconsequenceofmaximising
the variation between schools. In some other countries, the grouping of
students is less deliberate but, nevertheless, results show substantial
betweenschoolvariation.InJapan,forexample,53%oftheoverallvariation
isbetweenschools.InKorea,42%isbetweenschools.InAustralia,20%
is between schools.
Figure 5 – Variation in mathematics performance in OECD 2004a
ForPoland,inPISA2000,63%ofthevariationinreadingwasbetween
schoolswhereasinPISA2003inmathematicsonly13%wasbetween
schools. This remarkable difference was due to a reform in which early
streaming of students into schools of different types was abandoned in favour
of comprehensive schools for students up to the age at which PISA measures
their performance. (Not only was the between school variation reduced.
Variation in mathematics performance
Source: OECD (2004) Learning for tomorrow’s world: Table 4.1a, p.383
100 –
80 –
60 –
40 –
20 –
0 –
-20 –
-40 –
-60 –
-80 –
Turk
ey
Hun
gary
Japa
n
Bel
gium Ita
ly
Ger
man
y
Aus
tria
Net
herla
nd
Uru
guay
Hon
g K
ong
- C
hina
Cze
ch R
epub
lic
Bra
zil
Kor
ea
Slo
vaki
a R
epub
lic
Liec
hten
stei
n
Gre
ece
Sw
itzer
land
Tuni
sia
Indo
nesi
a
Luxembourg
Thai
land
Por
tuga
l
Rus
sian
Fed
erat
ion
Ser
bia
Mexico
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
Aus
tral
ia
Latv
ia
New
Zea
land
Spa
in
Mac
ao-C
hina
Can
ada
Irela
nd
Den
mar
k
Pol
and
Sw
eden
Nor
way
Finl
and
Icel
and
Variation of performance within schools
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 29Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Poland was the only country to improve its average performance significantly
on all measures used in both PISA 2000 and PISA 2003. It did so largely by
raising the achievement levels of its poorer performing students.)
Afurtherwaytoexamineequityistodeterminetheextenttowhichthe
variationbetweenschoolscanbeexplainedintermsofdifferencesinthe
social backgrounds of students. This is done in the figure below, with the
between school variation subdivided into: (a) variation that can be accounted
for in terms of the social backgrounds of the individual students in the
schools; (b) variation that can be accounted for in terms of the average social
background of the students in the schools; and (c) variation that cannot be
accounted for in terms of social background.
Figure 6 – Variation in mathematics performance in OECD 2004a
100 –
80 –
60 –
40 –
20 –
0 –
-20 –
-40 –
-60 –
-80 –
Turk
ey
Hun
gary
Japa
n
Bel
gium Ita
ly
Ger
man
y
Aus
tria
Net
herla
nd
Uru
guay
Hon
g K
ong
- C
hina
Cze
ch R
epub
lic
Bra
zil
Kor
ea
Slo
vaki
a R
epub
lic
Liec
hten
stei
n
Gre
ece
Sw
itzer
land
Tuni
sia
Indo
nesi
a
Luxembourg
Thai
land
Por
tuga
l
Rus
sian
Fed
erat
ion
Ser
bia
Mexico
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
Aus
tral
ia
Latv
ia
New
Zea
land
Spa
in
Mac
ao-C
hina
Can
ada
Irela
nd
Den
mar
k
Pol
and
Sw
eden
Nor
way
Finl
and
Icel
and
Variation of performance within schools
Variationexplainedbysocialbackgroundofstudents
Variationexplainedbysocialbackgroundofstudents
Variationnotexplainedbysocialbackgroundofstudents
Variation in mathematics performance
Source: OECD (2004) Learning for tomorrow’s world: Table 4.1a, p.383
30 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
The first indicates the impact of students’ own social backgrounds on their
educational outcomes, the second the impact of the company they keep in
school.InAustralia,70%ofthevariationbetweenschoolscanbeaccounted
for in terms of differences between schools in the social background of their
students–ofwhich40%accountsfortheindividualsocialbackgroundand
30%theaveragesocialbackgroundofstudentsintheschools.
Where differences in social background account for a large percentage of
the between school variation, this suggests that the country’s educational
arrangements are inequitable. Where much of the account derives from the
social background of other students in the school, it suggests that the social
background of others in the school has an influence in addition to individuals’
own social background.
Additional analyses of the PISA 2000 data for Austria, however, offer a more
nuanced conclusion. These analyses suggest that ‘students with lower
skillsbenefitmorefrombeingexposedtocleverpeers,whereasthose
with higher skills do not seem to be affected much. Social heterogeneity,
moreover, has no big adverse effect on academic outcomes. These results
imply considerable social gains of reducing stratification in educational
settings’ (Schneeweis & Winter-Ebmer 2005, p.2). That is, the company of
socially advantaged students confers little additional benefit for the socially
advantaged but the company of socially disadvantaged students confers
a substantial additional penalty on those who are themselves socially
disadvantaged.
Learning from international comparisons
Data on the performance of schools systems and schools can provide
evidence of strengths and weaknesses and, by showing where others
do better, what more might be achieved. The comparisons cannot, in
themselves, provide strong evidence on how to remedy the weaknesses.
They can, however, suggest areas for attention. Considerable effort is being
invested in discerning those lessons. In this section, Germany and Demark
providetwoearlyexamplesofnationaleffortsthatincludedaninternational
comparative component.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 31Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
On the basis of the PISA 2000 results for all countries Germany identified
those with which it wished to compare itself more fully. It selected Finland,
Canada and Sweden as higher performance, higher equity countries, and
the UK and France as higher performance countries of particular interest.
The Netherlands was also included, although its PISA 2000 data set did
not satisfy the sampling requirements for inclusion in OECD’s international
report on PISA 2000. Germany funded a multilateral study of these countries,
commissioning a German academic, Eckhard Klieme, to engage collaborating
researchers in the other countries and to direct the study. The research team
identified features of the education systems in the seven countries that might
account for some of the differences in their PISA results and elaborated those
features quantitatively and qualitatively as a basis for further comparative
analyses of the national PISA data sets. Their report has been published in
Germany and also in English and French by the OECD (2004b).
The report focused on the need for innovations that addressed the social
and cultural disparities that seemed to be strongly related to the relatively
low quality and low equity in Germany’s results in PISA 2000. It commended
an integrated system instead of the longstanding, highly differentiated one
with students separated from age 11–12 into schools of different types
(academic and vocational). It proposed a shift in responsibility away from the
state(Länder)authoritiestoschools,butwithaclearframeworkofexpected
learning and system monitoring of school performance, perhaps with the
publication of results at school level.
Denmark’spositionasahigh-expenditureperstudent,average-performance
education system, provoked considerable national debate about how to
increase the quality and thus the efficiency of the system, particularly in view
ofFinlandbeinganaverage-expenditureperstudent,high-performance
system. Denmark requested the OECD to undertake a comparative policy
review, using Finland, England and Canada (Alberta) as benchmarks.
OECD appointed a review team led by Peter Mortimore of the UK. The
team concluded that there was no strong culture of evaluation in the
Danish education system, and there was a complacency that had avoided
dealing with evidence of relatively poor performance in earlier international
studies such as the Third International Maths and Science Study (TIMSS).
32 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Theteamoffered35recommendations,includingthatexpectedlearning
standards be clarified and school improvement teams be established, that
school leadership be strengthened through training and mentoring and that
teacher education be more strongly linked to the evidence base for effective
professional practice (OECD 2004c).
The review team reported in June 2004 to a meeting of the OECD Education
Committee in which a team from Denmark, led by the Minister for Education,
also participated. The team’s recommendations have been broadly accepted
by the Danish government.
TheabovehavebeenjusttwoofmanyexamplesincludedinthePISA
website, which provides details of international publications by the OECD that
explorethePISAdatainconsiderablymoredetail.Italsoprovideslinksto
national PISA websites, which include details of national publications.
System level monitoring
Many national systems monitor output themselves. Some, such as the UK,
define performance benchmarks against which students’ performance is
to be judged and then set system-level targets in terms of the minimum
proportionofthestudentcohortthatisexpectedtoperformatparticular
benchmark levels. Others have focused more on successive uses of
assessments linked to a common scale in order to map changes over time for
the population as a whole or for various subpopulations of interest.
System monitoring requires only the assessment of an appropriately
structured sample of students to represent the whole population and any
subpopulations of interest. The public well understands that it isn’t necessary
to survey the whole population to know what the population thinks or can do.
The US National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) has been
engaged in this kind of national assessment for 40 years. When only a sample
is tested, the available resources can be used to support more innovative and
extensiveassessmentthanispossiblewhenanentirecohortofstudentsis
tested. The Assessment of Performance Unit in the UK conducted some very
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 33Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
innovative assessments in the 1970s using only samples. Some Australian
states tested samples in speaking and listening and not just reading and
writing which are the more usual and more limited focus when full cohorts
are tested. Working with a sample rather than a whole cohort also permits
moreextensiveandintensiveassessmentthatwillyieldaricherpictureofthe
achievements of students. The result is assessments that are more valid (and
more reliable) than those obtained with full cohorts.
Figure 7 – Purposes and scope of system-level monitoring
To evaluate system-level achievement
Requires only a sample of students
Just as PISA does for inernational comparisons•
Don’t need to test everyone to know everyone is doing•
Permits innovative and more valid assessment
Speaking and listening aswell as reading and writing•
Practical as well as written work•
Permits relatively extensive assessment
Larger volumes of work per student since fewer students•
Sustained as well as short term work•
To report on schools or students in a system framework
To report on all, all must be assessed
All students could be tested in the same way•
Schools could test all with system instruments used with sample•
Western australia uses both cohort and sample testing
One could well ask then why full cohort assessment is ever undertaken if the
alternative is more valid and reliable monitoring of the cohort by testing only
a sample. The reason is that the accountability demands now operate at the
level of schools and not just the system. If all schools or all students are to
be reported on, then all need to be tested. That requirement is even stronger
when, as the US No Child Left Behind Act requires, schools have to set
34 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
improvement targets and meet them for all subgroups of students (by gender
and ethnicity).
At one point, Western Australia introduced full cohort testing by having it done
attheschoollevel,usingteststhatenabledschoolstoexpresstheresultsfor
all students in relation to state-level performances established through the
testing of a sample. Western Australia has abandoned that approach and
now assesses all students in the same, standardised way. It has persisted,
however, with additional sample assessment to permit monitoring of the
system on additional dimensions not covered by the cohort testing and in
richer ways than are possible with full cohort testing.
The purposes and scope of system level monitoring are summarised in figure
7 on page 33.
School-level analyses
With data on all schools, a range of school-level analyses become possible,
even within-school analyses of differences between classes and/or teachers.
These include the use of data by:
Schools in order to: (a) report to parents on individual students; and (b) report •
toparentsonschoolinsystemcontext
The system in order to: (a) compare schools and reward and punish or •
develop as appropriate and treat differentially; and (b) stimulate improvement
and monitor progress through measuring status and progress through
comparisons with like schools and estimations of value added by schools,
and by developing an evidence base on progress and evidence base on
programmes respectively
The public in order to: (a) evaluate the system; and (b) evaluate schools•
Schools can use their own data to report to parents on the performance
levels of their own children. More importantly, they can place those
performancesinawidercontextthanthelocalschooltogiveparentsabetter
sense of how their children are doing in relation to their entire grade or age
cohort. Schools can make those comparisons at the school level as well.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 35Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Comparisons among schools are possible only if data are available on the
performances of other schools and that typically requires the involvement
of system-level authorities. In some cases, such comparisons have been
rejected.InIreland,forexample,thelegislationthatintroducedfullcohort
assessment also prohibited the publication of school results. Reluctance to
publish school-level information is based on a concern that inappropriate
comparisons will be made among schools on the basis of raw performances
of their students and that these will be used to reward and punish schools
unfairly. Protestations that the data will be used only to identify need for
additional resources often do not convince the critics.
The argument for no use to avoid misuse is no longer winning because
better ways of reporting have been developed. The most straightforward is to
compare schools only with ‘like schools’, that is those with similar students.
The US organisation Just for the Kids compares each school in each subject
tested with the highest-performing schools in the state serving equally or
more disadvantaged students. The US ratings agency, Standard and Poor’s,
compares schools and districts, offers to find better performing schools and
analyses the relationship between spending and achievement.
A more sophisticated attempt to make fair comparisons is to estimate
the value that schools add to what their students begin with. The French
ministryofeducationpublishestheexaminationresultsforeachschooland
also a result predicted on the basis of the school’s student intake, and the
difference between it and the actual result as an estimate of the value added
by the school. The UK Department for Children, Schools and Families does
similarly. The OECD is currently investigating collaboratively with interested
member countries the technical features of various approaches to estimating
value added. Henry Braun, from Educational Testing Service, has prepared a
substantial discussion paper to start this review.
Conclusion
By now, we should be able to recognise the vital role of data for school
improvement. Data allow us to assess education quality at a school and
system level but also equity of educational achievements, and so ensure that
36 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
all children have access to a good education. This chapter has demonstrated
the different data analyses through which this can be achieved. It also
indicates a strong case for teachers and education leaders to embrace
and resource the effective use of data and so transform their schools and
systems.
References
OECD (2001). Knowledge and Skills for Life. OECD, Paris.
OECD (2004a). Learning for Tomorrow’s World: First results from PISA 2003.
OECD, Paris.
OECD (2004b). Lessons from PISA. OECD, Paris.
OECD (2004c). What makes School Systems perform?. OECD, Paris.
Schneeweis, N. & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2005). Peer effects in Austrian schools.
Working Paper No. 0502, Department of Economics, Johannes Kepler
University of Linz, Austria.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 37Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
1.3 The personalisation of learning1 David Hopkins
Personalised learning is an idea that is capturing the imagination of teachers,
parents and young people around the world. It is an idea that has its roots
in the best practices of the teaching profession, and it has the potential to
makeeveryyoungperson’slearningexperiencestretching,creative,funand
successful.
Personalisation is the guiding motif that allows a system to evolve from one
based on delivery of services to one that emphasises mass customisation
and co-production. It is about putting citizens at the heart of public services
and enabling them to have a say in the design and improvement of the
organisations that serve them. In education this can be understood as
personalised learning; the drive to tailor schooling to individual need, interest
and aptitude. This emphasis provides a bridge from prescribed forms of
teaching, learning skills, curriculum and assessment to an approach to
classroom practice that is predicated on enabling every student to fulfil their
potential.
In his pamphlet Learning about personalisation: how can we put the learner
at the heart of the education system? Charlie Leadbeater (2004:6) clearly and
sensitively links the concept of personalisation with personalised learning as
the key driver for the transformation of schooling. In terms of public sector
reform Leadbeater argues: ‘Public service reform should be user centred. It
should be organised to deliver better solutions for the people who use the
services. But it must also in the process, deliver better outcomes for society as
a whole: effective collective provision to meet the need for education, health,
transport, community safety and care for vulnerable people. The challenge is to
1During the international workshop for school principals keynote presentations were made by Professor Chen Yukun on ‘School principals and the cultivation of higher level talents’ and by Professor Shen Jiliang on ‘Teachers’ professional development in changing contexts.’ Unfortunately the text of both these presentations is unavailable. However a key theme in both of the presentations was the importance of the personalisation of learning. So David Hopkins has prepared this chapter picking up this aspect of the two keynote presentations and emphasising the Specialist School’s and Academies Trust and iNet’s work in developing the concept of personalising learning (Hopkins, D, 2007)
38 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
build these two sources of value – for the individual users and the wider society
– together. The combination creates public value.’
This approach, according to Leadbeater (2004:16), has the following
consequences for education: ‘The foundation of a personalised education
system would be to encourage children from an early age and across all
backgrounds to become more involved in making decisions about what they
would like to learn and how. The more aware people are of what makes them
learn, the more effective their learning is likely to be.
He continues: ‘Personalised leaning does not apply market thinking to
education. It is not designed to turn children and parents into consumers
of education. The aim is to promote personal development through self
realisation, self enhancement and self development. The child/learner should
be seen as active, responsible and self motivated: a co-author of the script
which determines how education is delivered.’
And: ‘The script of a system characterised by personalised learning … would
start from the premise that the learner should be actively engaged in setting
their own targets, devising their own learning plans and goals, choosing from
a range of different ways to learn.… By making learning the guiding principle
of the system, personalisation challenges some of the current divide and
boundariesthatexist–forexamplebetweenformalandinformallearning;
between academic and vocational learning; and between different ages and
types of learners.’
Personalisation,inEnglandforexample,representsalogicalprogression
from the standards and accountability reform strategies of the 1990s. These
strategies marked an important first phase in a long term large scale reform
effort. But in order to sustain system-wide improvement, societies are
increasinglydemandingstrategiescharacterisedbydiversity,flexibilityand
choice.
In line with this, my view is that the genesis of personalisation lies somewhere
slightly different from the political emphasis with which it is currently
associated. The foundations of personalisation may be partly political, but
mainly they reflect an ethical root.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 39Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
It is moral purpose that drives personalisation. We see it most vividly in
the concern of the committed, conscientious teacher to match what is
taught, and how it is taught, to the individual learner as a person. That is not
just a question of ‘sufficient challenge’, of aligning pedagogy to the point
of progression that each learner has reached, even though that is vitally
important. It is also part of the teacher’s concern to touch hearts as well as
minds, to nourish a hunger for learning and help equip the learner with a
proficiency and confidence to pursue understanding for themselves.
The phrase ‘every child is special’ and the creation of an education system
which treats them so, is what personalised learning is all about. That means
overcoming the false dichotomies and the either/or which have bedevilled
schooling for so long, so that for all pupils learning means both/and – both
excellenceandenjoyment,skillsandenrichment,supportandchallenge,
high standards and high equity, present success and long-term participation,
deep engagement and broad horizons. It also means breaking the link
between socio-economic disadvantage and attainment. That is the goal for
personalised learning.
As David Miliband (2004), the Minister of State during the second term of
New Labour, said when he was introducing the concept of personalised
learning into the English educational system: ‘Giving every single child the
chance to be the best they can be, whatever their talent or background, is not
thebetrayalofexcellence;itisthefulfilmentofit.’
In describing personalised learning in this chapter, I shall:
Define the concept a little further and review its main components•
Outline the ‘personalising learning’ approach developed by the SSAT•
Briefly discuss the meta-cognitive aspects of personalised learning•
What is personalised learning?
Personalised learning is not a new idea. Many schools and teachers have
tailored curriculum and teaching methods to meet the needs of children and
young people with great success for many years. What is new is the drive
to make the best practices universal. It is re-imagining the education system
40 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
around the learning needs and talents of young people that is the basis for
every school becoming great.
David Miliband, again in his 2004 speech (to the North of England
Conference), described personalised learning as: ‘…highexpectationsof
every child, given practical form by high quality teaching based on a sound
knowledge and understanding of each child’s needs. It is not individualised
learning where pupils sit alone. Nor is it pupils left to their own devices – which
too often reinforces low aspirations. It means shaping teaching around the
way different youngsters learn; it means taking the care to nurture the unique
talents of every pupil.’
There is a clear moral and educational case for pursuing this approach. A
system that responds to individual pupils, by creating an education path that
takes account of their needs, interests and aspirations, will not only generate
excellence,itwillalsomakeastrongcontributiontoequityandsocialjustice.
It is essential that personalised learning is not confused or conflated with
individualised learning. The radical shift to what some consider the alternative
to universalism – de-schooling options or an individualised or distance
learning approach to teaching and learning at school age – would almost
certainly set us back in terms of ensuring that every child gets a high quality
education. Individualised learning risks the weaker students most, for they
are the ones who benefit from a well-structured learning environment.
Individualisedlearningweakensthebroadercurriculumexperienceofthe
child, by reducing the social (and moral) dimension that is an inevitable part
of learning together. In personalised learning the input to the whole group
is designed in a way that enables individual pupils to receive it differently
accordingtotheirpriorknowledgeandexperiencesandthedesignofthe
learning process.
Education suffers as much as any aspect of public life from false dichotomies.
The truth is that we need neither a mass system nor an individualised system.
Weneedamodelwhichbuildsonahostofrecentexperiencesandmarches
us confidently into an era when schooling is reliable and of high quality, while
being much more accessible and more open to customisation so that every
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 41Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
child can get the education that they want and need. A mass service, which
makes sense to every individual.
The nature of personalised learning can be portrayed by contrasting the
alternatives of mass and individualised systems as seen in the table below.
The middle column in the table demonstrating how personalised learning
transcends and builds on the other two traditions.
Table 1 – Contrasting personalised learning with mass provision and individualised education
Mass provision Personalised learning individualised education
Teaching and learning takes place predominantly in the classroom.
Teaching and learning constantly takes place in and beyond the classroom.
Teaching and learning takes place predominantly out of the classroom, and primarily at home.
The teacher’s role is to manage the class as well as to teach it.
The teacher has all the classroom skills they need but also works within a school teaching-and-learning team which includes teaching assistants, tutors, mentors, counsellors and others to customise, enhance and extendchildren’swork.
The teacher is a tutor, a learning guide, a distance education style mentor.
Assessment for learning means the teacher keeps in view where the bulk of the class has got to, ready to move them towhat’snext.
Assessment for learning means that every child’s progress is monitored, so that customised support, remediation and enhancement can constantly be reappraised and put on offer.
Assessment for learning means modules of works are distance marked, with the tutor sending recommendations of what todonext.
The able child is ignored, or denied.
The able child gets opportunities for a special dietofextraextensionandenhancement activities, with every effort made to spot them, and to put them together where that’s to their advantage.
The able child can go at the pace they want, provided the materials available are pre-prepared suitably.
42 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
One can summarise this approach to personalised learning as follows:
As an educational aspiration, personalised learning reflects a system-wide •
commitmenttomoralpurpose,highexcellenceandhighequityandtoevery
school being or becoming great
As an educational strategy, personalised learning relates to and builds on the •
learner’sexperience,knowledgeandcognitivedevelopment,developstheir
confidence and competence, and leads towards autonomy, emancipation
and self-actualisation
The low attainer is ignored, or denied.
The low attainer gets the extrastructureandsupportthey particularly require.
The low attainer is left to their own devices, just as much as the able child.
A national curriculum that everyone follows can be highly specified.
A NC framework remains – recommended areas of study – but can be slimmer and can be articulated at a deeper level (such as a learning journey), leaving much more scope for different children to work at different depths and for different periods of time.
A national curriculum disappears and there’s much more pupil choice of what to study, and when/where.
The dominant pedagogy is that of the whole class teacher.
The pedagogy varies, fit for purpose, using the strengths of the best whole class, group and individual work.
The dominant pedagogy is that of ICT and the distant learning system.
The curriculum experiencegivesaccessto social interaction and a strong moral framework that’s essential to maintain social order within the bustling school.
Thecurriculumexperiencecontinues to be social and moral - children and parents havetoexercisemorechoice and are supported (and challenged) to take more responsibility for their educational choices.
Thecurriculumexperienceis very light on social interaction and there’s a risk of a weak moral educational side; the morals of the internet are more dominant.
Parents mainly have responsibility for getting their children to and from school on time, and do their best not to
Parents share more responsibility as they take more part, and help their childrenexercisemorechoice.
Parents take responsibility for their children – or not.
Mass provision Personalised learning individualised education
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 43Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
As an approach to teaching and learning, personalised learning focuses on •
individual potential, develops the individual’s learning skills (particularly ICT),
and enhances creativity and social skills
As a curriculum orientation, personalised learning offers an approach to •
subject teaching that balances societal aspirations and personal relevance,
and unifies the curriculum offer across sectors and age groupings
This leads directly to the following implications that can help guide day-to-day
practice:
For children and young people• , it means clear learning pathways through
the education system and the motivation to become independent, e-literate,
fulfilled, lifelong learners
For schools• , it means a professional ethos that accepts and assumes every
child comes to the classroom with a different knowledge base and skill set,
as well as varying aptitudes and aspirations; and because of that, there is
a determination for every young person’s needs to be assessed and their
talents developed through diverse teaching strategies
For school governors• , it means promoting high standards of educational
achievement and well-being for every pupil, ensuring that all aspects of
organising and running the school work together to get the best for all pupils
For national and local authorities• , it means a responsibility to create the
conditionsinwhichteachersandschoolshavetheflexibilityandcapability
topersonalisethelearningexperienceofalltheirpupils,combinedwitha
system of intelligent accountability so that central intervention is in inverse
proportion to success
and for the system as a whole• , it means the shared goals of high quality
and high equity
The rationale of these principles is clear: to raise standards by focusing
teaching and learning on the aptitudes and interests of pupils and by
removing any barriers to learning. The key question is how collectively we
build this offer for every pupil and every parent. The SSAT approach to
‘personalisinglearning’givesanexampleofthisapproachinaction.
44 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Personalising learning in practice – the SSAT approach
In 2004, the SSAT in partnership with Professor David Hargreaves undertook
ajourneywithEnglishschoolstoexplorewhatwasmeantbypersonalising
learning and what it looked like in practice. This journey can be defined in
three broad stages:
Framing what might constitute personalising learning:1. Professor
Hargreaves and 250 school leaders met to frame what might constitute
personalising learning. This work resulted in the ‘nine gateways’ model.
Learning more about the nine gateways: a series of conferences:2. working
in partnership with Secondary Headteachers Association (SHA) (now
Association of School and College Leaders – ASCL). Each conference
focusedontwogatewayswiththeexceptionofthefinalonewhich
addressed the particularly challenging area of redesigning and reorganising
schools to meet the challenges of personalising learning. All of these
conferences were underpinned by the notion that progress in any gateway
required sustained and distributed leadership. Each conference was followed
up by a pamphlet that picked up on the key themes of the conferences and
included case studies of interesting practice in the gateways covered.
Establishing development and research networks:3. development and
research networks were created in the first five gateways of the personalised
learning agenda. A hub school was appointed for each of these five
gateways in each of the 11 regions of Trust operations. These hubs are
workingtoestablishanetworkofschools,allworkingonthecreationofnext
practice within Hargreaves’ framework for innovation. This means that their
work is based on a disciplined, decentralised and distributed model
The nine gateways to personalised learning were devised with school leaders
asameansofbuildingonandextendingwhatmanyschoolsweredoing
to create the pathways for the personalisation of student learning. They are
(Hargreaves, 2006):
Student voice and assessment for learning•
Learning to learn and the new technologies•
Curriculum and advice & guidance•
Mentoring & coaching and workforce development•
School design and organisation•
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 45Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Figure 8 – Sequencing the gateways to PL: the linkages
There are many possible gateways into the process of personalising learning
so one could ask, why these nine? There were several criteria for this
selection:
Each gateway is applicable to every school and classroom: it is an aspect of •
teaching and learning that is inescapable, though some aspects are given
greater emphasis than others in any particular school and classroom
Each gateway is already part of current professional practice in some form, •
however modest, but in some schools it is an area for pioneering innovation
that is worth disseminating to others
Each gateway requires strong leadership, in the form of distributed leadership •
as well as from headteachers, if progress is to be made
Each gateway is potentially a way of enhancing student motivation and •
commitment to learning, which is an essential prerequisite to raising
achievement
No school is at the leading edge in every theme•
As work progressed it became clear that the interactions and links between
thegatewayswerefarmorecomplexthanitwaspreviouslyimagined.This
The nine gateways to personalising learning
Î
Student voice1.
assessment 2. for learning
Learning to 3. learn
new 4. technologies
Curriculum5. advice & 6. guidance
Mentoring & 7. coaching
Design & 9. organisation
Workforce 8. reform
46 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
led the Trust to reassess the gateways model and to develop the idea of the
‘Four Deeps’.
Deep learning: • schools are increasingly seeking to support the development
of their students as learners, who are equipped for the 21st century world in
which the need to be a lifelong learner is paramount. Deep learning is best
developed through the first three gateways of the personalising learning
agenda. Through student voice, assessment for learning and learning to learn
schools can help students to develop their learning power
Deep engagement:• student engagement is the key to better relationships
between staff and students and it is a prerequisite for the development of
the characteristics of good learners such as independence, responsibility,
confidence and maturity. The answer to the question of how do we engage
students, seems to lie in the gateways of curriculum and new technologies.
The hub schools and their networks can sum up their work in these areas
as discovering the best ways to engage students in a curriculum that
is meaningful to them and which makes the best possible use of the
technology available
Deep support:• a new level of support is needed for students, staff and
schools if personalising learning is to become a reality. The support required
goes beyond that which has traditionally been provided by advice and
guidance and mentoring and coaching. Both of the two previous gateways
– deep learning and deep engagement – have a role to play, but deep
support goes beyond this and requires us to reassess the way we support
people in our schools
Deep leadership:• a new type of leadership is needed if personalising learning
is to be successfully resourced and implemented in a school
Coda – realising personalised learning
It should be clear by now that personalising learning requires the active
and continuous involvement of students. Personalising learning means that
teachers and students become partners in learning; and teaching practice
moves beyond traditional notions of instruction to guide and support children
inajourneyofexplorationthroughwhichtheycanfulfiltheirpotential.This
journey however, in order to be successful, necessitates the development
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 47Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Student voice
Deep learning
Assessment for learning Learning to learn
Deep leadership
Workforce reformDesign and organisation
Deep experienceDeep support
Mentoring and coaching
Advice and guidance
New technologies
Curriculum
Figure 9 – Clustering the gateways to PL: the ‘deeps’
of students’ metacognitive skills and those that refer to their personal
effectiveness and employability.
Meta-cognitive skills enable students to develop the capacity to monitor,
evaluate, control and change the way they think and learn. In particular,
students should be able to:
Integrate prior and new knowledge•
Acquire and use a range of learning skills•
Solve problems individually and in groups•
Think carefully about their successes and failures•
Evaluate conflicting evidence and think critically•
Accept that learning involves uncertainty and difficulty•
48 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
There is clear evidence that the acquisition of these skills can also significantly
increase achievement.
But, if we are serious about personalised learning we also need to help
students develop their personal and employability skills. The OECD’s (2005)
Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo) Project classified
individuals’ key competencies for a successful life into three broad categories:
1. Using tools interactively (both physical and socio-cultural ones)
a.Uselanguage,symbolsandtextsinteractively
b. Use knowledge and information interactively
c. Use technology interactively
2. Interacting in heterogeneous groups and specifically to:
a. Relate well to others
b. Co-operate, work in teams
c. Manage and resolve conflicts
3. Acting autonomously
a. Act within the big picture
b. Form and conduct life plans and personal projects
c. Defend and assert rights, interests, limits and needs
However, as mentioned earlier, in order to realise personalise learning and
ensure that students gain and are proficient in the above skills we need
to move beyond traditional teaching practices to innovative ones that
consistently and strategically develop such skills. School leaders have a
pivotal role to play in setting such an instructional improvement agenda for
teachers to achieve this goal.
References:
Hargreaves, D.H. (2006). A new shape for schooling? Specialist Schools and
Academies Trust, London.
Hopkins, D. (2007). Every School a Great School, Open University Press,
London.
Leadbeater, C. (2004). Learning about Personalisation: How can we put the
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 49Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Learner at the Heart of the Education System?. Department for Education
and Skills, Nottingham.
Miliband, D, (2004). Personalised learning: building a new relationship with
schools. Speech by the Minister of State for School Standards to the North of
England Education Conference, Belfast.
OECD (2005). The Definition and Selection of Key Competencies
www.oecd.org. Accessed 1/06/06.
50 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
1.4 Realising the potential of system leadership David Hopkins
The literature on leadership has mushroomed in recent years, as have
leadership courses and qualifications. Many seem to have different takes
on leadership which I for one find a little confusing. What however is clear
is that traditional leadership and management approaches are well able to
accommodate technical problems. As we shall see later, the future is about
solving problems for which there is no immediate solution, and then to build
the capacity for sustaining the system into the medium and long term. This
requires leadership of a different order.
System leadership accommodates the arguments for sustainable educational
transformation. So, the purpose of this chapter is to propose a definition
and elaborate the concept of system leadership; and from this, to propose a
model for system leadership that incorporates ‘a theory of action’.
Defining and conceptualising system leadership
System leaders are those headteachers who are willing to shoulder system
leadership roles: who care about and work for the success of other schools
as well as their own. In England there appears to be an emerging cadre
of these headteachers who stand in contrast to the competitive ethic of
headship so prevalent in the nineties. It is these educators who by their own
efforts and commitment are beginning to transform the nature of leadership
and educational improvement in England. Interestingly there is also evidence
of this role emerging in other leading educational systems in Europe, North
America and Australia (Hopkins, forthcoming).
This leads me to a simple proposition: if our goal is ‘every school a great
school’ then policy and practice has to focus on system improvement. This
means that a school head has to be almost as concerned about the success
of other schools about his or her own school. Sustained improvement of
schools is not possible unless the whole system is moving forward. Our
recent research on system leadership began to map the system leadership
landscape (Hopkins and Higham, 2007). It identified a significant amount of
systemleadershipactivityinEngland,farmorethanpreviouslyexpected.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 51Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
However, we are still in the process of charting the system leadership
movement as we work inductively from the behaviours of the outstanding
leaders we are privileged to collaborate with. From the evidence gained we
can sketch some of the key aspects of the role:
The moral purpose of system leadership•
System leadership roles•
System leadership as adaptive work•
The domains of system leadership•
The first thing to say is that system leadership as Michael Fullan (2003; 2005)
has argued is imbued with moral purpose. Without that, there would not be
the passion to proceed or the encouragement for others to follow. In England
forexample,wheretheinfluencesonimprovementinteachingandlearning
are still not well understood, where deprivation is still too good a predictor
of educational success and where the goal is for every school to be a great
school, the leadership challenge is surely systemic. This perspective gives
a broader appreciation of what is meant by the moral purpose of system
leadership.
Systemleadersexpresstheirmoralpurposethrough:
Measuring their success in terms of improving student learning and •
increasing achievement, and striving to both raise the bar and narrow
the gap(s)
Being fundamentally committed to the improvement of teaching and learning. •
They engage deeply with the organisation of teaching, learning, curriculum
and assessment in order to ensure that learning is personalised for all their
students
Developing their schools as personal and professional learning communities, •
with relationships built across and beyond each school to provide a range of
learningexperiencesandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities
Strivingforequityandinclusionthroughactingoncontextandculture.This•
is not just about eradicating poverty, as important as that is. It is also about
giving communities a sense of worth and empowerment
Applying the knowledge that the classroom, school and system levels all •
impact on each other. Crucially they understand that in order to change the
larger system you have to engage with it in a meaningful way
52 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Although this degree of clarity is not necessarily obvious in the behaviour and
practice of every headteacher, these aspirations are increasingly becoming
part of the conventional wisdom of the best of our global educational leaders.
Second, it is also pleasing to see a variety of system leader roles emerging
within various systems that are consistent with such a moral purpose.
At present, in England, these are (Hopkins and Higham, 2007):
Developing and leading a successful educational improvement partnership •
between several schools, often focused on specific outcomes that are
beyond the capacity of any one institution. These include 14–19 consortia
and partnerships on curriculum design and specialisms, including sharing
curricular innovation to respond to key challenges; and behaviour and hard
to place students. Some of these partnerships have moved to formalised
arrangements such as federations (to develop stronger mechanisms for joint
governance and accountability) or education improvement partnerships
(to devolve certain defined delivery responsibilities and resources from their
local authority).
Choosingtoleadandimproveaschoolinextremelychallenging•
circumstancesandchangelocalcontextsbybuildingacultureofsuccess
and then sustaining once low achieving schools as high valued added
institutions.
Partnering another school facing difficulties and improve it, either as •
anexecutiveheadofafederationorastheleaderofamoreinformal
improvement arrangement. Such system leadership is differentiated from
category 1 on the basis that leaders here work from a lead school into a low
achieving or underperforming school (or schools) that require intervention.
‘There is a growing body of well-documented evidence from around the
countrythat,whereaschoolisinserioustrouble,theuseofanexecutive
headteacher/partner headteacher and a paired arrangement with that head’s
successful school, can be a particularly effective solution, and is being
increasingly widely applied’ (NCSL 2005).
Acting as a community leader to broker and shape partnerships and/or •
networks of wider relationships across local communities to support
children’s welfare and potential, often through multi-agency work.
Suchsystemleadershipisrootedfirmlywithinthecontextofthenational
Every Child Matters agenda in England and responds to, as Osbourne
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 53Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
(2000, p.1) puts it, ‘theacceptance[that]some…issuesaresocomplex
and interconnected that they require the energy of a number of organisations
to resolve and hence can only be tackled through organisations working
together.… The concept of [a] full-service school where a range of public and
private sector services is located at or near the school is one manifestation.’
Workingasachangeagentorexpertleaderwithinthesystem,identifying•
best classroom practice and transferring it to support improvement in
others schools. This is the widest category and includes heads working
as mentor leaders within networks of schools; heads who are active
and effective leaders within more centrally organised system leadership
programmes;andheadswhowiththeirstaffpurposelydevelopexemplary
curricula and teaching programmes in a form that is transferable to other
schools and settings
These roles could be divided into formal roles that are developed through
national programmes; or informal, locally developed and more fluid, ad-hoc
andorganic.Suchflexibilityisoftenanimportantpartofhowthesesystem
leadership roles have come about.
The formal and informal roles hold a very significant potential to effect
systemic educational improvement. If a sufficient cadre of system leaders
were developed and deployed, there would be:
A wider resource for school improvement, making the most of our leaders to •
transfer best practice and reduce the risk of innovation and change focused
on attainment and welfare
An authentic response to failing schools (often those least able to attract •
suitable leaders)
A means to resolve the emerging challenge of, on the one hand, falling •
student rolls and hence increasingly non-viable schools and, on the other
hand, pressures to sustain educational provision in all localities
A sustainable and internal strategy for retaining and developing headteachers •
as a response to the shortage we are currently facing. (A survey by the
GeneralTeachingCouncilin2006warnedthat40%ofheadteacherposts
would be filled with difficulty in the coming years)
54 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Nodoubttheseroleswillexpandandmatureovertime;butwhatissignificant
about them is that they have evolved in response to the adaptive challenge
of system change. This is the third of the aspects we need to discuss.
It was Ron Heifetz (1994) who focused attention on the concept of an
adaptive challenge – a problem for which solutions lie outside current ways
of operating. This is in stark contrast to a technical problem for which the
know-howalreadyexists.Thisdistinctionhasresonanceforeducational
reform. Put simply, resolving a technical problem is a management issue;
tackling adaptive challenges requires leadership. Often we try to solve
technical problems with adaptive processes, or more commonly force
technical solutions onto adaptive problems. The figure below captures this
distinction. It illustrates how this issue underpins the policy conundrum of
making the transition from prescription to professionalism, and emphasises
the importance of capacity building.
Figure 10: System leadership as adaptive work
Almost by definition, adaptive challenges demand learning new ways
of thinking and operating. In these instances it is people who are the
problem, because an effective response to an adaptive challenge is almost
always beyond the current competence of those involved. Inevitably this is
threatening, and often the prospect of adaptive work generates resistance.
Mobilising people to meet adaptive challenges is at the heart of leadership
practice. In the short term leadership helps people meet an immediate
challenge. In the medium to long term leadership generates capacity to
System leadership as adaptive work
Technical solutions
adaptive work
System leadership
Technical problems can be solved through applying existing know-how – adaptive challenges create a gap between a desired state and reality that cannot be closed using existing approaches alone
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 55Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
enable people to meet an ongoing stream of adaptive challenges. Ultimately,
adaptive work requires us to reflect on the moral purpose by which we seek
to thrive, and demands diagnostic enquiry into the realities we face that
threaten the realisation of those purposes.
The fourth issue is about the ‘domains of system leadership’: what does
the task involve? One of the clearest definitions is the four core functions
proposed by Ken Leithwood and his colleagues (2006). These are:
Setting direction: to enable every learner to reach their potential, and to •
translate this vision into whole school curriculum, consistency and high
expectations
Managing teaching and learning: to ensure that there is a high degree of •
consistency and innovation in teaching practices to enable personalised
learning for all students
Developing people: to enable students to become active learners and to •
create schools as professional learning communities for teachers
Developing the organisation: to create evidence based schools and •
effective organisations, and to be involved in networks collaborating to build
curriculumdiversity,professionalsupportandextendedservices
Thisoutlinestandsupwellwhentestedagainstexistingapproachestoschool
leadership that have had a demonstrable impact on student learning. Take
for instance, Richard Elmore’s (2004:66) definition of the leadership purpose:
‘improvement, then, is change with direction, sustained over time, that moves
entire systems, raising the average level of quality and performance while at
the same time decreasing the variation among units, and engaging people in
analysis and understanding of why some actions seem to work and others
don’t…. Leadership is the guidance and direction of instructional improvement.
This is a deliberately de-romanticised, focused and instrumental definition.’
This definition of leadership underpins Elmore’s (2004:68) further contention:
‘the purpose of leadership is the improvement of instructional practice and
performance’ and its four dimensions:
Instructional improvement requires continuous learning•
Learning requires modelling•
Therolesandactivitiesofleadershipflowfromtheexpertiserequiredfor•
56 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
learning and improvement, not from the formal dictates of the institution
Theexerciseofauthorityrequiresreciprocityofaccountabilityandcapacity•
My own work with schools in England represents a similar logic to school
improvement. This as Elmore has proposed is the crucial domain of system
leadership. Figure 11 contains an illustration of the activities that contribute
to a capacity for learning within a school and that are facilitated, established
and energised by system leaders. It shows how schools establish a ‘learning
focus’ and how a number of the elements of school improvement come
together in practice. It begins from two assumptions.
The first is that all students have a potential for learning that is not fully
exploited(line1).Thesecondisthatthestudents’learningcapabilityrefersto
their ability to access that potential through increasing their range of learning
skills (line 2). This potential is best realised and learning capability enhanced,
through the range of teaching and learning models that the teacher uses
with her/his students (line 3). The deliberate use of a range of teaching and
learning strategies that are rich in meta-cognitive content is one of the richest
features of personalised learning. But as has already been stressed, the
teaching and learning strategies are not free-floating, but embedded in the
schemes of work and curriculum content that teachers use to structure the
learning in their lessons (line 4). This leads to the whole school dimension
through the staff development infrastructure the school has established, the
emphasis on high expectations (line 5). These forms of internal collaboration
on personalised learning and professional teaching enable schools to
network in order to raise standards across local areas, nationally and even
globally (line 6).
Finally, while it is true that system leadership is a relatively new concept,
it finds a resonance with the outstanding school leaders of the day. It has
developed out of the challenges of system reform and the thoughtful,
pragmatic and morally purposeful responses being given by our leading
principals and heads. Ultimately, the test of system leadership is twofold: Is it
having an impact where it matters? And, can our school leaders answer the
hard questions? Let us briefly answer each question in turn.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 57Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Repertoire of learning skills
Learning potential of all students
Models of learning – tools for teaching
Embeddedincurriculumcontextandschemesofwork
Wholeschoolemphasisonhighexpectationsand pedagogic consistency
Sharing schemes of work and curriculum across and between schools, clusters, LAs and nationally
Figure 11 – The logic of school improvement
There is now growing evidence in the English secondary school system
that this approach to system leadership is having a positive impact. Three
examplesmakethepoint:
WaverleySchool,underleadershipofSirDexterHuttfromNinestiles,•
improvedfrom16%5+A–CsatGCSEin2001to62%in2004
SirMichaelWilshawhasinstilledexcellentbehaviour,afocusonteaching•
andlearning,andhighexpectationsatMossbourneAcademy,whichisalso
having wider impact in the community
ValleyParkSchool,underleadershipofSueGlanville,improvedfrom31%•
5+A*–Cin2004to43%in2005.Theleadschool,InvictaGrammar,also
benefited by developing its leadership team and curriculum offer
Although these results are very encouraging, they do not claim to be
comprehensive. Our research programme however is beginning to build
theevidencebasemoresystematically(seeforexampleHopkinsand
Higham, 2007).
58 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
As regards to the hard questions, Michael Barber (2005) phrases them
like this:
Who are your key stakeholders in the local community? Do they understand •
your vision? Are they committed to it? How do you know?
Have you established a core belief that every pupil (yes, every pupil) can •
achieve high standards? And then have you reorganised all the other
variables (time, curriculum, teaching staff, and other resources) around the
achievement of that goal? If not, why not?
Iseachpupilinyourschoolworkingtowardsexplicit,shortandmediumterm•
targets in each subject?
Does each teacher know how his/her impact in terms of results compares to •
every other teacher? Have you thought about whether governors or parents
should have access to this data? And what do you do to make sure that
teachers who perform below the top quartile are improving?
How do you ensure that every young person has a good, trusting relationship •
with at least one significant adult in your school?
What do you and your school do to contribute to the improvement of the •
system as a whole?
These are the types of questions that the best system leaders test themselves
against and are now comfortable with. When all our school leaders can do so,
then surely we are well on our way to every school being a great school.
Towards a model of system leadership
We have seen glimpses in this chapter of a new educational landscape
that is becoming better defined through a more systematic approach to
segmentation and the power of system leadership. As the system leadership
movement develops we will find a new model of leadership flowing inductively
from the actions of our best educational leaders. In Every School a Great
School (Hopkins, 2007) I made an initial attempt to capture the main elements
of this emerging practice in the diagram below. The individual elements in
this model collectively represent a theory of action for leadership in the new
educationalcontext.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 59Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Themodelexhibitsalogicthatflowsfromtheinsideou:leaders,drivenby
a moral purpose related to the enhancement of student learning, seek to
empower teachers and others to make schools a critical force for improving
communities. Sustainable educational development requires educational
leaders who are willing to shoulder broader leadership roles; who care about
and work for the success of other schools as well as their own.
Figure 12: An emerging model of system leadership
The model begins in the centre with the acknowledgement that such forms
of leadership are imbued with moral purpose. I am not a great believer in
heroic theories of leadership, but it is clear from the practice of our best
system leaders that they share a characteristic set of behaviours and skills. As
Partner a low achieving
school
Lead an educational
improvement partnership
Act as a community
leader
Improve a school in
challenging context
Work as a change agent
Managing teaching and
learning
Developing organisations
Developing people
Strategic acumen
Personal development
Moral purpose
60 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
illustratedinthenextringofthediagramtheseareoftwotypes:theyengage
in personal development, usually informally through benchmarking themselves
againsttheirpeersanddevelopingtheirskillbaseinresponsetothecontext
they find themselves working in; and they have a strategic capability – they
translate their vision or moral purpose into operational principles with tangible
outcomes.
As denoted in the third ring of the model, the moral purpose, personal
qualities and strategic capacity of the system leader find focus on three
domains of the school – managing the teaching and learning process,
developing people and developing the organisation. These three aspects of
system leadership have as we have seen a strong empirical base: system
leaders engage deeply with the organisation of teaching, learning, curriculum
and assessment in order to personalise learning for all their students, reduce
within school variation and support curriculum choice. In order to do this they
develop their schools as personal and professional learning communities,
with relationships built across and beyond each school to provide a range of
learningexperiencesandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities.Theyalso
realise that all this requires a robust and reliable school organisation, and they
work towards achieving this.
Althoughthereisagrowingnumberofoutstandingleadersthatexemplify
these qualities and determinations, they are not necessarily system leaders.
A system leader not only needs these aspirations and capabilities but
in addition, as seen in the outer ring of the model, strives for equity and
inclusionthroughactingoncontextandcultureandthroughgivingtheir
communities a sense of worth and empowerment. They do this by assuming
one of the system leadership roles described earlier. Whatever the role, they
realise that in order to change the larger system they have to engage with it in
a meaningful way.
So the purpose of this chapter has been to chart the emergence of a system
leadership movement that can be increasingly clearly defined in terms of
concepts,capacities,rolesandstrategy.Whatisexcitingaboutthepotential
of such a movement is that the practices of system leadership will grow out
of the future demands of system leaders. Consequently, moving system
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 61Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
leadership to scale is the key driver in ensuring that every student reaches his
or her potential, and that every school becomes great. That is what school
transformation is all about.
References
Barber, M. (2005). A 21st Century Self Evaluation FrameworkAnnex3in
Journeys of Discovery: the search for success by design Keynote speech
in the National Center on Education and the Economy. Annual Conference,
Florida.
DfES (2005). Education Improvement Partnerships: local collaboration for
school improvement and better service delivery. DfES, London.
Elmore, R. F. (2004). School Reform from the Inside Out. Harvard Education
Press, Massachusetts.
Fullan, M. (2003). The Moral Imperative of School Leadership. Corwin Press,
London.
Fullan, M. (2005). Leadership and Sustainability. Corwin Press, London.
Heifetz, R. A. (1994). Leadership Without Easy Answers. Belknap Press,
Cambridge/Mass.
Hopkins, D. (2001). School Improvement for Real. Routledge/Falmer, London.
Hopkins, D. (2007). Every School a Great School, Open University Press,
London.
Hopkins, D. (ed) (forthcoming) Innovative Approaches to Contemporary
School Leadership. Paris, OECD.
Hopkins, D and Higham, R (2007). System leadership: mapping the
landscape, School Leadership and Management, 27 (2), 147-166.
Hutchings, M., Smart, S., James. K. and Williams, K. (2006). Survey on
Teachers, GTC <http://www.gtce.org.uk> Accessed 26/08/2006.
Leithwood, K., Day, C., Sammons, P., Harris, A. and Hopkins, D. (2006).
Seven strong claims about successful school leadership. NCSL, Nottingham.
Osborne, S.P. (ed) (2000). Public-Private Partnerships. Routledge, London.
NCSL (2005). Advice to the SoS on Complex schools. NCSL, Nottingham.
62 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
2 Global context of school leadership: 14 national case studies
2.1 Overview A number of common themes are evident in the case studies that follow. They
are not intended to provide comprehensive descriptions of arrangements for
governance and recent developments, not an account of factors that have
shaped them. At most, they provide a brief orientation to some major features
of the school systems concerned, and they served as a guide to participants
and observers at the Beijing workshop.
A theme in most case studies was the movement towards a more
decentralised administrative structure for the school system. The systems in
these countries each demonstrate some degree of devolution of responsibility
for schooling from a central authority, which in most cases is a national
government but in others, notably Australia, Canada and the United States,
is a state or province. Decentralisation has occurred from nation to state or
province, or from nation to municipality, school district or other local authority,
or from one or more of these levels directly to schools.
In every case there has been a shift of at least some responsibility to the
school level.
Developments in the training and accreditation of school principals have been
included in most case studies. These include requirements for accreditation
of school leaders by system authorities in China, Hong Kong and the United
States. Training programmes for aspiring and current school leaders are
offered either through government initiatives or university-linked organisations
in Australia, Mauritius, Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden.
Several case studies describe reforms in the organisational structures of
schooling and the curriculum, in each instance to provide schools with
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 63Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
greaterflexibility.Since2004intheUnitedKingdom,forexample,schools
areexpectedtopersonalisestudentlearningandthisisakeydriverforthe
transformation of schooling. A number of countries have developed a new
schoolcurriculumtoprovidegreaterflexibilityinstudentlearning,enabling
students to choose their own learning pathways.
Another major theme is the implementation of programmes to increase skills
in and access to ICT. In several places, including Bermuda, China, Mauritius,
Netherlands, South Africa and Sweden, there has been a range of initiatives
to ensure that all staff and students are able to develop their skills in ICT, and
particularly the use of online resources. Each of these countries reports that
access to and the development of skills in ICT are important for preparing
students and staff to work in a modern globalised society.
Runningthroughmostaccountsisanexpectationthatleadersatalllevelsare
required to take up a higher degree of accountability than ever before, with
transparency in outcomes a major feature. There is clearly more data available
thaneverbeforeandschoolleadersareexpectedtomakesenseofthese
and plan accordingly as each nation pursues an agenda for transformation,
which is invariably described in terms of securing high levels of achievement
for all students. Several countries have titles for their efforts in school reform
that convey this intention, such as No Child Left Behind (United States) or
Higher Standards, Better Schools for All (United Kingdom).
2.2. AustraliaKey features of educational governance
In Australia the constitutional responsibility for education lies with the states
andterritories.EachofthesixAustralianstatesandtwoterritoriesformulates
policy and administers schools through their departments of education.
The number of years that students are required to attend school, staffing,
the curriculum and the balance of centralisation and decentralisation varies
among the states and territories. A number of statutory bodies report to state
and federal ministers on specific aspects of schooling. About two-thirds of
students attend schools owned by state or territory governments, and about
one-third schools owned and operated by church or private bodies, with the
64 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
proportion in the latter increasing toward the end of secondary schooling.
This results in universities drawing a high proportion of students from non-
government schools Tuition is free in government schools, although many
charge voluntary fees. Non-government schools charge fees. All recognised
non-government schools also receive public funding on a scale based on the
socio-economic status of the communities from which schools draw their
students. Governance of schools in all sectors is generally supported by a
school council or its equivalent
While the state and territory departments have constitutional responsibility for
schooling,theAustraliangovernmentexertsapowerfulinfluenceonprimary
and secondary education because it is the only level of government that can
raiseanincometax,anditallocatesfundstothestates,territoriesandnon-
government school authorities only if they meet certain conditions. Many of
the current federal education policies aim to increase ‘national consistency’
–forexample,thestartingageofstudents.Otherfederaleducationpolicies
impose standardised testing in literacy and numeracy for primary and
secondary students. A degree of ‘cooperative federalism’ is achieved through
meetings of all ministers in the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment,
Training and Youth Affairs.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
Students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9 are required by the Australian (federal)
Governmenttosittestsinliteracyandnumeracy.Expandedteststhatcover
English, mathematics, science, ICT, and civics and citizenship education
will be introduced. Schools are required to inform parents about how their
children have performed according to benchmarks identified in these tests.
Thegovernmentisbecomingmoreactiveinareasofcurriculum,forexample,
in plans to require the teaching of Australian history in all schools.
An initiative concerned with the development of school leaders is the
establishment in 2004 of ‘Teaching Australia’ – the Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership. Its purpose is to enhance the quality
of teaching and school leadership in Australian schools. The institute
commissions research and training to help in the development of high-
quality teachers and school leaders. The government in the state of Victoria
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 65Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
subsidises participation in a Master of School Leadership degree, with a
cohort of early career ‘young leaders’ also engaged in the iNet project of
SSAT. Catholic Education in Victoria has done the same on a smaller scale.
There are similar developments in other states and territories.
The quality of school facilities is an issue, with most governments committing
more money to refurbishment or replacement. Nineteen government schools
in New South Wales (NSW) have been built or are planned under the state
government’s public-private partnerships (PPP) model. Under this model, the
corporate sector builds and maintains school facilities, which are leased back
to the state government for a period of 30 years.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
According to the OECD report Education at a Glance (2005), Australia
has highly centralised decision-making processes. This is not, however,
the case for all Australian states and territories. Victoria has a high level of
school-basedmanagement,with94%ofthestate’srecurrenteducation
budget decentralised to the school level for local decision-making under the
oversight of a school board, albeit within a centrally determined framework.
A Department of Education and Training study in 2004 indicates that most
principals in Victoria prefer this to a more centralised approach.
This Victorian study reported on workload in the state school system and
its impact on the health and well-being of principals. The number of hours
worked by principals was reported to be about 60 hours per week. Although
90%ofprincipalsparticipatinginthisstudyindicatedtheyexperiencedhigh
levels of job satisfaction, they believed that workload had a negative impact
on their emotional and physical well-being. It is, therefore not surprising
that early retirement is common and an important issue is the recruitment
of school leaders. There are a high number of vacancies, with several
regions struggling to secure enough applicants to fill positions. It is likely that
these concerns apply across the country. There is generally an unrelenting
concern for improving learning outcomes, with a range of initiatives by
the Australian government and the eight state and territory governments
and unprecedented levels of accountability placing heavy demands on
principals and other school leaders. However, it is witness to the will of
66 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
governments to transform schools that there has developed in this decade
an overarching recognition that the role and responsibilities of principals are
critical in improving the educational outcomes of students in their schools. As
educational leaders in their communities, it is recognised that principals have
a major influence on developing the capacity of their teachers, and the quality
of the teaching-learning relationship.
Principals and leaders in schools are now being supported, through both
state and federally funded programmes, to develop the necessary skills
and attributes to drive staff development and improve student outcomes.
Provided other administrative restructuring takes place, principals will be
much better placed to be able to support a culture of high performance and
continuous improvement in schools.
2.3 BermudaKey features of educational governance in the country
Bermuda is the oldest remaining territory of the United Kingdom. The
Governor is appointed by the Queen, on the advice of the British
Government,toexerciseexecutiveauthorityinBermuda.Theheadofthe
Bermuda Government is the Premier. While often referred to in the singular,
Bermuda consists of around 138 islands with around 66,000 residents.
The education system is deemed to be one of the best resourced systems in
the world. Schooling in Bermuda is administered by the Ministry of Education
and Development, which is responsible for the management and planning of
the public school system and for the development of policy for all levels of
school education.
In the 1990s the previously British-based education system, with two tiers
of schooling, was restructured to reflect a more North American model.
This restructuring led to the implementation of a three-tiered system of
education, involving primary, middle and secondary schooling, and the
creation of five government-owned and managed middle schools that cater
for the educational needs of students aged 11–13. Schooling is compulsory
in Bermuda for all children age 5–16. It is free for all students in the public
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 67Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
system, which includes 18 primary schools, 5 middle schools, 2 secondary
schools, 2 schools for students with special needs and 12 pre-schools. A
year of pre-school education is offered at no charge for four year-olds. The
publiceducationsystemcatersforaround6,500students.About40%of
students are enrolled in nine private day schools, which charge tuition fees.
The school system also includes 18 ‘home’ schools which are run by parents
or other individuals and supervised by the ministry under the Education
Amendment Act 2003. Most students who wish to pursue higher education
attend university overseas as there is no degree conferring university in
Bermuda.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
A number of reforms have aimed to improve standards and accountability in
the public education system and support the learning and development of the
‘whole student’. One of the major changes under way is the development of
global standards for students, through a process of reviewing the curriculum
and standardised testing programmes. These standards, which are yet to
be introduced to the majority of the student population, will specify what
studentsareexpectedtoknowandbeabletoachieveateachlevelof
primary, middle and secondary schooling, with the objective of setting high
educationalexpectationsforallstudents.
Each year, public schools have been required to administer standardised
tests in the Bermuda Education Assessment Program (BEAP) and the
Bermuda Middle Assessment Program (BMAP). These assess achievement in
the Bermuda curriculum. The tests are currently under review by teachers and
ministry officers. Students are also required to sit the TerraNova test, which is
designed to compare the performance of students in Bermuda to students in
North America. From May 2006, the Ministry of Education and Development,
with the assistance of CTB/McGraw Hill, is updating the TerraNova test and
expandingitsoriginalfocusonEnglishandmathematics.
The ministry has planned the full implementation of the new tests in 2008.
From this time, students at every level between the third year of primary
school and the second year of secondary will sit the TerraNova test, which will
be used to assess performance in English, mathematics, science and social
68 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
studies. The TerraNova and other tests will be aligned with the standards
currently under development. Full implementation in 2008 will follow a pilot
year in 2007. These developments reflect increasing accountability in the
system.
In 2003 a pilot of the Living Values Character Education curriculum was
implementedinthreepublicprimaryschoolsinBermuda.Sixadditional
primary schools completed the required training for the Living Values
curriculum in 2006. The objective of ‘character education’ is to equip
students with core values and ethics that may help create a sense of safety
and respect within the school community. Before the implementation of
character education, principals and teachers are required to undertake two
days of intensive training to help them develop a vision for their school and
integrate ‘character’ lessons throughout the curriculum.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The Ministry of Education and Development manages most aspects of
school education in Bermuda. This centralised administration has benefits
and limitations. The size of the public education system, consisting of 39
institutions from pre-school to the secondary level, allows the ministry to
control many of the variables that can influence the performance of students
and schools. The number of people working in the ministry has led to the
description of the system as top-heavy. School principals in the public
education system report that they have little control over the budgets for their
school, the framework for which has not been reviewed in the last decade.
The ministry manages both the recruitment of staff and the setting of priorities
for their professional development. Following the implementation of the
Bermuda Educators Council Act in July 2002, all teaching staff must be
licensed. This act, which aims to improve standards and strengthen the profile
of the teaching profession, also sets the framework for teacher registration.
A public private partnership between the Ministry of Education and
Development and the Bank of Bermuda, which is a member of the HSBC
group, was implemented in 2001. The Partners in Leadership Program
paired five Bank of Bermuda senior managers with the principals of the five
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 69Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
public middle schools. The objective is to enable schools and the business
community to collaborate in the improvement of student learning and to
increase the confidence and abilities of young people in Bermuda. These
partnerships have been active in their support of new initiatives and provision
of teaching and learning materials, particularly in ICT.
2.4. CanadaKey features of educational governance in the country
TheadministrationofeducationinCanadaistheexclusiveresponsibilityofthe
provinces and territories, as stipulated in the constitution. Canada includes
10 provinces and three territories, each of which has developed its own
educational structures reflecting local history, culture and needs. As Canada
is a bilingual country, each province and territory has established French-
speaking and English-speaking schools. Every province and territory has a
ministry or department which develops and implements education policy and
legislation for schools. Ministries and departments are also responsible for the
design of curriculum, the training and certification of teaching staff, and the
methods and standards for student assessment.
The local management of education is generally the responsibility of
school boards or commissions with elected members. School boards
may be delegated some of the responsibilities of the provincial or territorial
government, including supervising the operation of school systems, personnel
management and implementing the curriculum. The powers of school boards
are delegated at the discretion of the provincial or territorial government and,
as such, may vary within Canada.
A national body for the provincial and territorial ministers of education, the
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC), was established in
1967 to promote consultation between the regions and with the federal
government. The collaboration between the provincial and territorial
governments enables the development and implementation of national
education initiatives. CMEC also represents Canadian education at an
international level.
70 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
Ministers of education in various provinces and territories have implemented
reforms to the education system in Canada over the last decade, in response
to changes in society, including the increased use of ICT and changes to the
nature of employment in a globalised environment. Some reforms, such as
the increased cooperation between provincial and territorial governments,
have emerged as system-wide trends. These trends also include the
restructuring of curriculum for elementary and secondary schooling to provide
a standards-based framework with a focus on basic literacy, language and
numeracy skills.
Most provinces and territories have implemented greater accountability
measurestoreporttostudents,parentsandtaxpayersontheachievements
and outcomes of individual schools and school systems. This policy has
resultedintheintroductionofexpandedstudentassessmentprogramsthat
are linked to the reformed curriculum. By 1999 the objective of ensuring that
all Canadian schools were connected to the internet was achieved. A new
objective, that all students should have regular access to high-speed internet
connections and greater understanding of ICT, has been set.
One of the major efforts throughout Canada has been the focus on improved
educational support for the aboriginal population, which was identified in the
2001 census as including almost one million people. In 2005 ministers in
the CMEC met with aboriginal leaders to discuss strategies to decrease the
performance gap between aboriginal and non-aboriginal students, increase
the retention of aboriginal students in secondary and post-secondary
education and promote the training of more aboriginal teachers. The
CMEC Action Plan has led to reforms in provinces and territories, such as
Ontario where the government has drafted a plan to improve literacy skills in
aboriginal students and promote outreach to parents. A First Nations trustee
will also be elected to the Ontario Public School Boards Association to offer
new strategies for schools to improve education for aboriginal students.
In 2006 the government of British Columbia announced that First Nations
communities will be given the opportunity to form school boards and have
direct control over the management of schools, under provincial guidelines.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 71Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
Since the early 1990s governments in Canada have been required to reduce
their budgets and develop new strategies to improve efficiency in all areas of
public service. In terms of education, one product of the declining budgets
has been that efforts are being made to direct a larger proportion of the
available resources into the classroom, rather than the administration of
education systems.
Throughout the provinces and territories, there has been a marked decline
in the number of school boards, districts and commissions through
reorganisations and amalgamations. Alongside these amalgamations, school
committees have been established to promote parental participation in
schools and reduce the costs of school administration. Several provinces
have reduced administrative costs through the re-centralisation of areas
of school management, such as the evaluation of teaching staff and the
implementation of programs.
Since the early 2000s, partly stimulated by OECD’s PISA studies, provinces
have focused more on strategies for school improvement, and have increased
expenditureinareasrelatedtoassessmentofstudentlearning,assessment
for school improvement, capacity building of principals and teachers, and
monitoring and intervention relative to school performance. These changes
have increased the role and workload of principals, who have greater
opportunity to lead improvement. Principals, however, are also required
to undertake increased managerial tasks and implement reforms. These
developments require greater capacities and skills of school leaders to lead
reform both within and across schools. As a result, boards and provinces
must place greater emphasis on the development of future school leaders.
The curriculum reforms and accountability practices in Canada have meant
that teaching that had previously been the responsibility of school boards
hasalsobecomebothmoreflexibleandmoredemanding.Teachersare
required to ensure that the competencies of all students are developed using
a standards-based curriculum that integrates societal messages and values.
72 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
2.5. ChileKey features of educational governance
The Ministry of Education of Chile (MINEDUC) formulates general education
policies and specific programmes for the education system. MINEDUC
has primary responsibility as a coordinating body to regulate, supervise
and evaluate education. Schools are, however, managed by municipal
departments of education for municipal schools and private bodies for
subsidised and non-subsidised private schools. Municipal and subsidised
private schools receive funding in a voucher-style system.
MINEDUC sets teaching policies in consultation with teaching institutions and
the teachers’ union. Staff hiring is the responsibility of schools in the private
and private subsidised sub-sectors and of municipal governments for the
municipal sub-sector. For all staff matters, the latter are required to act within
the standards defined under the 1991 Teachers’ Statute, which established
labour laws for education professionals in public schools.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
An education reform programme to improve quality and equality started in
1990. While provided by law, the delegation of responsibilities by municipal
governmentstoschoolsisstilltheexceptionratherthantherule.One
development is the curriculum, designed in 1996 and implemented across the
system from 2002. The MINEDUC curriculum contains minimum objectives
andgeneralcontentthatarecompulsoryforallschools,whichareexpected
to develop their own syllabus. According to a 2004 OECD study, individual
schools can decide to adopt the MINEDUC curriculum or to amend it (within
limits) to follow their own educational plan. The intent is to improve the
standard of learning for all students and support creativity and initiative in the
teaching profession. One criticism of this curriculum, besides its ambitious
coverage, is that teaching is often lecture-based, with students not being
givenenoughtimeforexploratorylearning.
All students now have the right to 12 years of education and the freedom to
undertake vocational or generalised secondary education (the previous policy
required students to complete eight years of education). The school day has
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 73Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
beenextendedtoeighthours.TheOECD,however,reportsthatthischange
mayaddtoteachers’exceptionallyhighworkload,whichleaveslittleroom,if
any, for teamwork and project work.
The development of greater accountability within the school system is still
a work-in-progress. Since the early 1980s MINEDUC has provided local
education authorities and parents with information on school performance
in the ‘measurement system of education quality’ national tests, which are
undertaken by students in the fourth, eighth and tenth grades. The SIMCE,
as it is called, is being revised with a view to possibly introducing value-added
measurement.
Teachers are required to have their performance evaluated once every four
years according to a MINEDUC-developed appraisal system based on self-
evaluation, interviews, written and video evidence of their classroom teaching
and reports from principals or other school leaders. The results of these
evaluations are taken into account in promotions and when applying for
further training or additional funding for new teaching projects.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
Until now, most principals had life tenure. Under new legislation coming into
effect this year, all will have to submit to a competitive process to be re-hired,
and their term will be reduced to five years renewable once in the same
school.Thisisexpectedtocreatebothastrongturnoverintheprofession
and a substantial demand for complementary professional development, as
the role is going to shift away from administrator towards instructional leader.
A recent government report has indicated that a decade ago, Chile was
facing difficulties in attracting enough skilled people to the teaching
profession. This was primarily attributed to the difficult working conditions and
the level of pay. The decline has been reversed, but MINEDUC’s focus has
been not only on recruiting new teachers, but also on improving the quality of
current teachers, who are regarded as key players in education reform.
The ‘strengthening the teaching profession’ project, launched in 1996, aimed
at attracting and retaining effective teachers by improving working conditions
74 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
and helping them to adapt to changes in the education system. The teacher
policy has included programmes to establish accreditation for all teacher
training and to improve initial teacher preparation and continuing professional
development(CPD).MINEDUCalsonowfinanciallyrewardsexemplary
teachersundertheSubsidyforExcellentPerformanceandNationalTeaching
ExcellenceAwards.Between1996and2001,around4,500ofChile’stop
teachers were awarded scholarships for further study abroad to develop
theircapacitytoinnovate.Theyareexpectedtosharetheirnewknowledge
and skill with other teachers. New practices such as networking led by the
ExcellentTeachersarebeingintroduced.
The OECD reports that one of the main problems faced by principals
of subsidised schools in Chile is the amount and variability of funding.
The ‘voucher’ provided to municipal and subsidised private schools is
widely found to be inadequate, especially for schools serving a vulnerable
population. It is allocated on a quarterly basis according to student
attendance. New legislation is under review that will substantially increase the
basic voucher and create a differentiated one, to be targeted at the most at-
risk children.
Principals in municipal schools have also reported issues in the recruitment
and management of staff, linked to rigidities in the teachers’ statute. These
are compounded by the competitive nature of the system under which private
and private subsidised schools can select their intake, while their municipal
counterparts are not allowed to.
Following student protest in May and June of 2006, a 75 member strong
Presidential Advisory Commission on Education was formed in early July and
tasked with the responsibility of making proposals to improve the quality and
equity of education in Chile. The council is working in three commissions
focusing respectively on regulation, the challenge of municipal education, and
quality, and there is optimism that most of these challenges will be addressed
shortly.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 75Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
2.6. ChinaKey features of educational governance
Administration of the education system in the People’s Republic of China
is shared between government departments of education at the central,
provincial, municipal and county levels. At the central level, the Ministry of
Education has responsibility for all levels of education throughout the country.
The departments of education of the provincial councils undertake the
planning, management and coordination of education in their jurisdictions.
Local people’s governments at the county and township levels are
responsible for the provision and management of basic school education,
with any major policy decisions being taken by the county governments.
The central government, through the Ministry of Education, develops many
aspects of education to be implemented at other levels under ministry
guidance. The ministry has responsibility for the design of the curriculum for
compulsory education and, on some occasions, can determine how funds
should be allocated. The state also sets the standards for student learning,
particularly in subjects that students are required to complete for graduating
from primary and secondary schools, which include Chinese language and
mathematics.
The county departments of education direct, monitor and assess the
educational activities and schools in their jurisdiction, under the guidance of
the state education inspectorate. Local governments in 30 provinces have
established departments of inspection, which report directly to the central
government. The various departments of inspection are responsible for the
monitoring and implementation of education policies. They offer guidance and
assess work at county and township levels. These departments also provide
a line of communication between the various levels of government that carry
out the administration of education.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
The education system in China has been in a period of development since
the mid-1990s. The education law, reformed in 1995, legislates nine years
of compulsory education for all Chinese students. In 1999 the State Council,
76 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
which is the title of the Central People’s Government Ministry for Education
and Central Planning Committee, collaborated in the implementation of
educational reforms to plan the direction of compulsory education in China
for the 21st century. The action plan ratified by the State Council outlined
strategies for education reform, based on the Education Law of the People’s
Republic of China. It promoted science, technology and education as the
bases for the ‘invigoration’ of China in the new century.
AsaresultofregionaldifferencesthroughoutChina,anumberoftextbooks
have been designed for each subject at a range of levels to meet the cultural
styles and economic needs of the various localities. In 1986 the former
State Education Commission implemented a policy that enabled the diverse
productionofschooltexts.Regionaleducationdepartments,institutions
andindividualteachersareencouragedtodesigntheirowntextbooksand
complementary teaching materials (such as wallcharts, computer software
and audiovisual aids) for primary and lower secondary subjects, on condition
that they comply with the basic nine-year education framework and have
beenapprovedbytheStateTextbooksExaminationandApprovalCommittee
or the relevant provincial-level department. One objective of this policy is to
promote development and competition among a variety of teaching materials.
In addition to the development of teaching materials, the education law in
Chinaprovidesstudentswithadiversearrayofeducationalexperiences.One
education policy states that television and radio stations shall design and
broadcast educational programmes to assist student improvement in morale,
science and culture. Chinese education legislation also provides students with
preferential access to public cultural and sporting facilities, such as museums,
science and technology centers, art galleries and stadiums.
Since 1999, China has launched a series of reforms aimed at devolution
of some powers to provincial and local governments, decentralisation of
curriculumandtextbooks,increasinglocalcontentinthecurriculum,and
reducingtheemphasisontestsandexaminations.In2006,Congress
approved the revised Compulsory Education Law, which emphasises equity
and equality and specifies government investment. It also made central
government more responsible for reducing education inequalities between
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 77Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
the economically advantaged and disadvantaged due to geographical
reasons(forexample,ruralvcity,eastvwest).Thenewlawalsoabolishes
thedecadesoldsystemofeliteschools–explicitlyprohibitingsettingup
key schools, model schools or adopting any other designation that may
differentiate schools.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The education law gives schools the right to self-administration under the
constitutional framework. Individual schools are, therefore, responsible for the
employment of staff and provision of educational activities. The administration
of these schools also includes the management of school facilities, capital,
students and staff.
In 2000 the Ministry of Education implemented a regulation that stated
all primary and middle school principals in China are required to obtain
a qualification certificate. Many of the students in these administrator
preparation programmes have no prior management training and have
beenappointedasprincipalsonthebasisoftheirteachingexperience.In
addition to this preparatory training, principals must undertake compulsory
training every five years to improve the quality of education and leadership in
schools. Various projects, such as the US-China Principal Shadowing Project,
encourage cross-cultural learning and collaboration between school leaders.
Financial resourcing is a big challenge for school principals in China, because
governmentinvestmentisnotsufficient.Someofthehistoricallyexcellent
schools allow students from outside their own constituency to enrol with an
extrafee.Inthecaseofpostcompulsoryhighschool,theycanchargeafee
for students who scored below the cut-off score. Increasing public complaints
have resulted in governmental policy to curtail these actions.
2.7. China Hong KongKey features of educational governance
Since 1997, following the hand-back from the British Government, Hong
Kong has been a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic
of China. Hong Kong has become the home to an increasing number of
78 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
peoplefromthemainland.About90%ofstudentsattendschoolsowned
bychurches,trustsandfoundations,andabout10%governmentowned
schools. Both kinds of schools are funded by government through the
Education and Manpower Bureau, which has responsibility for education
in Hong Kong. There is a small number of private, including international,
schools.
In 1997, a report by the Education Commission recommended school-
based management for schools in Hong Kong. From 1999, changes
have been made to the education system to devolve responsibilities for
personnel, finances and aspects of the design and delivery of curricula from
the Education and Manpower Bureau to school level. The School-Based
Management framework, legislated in July 2004, gives schools greater
flexibilitywithinacentrally-designedframework.Schoolsmustadhereto
regulatory requirements, be publicly accountable for their performance, and
be subject to audit.
In 2005 the Education Ordinance of Hong Kong was amended to implement
the school-based management framework. This ordinance provides
for schools to establish an incorporated management committee (IMC)
– comprising the principal, teachers, parents, alumni, the school sponsoring
bodies and independent community members – to manage the school under
the guidance of a school sponsoring body. The school sponsoring body is
responsible for setting the vision of the school and the constitution of the
IMC. This sponsoring body can make decisions about how the school will
receive government funding and issue guidelines for raising funds from non-
government sources. The school IMC is responsible for decisions on school
administration and planning. Schools receive a block grant from government
tofundalleducationexpenses,includingstaffsalaries.Oneoftheobjectives
of the school-based management framework, through the IMC, is to enable
wider participation in school decision-making processes so that parents and
other key stakeholders have some input into the administration of schools.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
Since October 2000 the government has been progressively implementing
reforms to all areas of the education system, from early childhood to
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 79Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
higher education. The reforms include the development of new and more
streamlined admissions procedures for students entering primary and
secondary school. The objectives of the reform to the admissions system
for primary students were to increase the fairness of admission into primary
schools close to students’ home locations, and reduce the reliance on
children’s abilities as an entry criterion. The ‘primary one admission’
mechanism has been in place, in some form, since 2002 and will continue to
be used.
Primary schools in Hong Kong have also been encouraged to create a
partnership with secondary schools to implement the ‘through-train’ mode of
admission to secondary schooling. Students attending ‘through-train’ schools
are able to proceed to the linked secondary school without going through
the central process that allocates students to schools. The guidelines of this
policy state that partnered schools must be funded in the same way by the
central government, and must share the same philosophies and attitudes to
education. Participating secondary schools must have places available for
every student graduating from the partner primary school. The objective of
this programme is to ensure that students in these partnered schools receive
continuity in teaching methods and curriculum throughout their compulsory
education. In 2004 16 pairs of schools in Hong Kong had adopted this
system.
Another reform in education in Hong Kong was the implementation in 2004 of
centrally-administered territory-wide assessments in the third year of primary
school to monitor student attainment of basic standards in Chinese, English
and mathematics. The objective of these assessments is to provide schools
with information so that they can offer adequate improvement programmes
and support the needs of all students.
The government has implemented policies to provide all students with
access to nine years of free, compulsory education. From the 2002-03
school year, subsidised senior secondary education or training has been
made available to students who are willing and able to continue study.
According to the Education and Manpower Bureau, current policy objectives
for school education are to enhance the effectiveness of teaching in schools
80 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
andtofurtherimprovetheaccountability,flexibilityandqualityofschool
administration.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
School-based management has significantly changed the roles and
responsibilities of school principals in Hong Kong. While principals now have
greaterflexibilityinstaffing,financialandcurriculumdecisions,theyarealso
faced with greater accountability and a need to work collaboratively with
the IMC. Other challenges include the need to adapt the school curriculum
to address the learning needs of the student community and to take on a
leadership role in the development of quality teaching and learning within their
school. In recognition of the challenges faced by school principals, a task
group was established in 1999 to develop a systematic school leadership
training and development programme.
From the 2004-05 school year, aspiring principals are required to complete
Certification for Principalship training. Newly appointed principals must
complete a two-year training programme, which includes an induction
programme, needs assessment, leadership development training and an
extendedprogrammeforeitherprimaryorsecondaryschoolleadership.In
addition, for the first two years of their appointment, participation in school-
based professional support programmes and annual presentation of a
professional portfolio to the school sponsoring body is essential for new
principals. More established principals are required to undertake 150 hours
of CPD activities every three years, including three modes of activity: action
learning, structured learning, and service to education and the community.
Principals,however,aregiventheflexibilitytoundertakebetween30to90
hours of their training in each of these modes.
2.8. MauritiusKey features of educational governance
Mauritius is a small island in the Indian Ocean at the crossroads of Africa
and Asia with a multiracial, multilingual and multicultural population of around
1.2 million people. The official language is English, but French and other
languages reflecting the cultural background of Mauritians (eg Mandarin,
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 81Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Telegu and Marathi) are all taught throughout the school
systemandareexaminableattheendoftheprimarycycle.Thesystemof
education in Mauritius is based on a British model and is free for all students
from the primary to university levels. In 2005 the compulsory schooling period
wasextendedfromtheendofprimaryschooluntilstudentsreachtheageof
16, at which time they are required to sit the Cambridge School Certificate.
Students are able to continue upper secondary schooling for an additional
two years to achieve the Cambridge Higher School Certificate or the General
Certificate of Education – Advanced level.
The central Ministry of Education and Human Resources is responsible
for the development of policy and direction in education. One change in
arrangements is the regionalisation of responsibilities to five zones, four of
which are in Mauritius; the fifth is the autonomous island of Rodrigues. A
Department of Education in each zone has been given responsibility for the
administration for the schools. The multi-level governance roles are not yet
clear, as decisions on major resource use are still the responsibility of the
central government.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
From September 2000 the education system has undertaken significant
reforms with the objectives of increasing equity and access to modern, quality
education. These include the abolition of streaming in schools, the promotion
of science and technology in education and the revision of the primary
curriculumtoprovidemoreflexiblelearning.The‘BridgingtheGap’initiativeis
intended to provide world-class education that promotes the cultural, mental,
physical and spiritual development of students, who will live in a globalised
society. It includes the objective of helping children through the transition from
preschool into formal schooling. The Guiding Principles for Teachers initiative
provides a checklist for teachers in the organisation of teaching and learning
and adapting these to the changing global environment.
The School Information and Communications Technology Project (SITP) aims
to establish IT laboratories in 50 primary schools each year until all students
in Mauritius have access to ICT. Implemented in 2003, the Education Action
Zones project is concerned with three ‘pillars’ of action: improving teacher
82 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
quality, establishing schools as a vital part of the community, and upgrading
school infrastructure to create favourable learning conditions in schools with
poor learning outcomes.
A focus of reform was the fiercely competitive ranking system that occurred
with the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE). A 2004 National Report on
Education stated that the ranking system created a bottleneck in admissions
to secondary schools. In 2002 the ranking was replaced with an alphabetical
grading system so that all children who obtain a passing grade can attend
mainstream secondary education. Any student who does not achieve a
passing grade after two attempts at CPS enters a pre-vocational secondary
stream. A policy for regionalisation of secondary school admissions was also
implemented in 2003 to reduce the need for students to travel long distances
to attend secondary schools.
The introduction of compulsory secondary education and abolition of
CPErankinghasrequiredanexpansionofthesecondaryschoolsystem
in Mauritius. The number of state secondary schools has increased in the
four zones of Mauritius, from 34 in 2000 to 67 in 2004 and in Rodrigues
from three to five. There are 109 private secondary schools in Mauritius and
Rodrigues. The Ministry of Education has recently pledged to enable young
Mauritians to be employable in fulfilling jobs in new sectors of the economy
and to be internationally competitive.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The 2001 National Report indicated that, although the Ministry of Education
develops policy for education reform, implementation is often carried out by
other institutions. School inspectors are responsible for the monitoring of
schools to ensure that these policies have been implemented. As a result,
teachers are reported to feel isolated from these changes and many offer
resistance to the trialing of new methods.
The reform of the primary school curriculum has brought new challenges
for primary teachers. From 2003 primary school teachers have been offered
in-service training to support the activity-based curriculum, which does not
useprescribedtextbooks,andtomeettheneedsofallstudentsinmixed-
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 83Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
ability groupings. Teachers trained in remedial education are encouraged to
collaborate with class teachers, under the Education Action Zones project,
to develop innovative pedagogical practices. While these training procedures
have been put in place the 2004 National Report indicates that there is
limited training available for headteachers. The government does not offer any
training in educational leadership and management for heads of schools, who
are selected by education officers, either before or during their service.
A number of courses are run by the Mauritius Institute of Education for primary
headteachers, including the advanced certificate in educational management,
a diploma in supervision and inspection and a diploma in special education
needs. Headteachers in secondary schools can complete postgraduate
certification in education at the University of Mauritius, or Masters of Education
courses in association with the University of Brighton, UK.
2.9. NetherlandsKey features of educational governance
The governance of schooling in the Netherlands is distinctive as it involves
centralised education policy and decentralised administration for public
and private schools in a unified system. The central Ministry of Education,
Culture and Science is responsible for developing policies, legislation and
regulations for education, under constitutional guidelines. The 23rd Article
of the constitution guarantees the provision of public education by the
municipal authorities, the freedom to establish schools that are based on
specific religious or ideological beliefs, and equality in the financing and legal
responsibilitiesforprivateschools,inwhich75%ofstudentsareeducated,
and public schools. The education authorities of the 12 provincial councils
have a supervisory role and are responsible for ensuring the availability of
adequate numbers of public school places.
The administration of schooling in the Netherlands generally lies with
individual school boards. From 1997, the municipal council has been given
the choice to manage public schools or to delegate responsibilities for their
administration to a governing committee, public school board or foundation.
The school boards for both public and private schools are responsible for the
84 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
employment of staff, including headteachers, and the development of school
policies and procedures.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
The Education Inspectorate, a self-governing agency that is overseen by
the minister, is responsible for the inspection of all educational institutions.
All schools are required to have annual inspections under the Education
Inspection Act, which came into effect in 2002. These are based on school
self-evaluations and the school plan, which is devised by the school board
every four years to improve the quality of teaching and learning, and are
proportional, focusing on those schools where improvement is most required.
The results of school inspections are included in ‘school report cards’, which
have been made publicly available by the Education Inspectorate since 2000.
Following an evaluation of secondary education in 1999, the Ministry for
Education, Science and Culture implemented new legislation on the number
of teaching hours and the curriculum in the first two years of secondary
schooling. The new legislation, which includes revised achievement targets
for the mandatory curriculum, was put into practice in August 2006. From this
time, the initial two-year period of secondary schooling was set a minimum of
1,000andmaximumof1,134teachinghours.Asimilarregulationofteaching
hours is planned for primary schools, where students should receive 7,520
periods of teaching in the eight years of their primary education. The objective
istoenableschoolstoprovidemoreflexibilityintheirtimetables,withthe
option to vary the number of required hours between the different school
years.
Developments in upper secondary schooling include a review of the higher
levelsofsecondaryeducation,whichisexpectedtoresultina2007Actof
Parliament reducing the number of compulsory elements for students, with
theobjectiveofprovidingamoreflexiblecurriculum.Foracademicsecondary
education, students will be given more independence and responsibility for
their own learning within an integrated curriculum framework that promotes
the use of ICT. Similar developments have been implemented in vocational
secondary education, with the objective of making the education more
attractive and reducing the number of drop-outs.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 85Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Other noteworthy developments include an earlier start for compulsory
education, at age 4, one year earlier. Throughout the schooling system the
trend is to promote the inclusion of children with special educational needs in
‘regular’ schools. This development has been so successful that new criteria
will be formulated to reduce the number of children needing education in
special needs schools.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
A major development in the education system, indicated by increased
flexibilityinthecurriculumandtimetablinginschools,isthedecentralisation
of school management to the school board and headteacher. Two significant
changes for the funding of primary schools have been made since 2005 to
give school boards more responsibility for the financial management of their
schools. In the 2005 school year, the funding for all school advisory services
was allocated to the schools, so that school boards could pay for services
that they require, with their choice of provider. From 2006, the government
extendedthismovementbyintroducingblockgrantfundingtoallprimary
and special education schools, which enables school governing bodies to
determine how their allocated budget will be spent. The provision of block
funding provides more freedom and greater responsibility for self-governing
schools.
Whenever new educational priorities are formulated by parliament or the
minister, it is up to individual schools to make this happen in their own
way, within the legal and financial framework. Although school boards
have the power to make many decisions about the control of schools in
the Netherlands, the principals are generally entrusted with day-to-day
management. There is no mandatory qualification for principalship in the
Netherlands. In selecting principals, however, school boards often give
preferencetoexperiencedteacherswhohaveundertakenfurtherstudyin
school management based on new management theories and practices. Five
universities around the Netherlands have collaborated in the founding of the
Netherlands School of Educational Management, which offers a two-year
masters level qualification in school management for current and aspiring
school principals.
86 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
The role of teachers is also changing, towards acting as a guide or facilitator
of student learning. Teachers are required to manage the integration
of subjects, including ICT, in both classroom and individual teaching.
Professional development programmes based on new approaches are offered
to improve teachers’ skills in these new areas.
2.10. New ZealandKey features of educational governance
The education system in New Zealand has undergone significant reforms
since1989whenanewEducationActwaspassed,enablinggreaterflexibility
in the governance of all types of schools. Following this Act, the Department
of Education was dissolved along with regional and local education
authorities. The new central Ministry of Education was given responsibility
for the development and implementation of education policy and national
curriculum guidelines. The national government, therefore, retained primary
responsibility for the management of all New Zealand schools. Rather than
replacing the regional authorities, the responsibility for managing state-
funded schools was given to individual school boards of trustees. These
boards, which generally include the principal, a staff representative, a parent,
community volunteers, and a student representative for secondary schools,
report directly to the Ministry of Education. School boards have responsibility
for all aspects of school governance, including staff appointments and
curriculum, within a centrally determined framework for all schools.
Students have the option of attending different types of state-funded schools
including traditional state-run schools, where the majority of students are
educated, or the state-run schools in which the language of instruction is
Mäori and teaching practices have been adapted to reflect the indigenous
culture. The state-funded system also includes integrated schools, which
were once private, generally religious, and have been brought into the
state system but have been able to maintain their previous values. Similarly
designated charter schools are state schools that are able to develop their
ownaimsandobjectivesforstudents.Lessthan3%ofschoolsinNew
Zealand are private schools, managed by an independent board that must
fulfil government registration requirements.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 87Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
One objective of the 1989 reforms to the administration of the New Zealand
educationsystemwastoprovideschoolswithahigherlevelofflexibilityto
support the needs of the school community. Another was the establishment
of the Education Review Office, which evaluates the practice and
performance of schools every three years and is required to make its reports
available to the public to enable greater transparency in official information
about the education system. It has been reported that over time the reports
and official information about schools have strengthened the role of parents in
the education system.
Over the last decade, New Zealand has put measures in place to establish
an evidence base for student achievement to enable schools to benchmark
themselves against national norms. Research and evaluation, participation
in international studies like PISA, and the national sampling of students (at
the beginning of schooling, in year 4 and year 8) have provided a significant
amount of information about student achievement. The collection of student
achievement data has helped in the development of new teaching and
assessment tools, including a method enabling teachers to track the progress
of students in literacy and numeracy in years 5, 6 and 7. In 2006, the Ministry
of Education offered professional learning programmes in the collection and
analysis of data, including student achievement data, as a basis for quality
decision-makingpracticesandtoencouragetheexaminationofnewteaching
strategies.
Current issues related to the role of school principals and school education
Since 1989 the role of principals in New Zealand schools has changed.
Principalsactaschiefexecutivesoftheboardoftrusteesand,assuch,
participate in the establishment of the school charter and management of
finances. They also manage the everyday activities of the school within the
guidelines set by the board and the central government. The decentralisation
of school administration has given schools and school principals greater
flexibilityandresponsibilityformoredecisionsinalmostallareasofschooling.
This can be seen through the changes to the New Zealand curriculum, which
focuses on student learning outcomes rather than providing rigid guidelines
about how these may be achieved.
88 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Since 1997, all school boards in New Zealand have been required to
implement performance management procedures for the principal and all
teaching staff. School principals are reviewed according to performance
standards established by the board (within ministry guidelines), to ensure
that schools have high quality professional leadership and are achieving
appropriate student outcomes. As a result of a 1994 policy, the Minister for
Education can intervene in the curriculum delivery, governance or resource
managementforschoolsthatareexperiencingseriousdifficulties.Thispolicy,
whichprovidessupporttoaround10%ofschoolsatanytime,enablesthe
minister if necessary to replace the school board with a commissioner, to
build the teaching and learning capabilities of schools.
In the last five years the Ministry of Education has significantly increased
funding for leadership development for principalship. A web-based platform
contains policy, a literature, forum for discussion, and many resources for
school principals and schools. An 18-month induction programme helps
first-time principals in all types of schools, with mentoring support and
training through online learning, residential courses and self-assessment.
A two-year pilot programme for the development of potential and aspiring
principals involved coaching, residential weekends, online networks, and links
to a qualification programme for those interested. Further programmes are
developing in this area, particularly through the universities.
The Ministry of Education has also established a leadership development
centreforexperiencedprincipalstoreceivefeedbackanddevelopment
support. Teaching principals (of which there are many in New Zealand) have
been granted release time from their teaching for further responsibilities in
administration and for professional development, and principals can now
apply for sabbatical leave to pursue their leadership development, either
through university qualifications, or travel and study projects.
2.11. South AfricaKey features of educational governance
In the 12 years since the end of apartheid the school system in South Africa
has undergone significant changes, most notably through the development of
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 89Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
a unified national system of education. The 1996 South African constitution
and the Education Acts enabled the collaborative management of education
under the national (central) Department of Education and nine provincial
departments. The Department of Education is responsible for the evaluation
of the education system and the development of education policies and
standards. The provincial governments are responsible for unifying a variety of
public sector schools, including community schools, state schools and farm
schools, into a system of public schools that provides education for around
97%ofSouthAfricanstudents.The1996NationalEducationPolicyAct
established the Council of Education Ministers and the Heads of Education
Departments Committee to enable inter-governmental collaboration in the
development of the reformed system of education in South Africa.
Responsibility for the management of individual public schools has been
decentralisedtosomeextent.Theprovincialeducationdepartmentworks
in partnership with elected school governing bodies consisting of parents,
school staff and, in the case of secondary schools, student representatives.
These school bodies are responsible for the day-to-day administration of
schools, including the setting of school fees, staffing decisions and the
development of school policies, within national and provincial education
legislative guidelines.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
The reforms of the school system in South Africa incorporate goals, principles
and guidelines outlined in the World Declaration of Education for All and the
sixgoalsoutlinedintheDakarFrameworkforAction,whichwereadoptedat
the 2000 World Education Forum. A set of indicators, using information and
data from within the South African education system, has been established to
monitor the progress of schools in meeting the Dakar goals, which address
areas such as literacy improvement, equity of access and the quality of
education.
In 1998 a reformed curriculum built on the concept of outcomes-based
education, known as Curriculum 2005, was introduced into schools. This
curriculum has been modernised, resulting in the Revised National Curriculum
Statement for Grades R-9 (Schools), which aims to incorporate the values of
90 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
democracy, equity and social justice into the compulsory school syllabus. This
new curriculum is being phased in, a process which began with the first four
years of schooling (R-3) in 2004. Like Curriculum 2005, the revised national
curriculum builds on outcomes and assessment standards, promoting
activity-based and learner-centred education. These guidelines offer teachers
someflexibilityinthecontentandmethodsusedintheirclassrooms.
A significant development in the education system in South Africa was made
in 2003 with cabinet approval of proposals for ICT in education. The draft
White Paper on e-Education outlined the government’s goals to ensure that
all schools are connected to the internet and all students are able to use ICT
by 2013. The achievement of these goals requires significant resources for
ICT equipment and professional development for teachers. Some innovative
sources were identified when the national Department of Education signed
agreements with private technology companies including Microsoft and
Symantec. Innovative schemes to combat the lack of ICT resources and the
educator training necessary have been pioneered by the Western Cape’s
Khanya project, with significant involvement by SSAT.
Another significant development has been the adoption of programmes
which are similar to the UK specialist schools. For some years schools
have been improving the quality of science, mathematics and technology
teaching through the Dinaledi project. More recently they have focused also
on arts and culture; business, commerce and management; and engineering.
Schools are being asked to address the longstanding imbalance in access
to these professions after school. The Education Department has allocated
considerable funding to these schemes.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
One of the major challenges faced by many schools in South Africa is the
condition of school facilities. While considerable improvements have been
made since 1994, the 2000 School Register of Needs indicated that some
schools were still without access to basic services. The register reported
thatin2000,34%ofschoolsinSouthAfricadidnothaveaccesstowater
(reducedfrom40%ofschoolsin1996).Afurther34%ofschoolsin2000
did not have a telephone. The government is committed to improving the
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 91Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
provision of classrooms and adequate school buildings, with President Mbeki
asserting in his 2004 State of the Nation Address that, by the end of 2004–
05, the government would ensure no students or teachers would be placed
indangerousconditionsthatexposedthemtotheelements.A2005report
on the state of the education system in South Africa indicates that schools
and school systems face a number of challenges which can lead to poor
educational outcomes, including high levels of poverty, unemployment and
gender inequity. Strategies are being adopted to address these challenges
and other issues faced by South African schools, but overcoming them will
remain a long-term goal.
One focus in the reforms has been the quality of educators at all levels, who
are seen as key players in the transformation of the education system. The
current education system has implemented a monitoring system for teacher
qualifications. As a result, the number of under-qualified teachers was
reduced from 12,000 in 2002 to 5,000 in 2004. Training, in the form of an
Advanced Certificate in Education, has been offered nationally for those with
qualifications in mathematics, science and technology to recruit new teachers
and improve the quality of teaching in these areas.
2.12. SwedenKey features of educational governance
All education in the Swedish public school system is free, including teaching
materials, health services, transport and school meals. Independent schools
thatreceivegrantsfromthelocalgovernmenteducateabout6%ofschool
students in the compulsory years. The administration of schooling in Sweden
is shared between the two tiers of national and municipal governments.
The national government, in particular the Ministry of Education, Research
and Culture, develops guidelines for the curriculum, national objectives, and
a legislative framework for schooling, within which the municipalities work.
The Swedish National Agency for Education also works at the central level to
supervise the implementation of national guidelines in schools and a triennial
national report on the school system to central government. The responsibility
for the management of public schooling within these guidelines falls to the
92 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
290 municipal governments in Sweden, many of which have school boards.
These municipal councils are responsible for providing all students in their
jurisdiction with access to schools that meet the educational objectives
outlined by the national government. In addition, municipalities are required
to undertake the planning, funding and staffing of public schools and the
assessment and registration of proposed independent schooling.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
In 2003, the National Agency for School Inspection was established within
the National Agency for Education as part of the central government’s
Quality Program, which aims to strengthen the quality of education
throughout Sweden. The National Agency for Education is responsible for the
development of standardised assessment measures which all schools use
in producing annual reports. Another aspect of the Quality Program is the
gradual increase of funding to municipalities, during the period 2001-2006,
with the objective of employing about 15,000 new teachers and specialist
staff for schools and leisure centres around Sweden.
In 2004, the government and its coalition partners presented a bill to
parliament that proposed 11 steps to modernise upper secondary school
education in Sweden. The proposed steps included increased choice in
the institution that students attend by enabling students to attend upper
secondary schools outside their home municipality, and the introduction of a
certificate to document students’ satisfactory completion of upper secondary
education.
The Swedish education system has recently trialed a number of projects
for the improvement of schooling, including the development of ICT skills
in compulsory schooling and a review of how information about education
can be systematically conveyed to principals and teachers. In 2003, the
government established a four-year pilot project, which enabled compulsory
public schools to offer up to half of their classroom teaching in English. In
another trial project, which will be run until 2007, the municipalities have been
given the opportunity to delegate some of the responsibilities and decision-
making functions for schools to local boards, which may include principals,
students and a parent majority. A similar project is being run for upper
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 93Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
secondary schools, which allows students to have a majority on the local
school board.
Current issues related to the role of school principals
and school education
The ‘municipalisation’ of school administration has resulted in substantial
changes to the roles of school principals and teachers, which will be
reflected in the revision of the 1985 Education Act. Municipalities were given
responsibility for the employment and determination of working conditions
for staff in public schools within a centrally-determined framework. In many
municipalities, the responsibilities for teaching staff and the management of
school facilities were delegated to school principals. The role of principal is
defined in state regulations as a pedagogical leader, who is accountable for
the school’s achievement of national goals for education. A government-
appointed commission established in 2003 has proposed that the
pedagogical work of school leaders be given prominence, with a number of
administrative tasks being removed from the role.
In 1999, a special competence development program for school leaders was
implemented. The focus was the promotion of values in the school curriculum
and democracy in schooling – a fundamental aspect of the education system.
The Education Act states that all students and their parents should have
some influence on the design and content of studies. The school principal
has responsibility for designing strategies to promote student influence in the
content of their education, methods of working, and organisational structures.
Since 2000, there have been a number of reforms in teacher education
in Sweden. New teacher education programs promote the importance
of subject knowledge and an understanding of learning processes and
pedagogy. The main objective is to ensure that teachers can critically evaluate
information and guide their students in the process of converting information
andexperienceintoknowledge.
Final reports were submitted by 23 participating municipalities in 2006 on a
five year national project called Attraktiv Skola or Attractive Schools. The aim
was to increase the appeal of the teaching profession and to improve quality
94 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
in schools. The overall impression of the evaluation was that the project was
helpful in making the teaching profession more appealing. More satisfied
teachers provide better quality in schools.
The internationalisation of Swedish society and ongoing migration creates
high demands on people’s valuation of cultural diversity. The Swedish
curriculum includes important values that schools should work to, one of
which is keeping an international perspective and dimension in daily school
life. Links with other schools in Sweden and overseas are highly regarded.
The Swedish National Institute of Public Health has recently presented four
cornerstones for schools to maintain students’ security and support their
willingness to study. These focus on relationships between parents and
teachers, tools for creating a positive atmosphere in classrooms, better health
programs for pupils, and the importance of care of schoolchildren in the
afternoons.
2.13. Thailand Key features of educational governance in the country
The education system in Thailand is managed mainly by the central (national)
government and education service areas. Before the reorganisation of
educational administration, the responsibility for various aspects of education
lay with a number of central government agencies. These agencies were
merged in 2002, with the central Ministry of Education still taking the main
responsibility for the education system. Amendments in the 1999 National
Education Act state that the ministry is responsible for developing education
policies, standards and plans; supervising, inspecting and evaluating
education provision; and providing resources for all levels of the education
system. Five bodies within the central ministry are responsible for the
management of specific aspects of the education system, including each level
of education, general administration and the integration of sport, art, religion
and culture into the curriculum at all levels.
One stipulation in the National Education Act was the decentralisation of
responsibility for educational administration. As a result, the country has been
divided into 175 educational service areas, each with responsibility for the
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 95Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
establishment, coordination and evaluation of education in private and public
institutions in their area. The committee for education in every area, each of
which includes around 200 institutions, is also responsible for the allocation of
budgets for the provision and administration of education.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
The 1997 Constitution of Thailand and the 1999 National Education Act
set up a number of reforms of the education system, based on providing
equitable access to education for all students. In October 2002, the Ministry
of Education announced that all Thai students would be able to access 12
yearsoffreebasiceducation(sixyearsprimary,sixsecondary).InMay2004,
thiswasextendedto14yearstoincludetwoyearsofpre-primaryschooling.
The Compulsory Education Act, which has been in effect since 2003, requires
that all children attend basic education institutions from ages 7–16.
A number of other reforms have taken place in accordance with the
Education Act to improve the quality of education in Thailand. These include
a revision of curriculum for teacher training. Trainee teachers are now required
to undertake a five year course in which the focus is on coursework and
teaching practice. In-service teachers are encouraged to maintain their
teaching standards, with scholarships offered for postgraduate training.
The ministry launched the One District, One Lab School project in October
2003, aimed at developing the quality of schools in all districts to ensure
that every district has at least one high-quality school. The well-equipped
laboratory schools with highly skilled teaching staff and trained educational
administrators are to act as models for other schools, improving networking
and collaboration between schools. Students in these schools are taught how
to think analytically and to seek knowledge from reading and the application
of information technology. The government approved a budget of 2,558
million baht ($80 million) from the 2004 to 2006 fiscal years to carry out the
project.Inaddition,taxreductionsencouragedprivatesectorinvolvementin
school development.
Companies, state enterprises, and local communities have donated more
than 500 million baht worth of equipment, and advice and activities to help
96 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
improve district schools. Each school under the project received 2.5 million
baht on average from the government and another 2.5 million baht from
donors. The money was used mainly to develop libraries and laboratories.
Part of the amount was spent on the purchase of computers for teaching
and learning. Schools have also offered technical assistance to more than
5,000 neighbouring smaller schools. As of 2006, there are 921 such schools
throughout Thailand.
Another important project developed by the Ministry of Education has been
the National ICT for Education Master Plan, which aims to improve the
provision, teaching and use of ICT in schools. A total budget of 24 billion
baht was approved to implement this project between 2004 and 2006. One
innovative solution for needy schools has been the development of mobile
computer units equipped with 15 computers and a teacher. These units can
visit up to three schools in a day to increase access to ICT.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The decentralisation of administration in Thailand has given schools increased
responsibility for their own management. Each school has a board composed
of parent, teacher, student, community and area committee representatives.
The school board is responsible for the school budget, monitoring and
evaluation of the school’s performance and undertaking quality assurance
reviews. As part of these reforms, schools are required to adopt learner-
centred teaching methods in a curriculum that relates to the needs of the
community. Schools have responsibility for staff recruitment and training.
Schools are required to maintain three types of established educational
standards. Various offices within the Ministry of Education share responsibility
for the development of the National Educational Standards, which form the
basisofeducationalstandardsforinternalandexternalqualityassessment.
The14educationstandardsforexternalqualityassessmentrelateto
students, institutional processes and staff. By 2005, these were used in
theexternalassessmentofover38,000institutions.Inadditiontothese
externalreviews,alleducationinstitutionsinThailandarerequiredtoconduct
annual internal quality assurance, including the assessment, planning
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 97Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
and improvement of their performance. They must devise a plan for their
educational development, monitor their performance and improve quality in
line with the Education Act and National Education Standards.
2.14. United KingdomKey features of educational governance
There are significant differences in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and
Wales. Scotland has had its own devolved system for many years and is not
considered in this case study. In England the system is managed at both a
national and local level, with central government responsible for planning,
policy formulation and provision of education. While many Acts of Parliament
apply to both England and Wales, the National Assembly for Wales, created
in 1998, has power to implement secondary legislation for education and
training and has responsibility for setting the Welsh National Curriculum.
The Department of Education in Northern Ireland is responsible for policy
development for its schools.
Until recently these jurisdictions had local authorities with statutory powers
and responsibilities to implement national education policies. These were
local education authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales and education and
library boards (Elbe) in Northern Ireland. While LEAs still function in Wales,
implementation of the 2004 Children’s Act moved the local responsibility for
schooling to the new Children’s Services Departments. In Northern Ireland
the creation of a single Education and Skills Authority will, from 2008, assume
local administrative functions that had been performed by Education and
Library Boards and Councils for Irish, Catholic and Integrated schools.
England maintains its system of local authorities having responsibility for
education, although their powers have been progressively reduced in recent
years.Eachschoolhasagoverningbody.About90%offundsaredelegated
forlocaldecision-making.About7%ofstudentsattendprivateschoolsthat
receive no public funding. The overwhelming majority of schools are owned
by LEAs or by church authorities, with little difference in the way the various
kinds of schools receive funding from the public purse.
98 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems, with a focus on England
Literacy and numeracy: England has since 1997 sought to achieve high
standards across an entire system of 24,000 schools and over seven million
school students. To move from an underperforming system in the mid-
1990s the government introduced an approach best described as ‘high
challenge, high support’. It was to be achieved through ambitious standards,
devolved responsibility, good data, clear targets, access to best practice,
quality professional development, accountability, and intervention in inverse
proportion to success. Success was confirmed in the 2001 Progress in
International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), with England ranked third
among 35 countries. Outcomes have improved across the range of socio-
economic settings.
Personalised learning: In 2004 the Minister of State introduced the concept
of personalising learning in these terms: ‘giving every single child the chance
to be the best they can be, whatever their talent or background, is not
thebetrayalofexcellence;itisthefulfilmentofit’.Personalising learning is
regarded as the key driver for the transformation of schooling: re-imagining
the education system around the learning needs and talents of young people.
‘new relationship with schools’ has four components. First, ‘intelligent
accountability’ which emphasises assessment for learning, bottom up target
setting, and effective and ongoing self-evaluation in every school, combined
withsharper-edged,lighter-touchexternalinspectionandanannualschool
profile that complements data on performance. Second, a simplified school
improvement process in which every school uses robust self-evaluation
to drive improvement, and produces a single school improvement plan
based on a smaller number of output measures. Every secondary school
has a school improvement partner. Third, there will be improved data and
information systems which give schools the chance to take control of the flow
of information through an online ordering system, and align activity to ensure
that data are ‘collected once, used many times’. Fourth, the profile of each
school will contain data about student performance and the school’s own
view of its priorities and performance. It replaces the annual statutory report
to parents.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 99Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
In 2005 the Department for Education and Skills released the White Paper on
Higher Standards, Better Schools For All. It followed, in particular, the success
of specialist schools at the secondary level and early progress in ‘academies’,
which were previously low-performing secondary schools (200 are planned).
A reform in the 2006 Education and Inspections Bill aims to provide the
capacity for all schools to acquire a trust and become self-governing trust
schools,fundedbylocalauthoritiesandsupportedbyexternalorganisations.
Further changes to the local organisation of schooling are proposed, including
the transformation of local authorities from being a provider of education to a
commissioningrole,withpowertodecideontheestablishmentorexpansion
of schools, and to intervene in schools with low student outcomes. While the
2006 Bill was primarily developed for the school system in England, some
requirements, such as the policies on behaviour, discipline and healthy food,
also apply in Wales.
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The decentralisation of many responsibilities to schools in England, Northern
Ireland and Wales has changed the roles of headteachers and governing
bodies. From 2004 in England, governing bodies were given more freedom
and independence in managing their schools, under central government
guidelines.The2006EducationBillhasextendedthisfreedom,allowing
schools to decide to become trust or foundation schools. In Northern Ireland
the dissolution of the local ELBs will mean that boards of governors, who are
responsible for the financial management of schools, will report directly to the
new Department of Education or Education and Skills Authority.
Changes have been made to the system of school inspection, in particular
the role of Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) in England. From
September2005,theinspectionsystemchangedfromsix-yearlytothree-
yearly inspections, with a greater reliance on self-evaluation, public reporting,
and increased accountability of headteachers and governing bodies for
standards and performance.
A new cadre of headteachers is emerging. These ‘system leaders’ are
headteachers who are willing to shoulder system leadership roles to help
ensure the success of other schools as well as their own.
100 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
2.15. United States of AmericaKey features of educational governance
While constitutional responsibility lies with the states, all levels of government
– state, local and federal – play a role in schooling. The funding of American
schoolsreflectsthedifferentrolestakenbyeachofthese,with10%provided
bythefederalgovernmentandtheremaining90%bystategovernments
and local sources. The federal government provides grants to the states,
with conditions attached to the way in which funds may be used. There are
frequent challenges in the courts around the constitutional requirement that
no public funds may be allocated to church and private schools under the
strict separation of church and state,
State and local authorities have the primary responsibility for schooling,
including the development of regulations, policies and curriculum for schools
in their jurisdictions. State governments regulate all levels of schooling,
including licensing teaching staff and school principals. In many cases, they
work in collaboration with state boards of education, which are bodies of
appointed or elected citizens, and local school districts, to oversee state
educationpolicies,standardsandguidelines.ExceptforHawaii,eachstate
is divided into local school districts headed by district boards that have the
power to govern the school system within the state-legislated guidelines.
Developments that are transforming schools or school systems
President Bush worked with Congress to establish the No Child Left Behind
Act (NCLB) of 2001. This act includes some major reforms for schooling
designed to close the achievement gap for disadvantaged students and those
from minority backgrounds. A particular focus is the teaching and learning of
literacy in the early years of schooling, following the President’s commitment
that every child should be able to read by the end of the third grade. One
important reform is the requirement for all states to implement accountability
systems for all students in all public schools, based on the development of
state standards in literacy and numeracy, annual testing for all students from
grades 3–8 and annual progress objectives. Schools and school districts that
fail to meet statewide adequate yearly progress objectives may be subject to
corrective action. The most salient features of the NCLB include the increased
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 101Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
implementation of state-wide testing and accountability measures. This
means that curriculum and testing are centrally developed at the state level.
Despite improvements in student achievement under NCLB reported by
the federal Department of Education in 2006, this legislation has some
controversial aspects. One reform that sparked particular debate among
educators was the requirement for teachers to be highly qualified. This means
that all teachers must hold at least a bachelor’s degree, have demonstrated
competence in the subject area(s) that they teach and be licensed by the
relevant state government. The regulations for the certification of teaching
staff had previously been developed at a state level. In some states, NCLB
has required increased rigour in certification processes.
Another objective of NCLB is to increase parents’ choice in selecting a
school for their child. Students attending schools that have been identified
as not reaching state performance objectives must be given the opportunity
to attend a school with better performance in the school district, including
publicly-owned, privately-run charter schools. Counties or districts are also
required to offer funding for low-income students at poor performing schools
toobtainexternaleducationalhelp,whichmaytaketheformofaprivatetutor.
The provision of funding to provide low-income parents with more choice
abouttheirchildren’seducationstemsfromtheincreasedflexibilityintheuse
of funding that NCLB has allowed for states and school districts.
Another major development is high school reform, including measures such
ashighschoolexitexaminations(withtwocourtchallengesin2006),college
readiness, the American Diploma project, increased rigour in curriculum,
increased demand for state mandated courses in mathematics, science, and
English language arts, standardised curriculum, and small schools. They are
destined to have very broad impact on high schools (grades 9–12).
Current issues related to the role of principals and school education
The role of the principal in the United States is somewhat different from that in
other decentralised education systems, where principals are responsible for
most facets of the management of their school. In USA, the administration of
schools tends to be shared between school superintendents, school boards
102 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
and school principals. The superintendent generally holds responsibility
for the provision of education in schools in their district, which may include
making decisions about teaching styles and materials. School boards and
their superintendents are responsible for the preparation of budgets and
ensuring that their schools function within the state legislative guidelines. The
primary role of the school principal is to direct the day-to-day management of
the school and, under NCLB, ensure that their students reach the Adequate
Yearly Progress objectives.
All aspiring principals are required to receive certification from the relevant
state body to be eligible to apply for available positions. While state
governments are free to select their own standards for certification, over 40
states have opted to use the leadership standards, published in 1996, of
the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC), a collaboration
involving 24 states and four professional associations to increase the quality
of leadership in American schools and provide ongoing support to principals.
State governments are able to adopt or adapt the ISLLC leadership
standards for their principal certification system, which may also require
aspiring principals to complete further education courses through a university
or other accredited education provider. The use of the ISLLC leadership
standards varies between the participating states. Some states have elected
to use the standards, or an adapted version, for the certification and re-
certification of school principals, whereas other states use them as the basis
for induction and school leadership development programmes.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 103Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
3 Re-imagining schooling: leadership voices
3.1 Workshop themes Brian Caldwell and Sylvia Paddock
Workshop 1: Transformation and innovation
Themes in discussion
There is a need for a common agreement within each nation and around the 1.
world that there should be equity in access to an education that provides
opportunities for all students to succeed. There must be acceptance of
diversity,sothateachstudentisrecognisedasanindividualandthatflexibility
inthecurriculumandpathwaysinlearningaresetout.Excessivecompetition
among schools and use of test results in the form of ‘league tables’
were identified as having negative effects on equity. Concerns were also
expressedaboutinequitiesinfundingandinaccesstoanduseofinformation
technology.
There is a need across the world for a collective sense of responsibility for 2.
the education of its future citizens. This education should also be global
in the sense that each student understands the world, in a personal way
and in the opportunity they have to participate and communicate in a wider
world. Teachers should be models of global citizens. Connectedness and
interdependence should be modelled. There is a strong moral purpose in this
that stands apart from competition between and within nations. Communities
of professionals should be open at local, national and international levels.
Thereisaneedforteacherdevelopmentinthesecontextsandfora3.
willingness to draw on demonstrated strengths from different parts of the
global educational community. An international framework for leadership at
all levels in education is both desirable and feasible. Principals require a clear
sense of mission at several levels.
104 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
There should be recognition that students are leaders in the digital revolution 4.
and that information and communications technology can be a powerful tool
for students to gain a deeper knowledge and understanding of their own and
other cultures.
Indicators of success in schooling are too narrow to reflect the range of 5.
intelligences that should be nurtured in students. It is acknowledged that
student aspirations are too low in some settings and that higher priority
should be given to interpersonal relationships, the concept of working in
partnership, and acceptance that learning and teaching should be a joyful
experienceforall.Thependulumeffectofchangewasnoted,swingingfrom
centralisation and loss of professional autonomy to decentralisation and
a strengthening of professional autonomy and back again. Achieving and
sustaining a better balance of knowledge and creativity should be a priority.
Skills-based learning, including thinking skills, can be accommodated in this
balance. The responsibilities of global citizens should be addressed.
Recommendations
There should be a global sense of moral purpose in education•
Opportunities for learning should be available to all on a global scale•
There should be an certificate in global citizenship. along the lines of the •
International Baccalaureate, possibly sponsored by UNESCO
There should be a Bill of Rights for learning for all human beings•
Learningcommunitiesshouldbeextendedtoincludeeducators,membersof•
the wider community, and politicians
Thereshouldbenetworksonaglobalscaletofacilitatetheexerciseof•
student voice on learning and its outcomes
The quality of teacher and leader training should be improved•
There should be global dialogue to build knowledge and understanding of the •
strengths of different school systems
iNet should create an online community of conference delegates•
Workshop 2: Use of data
Themes in discussion
School improvement should be the prime aim of using data in schools. 1.
Persevering with the use of school level data can empower teachers and
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 105Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
learners to challenge assumptions and improve the life chances of many
children.InNewZealand,forexample,whenunderperformanceofthe
indigenous population was investigated teachers’ assumption that the
problem was due to low socio-economic background was challenged by the
students’ perceptions of poor relationships in the classroom. Training was
put in place and shown to improve relationships. Subsequently, performance
improved.
Consistent strategies and operational practices should be in place for the 2.
effective use of all kinds of student data with a strong focus on formative
assessment. Data should be used in imaginative and non-threatening ways.
The high costs of securing reliable data must be weighed against the impact
of its use.
Data of various types – assessment results, value added, threshold analysis 3.
(UK) and appraisal – can contribute to performance management. With the
battery of instruments currently available the key issue is to select appropriate
means and engage teachers in a data-based reflection and discussion on
their teaching practice.
A number of issues on the use of data need to be addressed, including: 4.
Enrichingthepoolofdatatoincludeschoolcontextandindividualstudents’•
well-being
Although systems with high equity and high performance are worthy of close •
investigation it should be taken into account that achievement is also shaped
bycontext
Data ownership: does the school or the government own school data? Are •
data shared across the school or are they under the ‘ownership’ of individual
teachers?
The fact that students in special schools record low levels of achievement on •
tests should not suggest that meeting their needs is not important
Externalassessmentofyoungpeoplecanbeharmful•
Recommendations
Data is power and school leaders have a responsibility to focus this power •
for the advantage of their learners. As part of their role, school leaders should
have a thorough understanding of data at all levels – pupil, school and
system
106 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Professional development (both pre and in-service) for school leaders and •
teachers should include how to interpret and use data to enhance student
learning. Resources on these matters should be widely shared
The appropriate use of high quality data is a form of empowerment; •
information on good practice should be widely shared
School leaders nationally and internationally should seek to influence the link •
between data and policy formation
There should be a balance between data for support and data for •
accountability. Practitioners and policymakers should make clear what and
why they are assessing
Assessment should help inform practice at the classroom level and improve •
teaching and learning
Students should be involved in designing their own learning and monitoring •
their progress toward agreed targets. Data should be used to help students
set their own targets
Assessments should be broadened to include not only standardised testing •
but also formative and classroom-based assessments, assessment for the
‘whole child’ that should include happiness, lifelong learning commitment,
intra-dependency, and environmental concerns. Also, assessment should
measure creativity and critical thinking skills and should be shared globally
Workshop 3: Professional development
Themes in discussion
Professional development in the 21st century must address changes 1.
in classroom management, curriculum, pedagogical practice and ICT.
Professional development should balance school personal needs.
Approaches to appraisal should provide a balance of accountability and
development.
Principals have a responsibility to guarantee the entitlement of all teachers 2.
to professional development, provide the structure for such development to
occur, and ensure that teachers have a sense of ownership of the processes
for their own professional development.
Teachers’ professional development should include: time for reflection; 3.
discussions and collaboration between colleagues; strategies to motivate and
inspireyoungpeople;pedagogicalpractices;extended‘apprenticeships’,
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 107Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
research sabbaticals; and shared leadership. Mentoring and coaching and
the use of consultants were viewed as important in modelling good practice
and building a culture of high quality teaching.
Teachersshouldbeexpectedtobeactiveparticipantsinawideprofessional4.
learning community and to plan for their professional and career
development. Good practice in the profession should be disseminated within
theschoolandacrossthesystem,forexamplethroughworkshops,websites
and publications.
Principals felt that appraisal frameworks should be transparent and that 5.
approaches to their design and delivery are important topics for pre- and in-
service professional development. Student feedback was seen to have a role
to play in teacher assessment.
The problems of attracting graduates to the profession will be alleviated if 6.
good professional development practices are assured. New teachers require
expertguidance;thosewithlessthanfiveyears’experiencerequirepeer-to-
peer support.
Recommendations
A culture of professional growth and the nurturing of professional •
relationships should be established around the world
A framework should be developed for teacher improvement based on agreed •
international priorities. All countries should establish a national teacher
awards programme to celebrate effective school leaders, classroom teachers
and school support staff
Principals should take control of this professional development agenda •
and seek to influence government policy. Issues of workload which prevent
time for CPD should be addressed properly. School structures should be
organised to allow good teachers to be rewarded, recognised for their skill
andexpertise,anddevelopedinthewidercareercontext
Frameworks for performance appraisal and teacher professional •
development should be created to ensure that performance is evaluated
against measurable targets and professional growth is recorded. Teachers
should embrace a self evaluation culture
Teaching preparation programmes should be restructured to prepare •
the future workforce of teachers to teach 21st century skills. Teacher
108 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
development should encourage the individual along two complementary
strands: securing high level knowledge and building emotional capacity to
cope with changing demands in the teaching role
Teachers should have training in child development, the science of learning, •
and best practice research to help them understand the methods of delivery
and interaction that are most appropriate to the particular age level of their
students. A common culture and language of teaching and learning that
allows teachers to collaborate, learn from one another and view teaching as
a profession should be established
Professional support at the beginning of teachers’ careers should include •
an intentional professional development model which addresses needs at
all stages of a teacher’s career. Methods such as peer mentoring, coaching,
peerobservation,team-teaching,extendedapprenticeships,research
sabbaticals, shared leadership models and ample opportunity for reflecting
on teaching practice are essential for creating a cohesive learning community
Workshop 4: System leadership
Themes in discussion
Moral purpose is the vision and driving force behind effective school 1.
leadership. It helps to focus school leaders on the importance of ensuring
thereisequityandexcellenceinlearningforallstudents
How to implement a systemic model of school leadership that keeps moral 2.
purpose at its centre will and should vary from nation to nation. There was
consensus, however, that such a model could be neither top down nor
bottom up; rather, it must be a healthy balance of the two
The real challenge that remains is how we might take best practice at the 3.
school leadership level and use it to create healthy models of systemic
change at a global level so that someday all students, regardless of
geographiclocation,haveequityandaccesstoanexcellenteducation
To have a systemic impact, effective school leaders must evolve their 4.
leadership model beyond themselves and the walls of their local schools, to
include principal mentorships, apprenticeships, and networks of schools and
school leaders that have a positive impact at both local and global levels
The evolution of systemic leadership is critical to the future of education 5.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 109Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
globally. It must be viewed by school leaders and school communities as
a continuum of communication, collaboration, and collective responsibility
fuelled with a sense of moral purpose for all schools
There was unanimous consensus that addressing the needs of 21st century 6.
learners is an urgent task globally. This could be achieved if school leadership
abandons its current competitive model in favour of one which fosters
collaboration and speaks of global harmony
Recommendations
Systemleadershipisdifficulttodefine–thereforeitshouldbecontextualised.•
System leadership should allow for collaboration between high achieving and
low achieving schools; this links strongly to the moral purpose and taking
responsibility for the system. Competition should be diminished and the
sharing of best practice embraced
Stay focused on moral purpose – even it is against the law or policy, •
always do ‘what is good for Sue’. Moral purpose must be at the fore – for
our parents, our students, our teachers, our governments. Moral purpose
is defined as a compelling drive to do right for and by students through
professionalbehavioursthatdemonstrateanintenttoextendtoothers,to
learn with and from each other
Develop an awareness of your situation. Develop a plan of action. Overcome •
challenges to do what needs to be done now. Go beyond the necessary
duties of your jobs as a principal to do what is important. Be a ‘moral
subversive’, inspiring students through education
School leaders should have the responsibility for ensuring equity. So, •
leadership should focus on student learning, curriculum and teacher
performance in order to reduce in-school variation and resolve equity issues.
Relevant and appropriate international partnerships should be created to
reduce between-school variations
The development of greater leadership capacity is essential. A range of •
recommendations were put forward to achieve this: establish collaborative
networks of principals for innovation and mutual support – iNet to develop
an international model of ‘fit for purpose’ partnerships; establish a global
language around leadership and learning which reinforces similarities but
does not neglect differences; establish a global cadre of mentor schools;
110 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
create a virtual learning community through which participants can learn and
share;leadingprincipalstotakeonatrainingrole;explorewaysinwhich
leadershipexpertisecanbeusedafterretirement
Distinguish between leadership and management in the role of the principal•
Each school should possess, as it undertakes change for improvement, a •
willingness to form guiding coalitions, shared leadership and collaboration
3.2 School case studies from interviews with workshop principals Jing Lei
Australian case study
The interviewee is the principal of a large upper state college in Queensland,
Australia, which caters for over 2700 students.
What are the most important qualities of an excellent principal?
be passionate about education and committed to working with teachers and a)
the community.
identify and provide an education that offers students knowledge and skills b)
for the future: in achieving this, principals need to work with and learn from
theexpertiseandexperienceofuniversities,researchersandpractitioners.
be approachable: principals need to make sure that everyone at the school c)
feels comfortable to discuss ideas and make suggestions on how things can
be improved. Principals should invite and value other peoples’ opinions.
set a vision based on the ‘big picture’, on long term objectives, research d)
findings and governmental and community suggestions and demands:
principals should also enable all stakeholders to work together to realise it.
What are the most important qualities that students should acquire in
the future?
The most important quality that students should acquire is basic skills. There
are two tiers of such skills. One is the traditional tier that involves literacy
and numeracy. The second, equally important, set includes thinking skills,
compassion, citizenship, global awareness, creativity, intrapersonal and
interpersonalskills.Anexampleofhowthesecondtierofskillscanbetaught
to students is the ‘human rights’ programme offered at the interviewee’s
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 111Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
school.Theprogrammeprovidestheopportunitytostudentstoexamine
their rights as global citizens and discuss the demands and pressures of
today’s world.
What are students’ common issues and concerns?
Among the issues students have to deal with are adapting to rapid changes
in society, and growing up in dysfunctional families and/or in poverty. These
factors influence children’s well-being and behaviour, and consequently their
ability to learn.
How does your school help your students deal with these issues?
itgroupsstudentsinage-mixedgroups:theparticipant’sschoolisoneofa)
the few schools in Australia that does not group students according to age.
Grouping is based on the subject taught. This way, children interact and learn
from others of all ages.
it builds good relationships between teachers, children and parents: it b)
is important that all parties feel comfortable to talk to one another when
matters arise. As long as good relationships are established between them,
studentswillexcel.TheschoolpromotesthethreeRs,whichdon’tonlyrefer
to the traditional reading, writing and arithmetic but also to ‘relationships,
relationships and relationships’.
it develops a curriculum that interests and motivates students: a school’s c)
curriculumshouldincludearangeofextracurricularactivities.The
interviewee’sschooloffersover65extracurricularactivitiesincludingchess,
dance, gymnastics, football and basketball, a computer club and literacy
circles. This way the school tries to ensure that every student is given the
opportunity to succeed and build her/his self confidence.
How are teachers selected?
There are two ways to appoint teachers in state schools. One is for teachers
to apply for a post advertised by a school. Then the selection panel decides
on whom to invite for an interview and rates the interviewees based on their
performanceduringtheinterviewandtheirteachingexperienceandskills.It
appoints the candidate with the highest rating. The other way of appointing a
teacher is for the school to request that one of its staff is appointed. In order
for the school to raise such a request the candidate has to be working at the
112 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
school for a certain period of time. In Australia, teachers are more inclined to
seek appointments in urban rather than rural areas. Consequently, rural areas
suffer a shortage of teachers. In resolving this, the government obliges new
teachers to teach two or three years in rural areas before transferring them to
the city.
What are the most important educational reforms in your country/city?
In Queensland there are three key current educational reforms. The first is
the introduction of a preparatory year, pre-school, for children at least four
years old. The second is helping middle school students (age 10–15) through
adolescence and preparing them for adulthood. The third focuses on helping
students at age 16–17 who do not aspire to go to university to plan their
future, and offering them training within the school. The government requires
schools to develop a student education or training plan which is registered
with a central authority. The plan is put together by students in collaboration
with their teacher when they reach age 15: it analyses students’ strengths
andweaknessesandsetstargetstobeachievedwithinthenexttwoyears.
Changes and adjustments to the plan can be made at any time. Although this
is a resource-intensive process, the interviewee believes that it ensures that
children ‘don’t slip through’.
Hong Kong case study
The interviewee is the principal of a Catholic secondary boys school with
more than 850 students, 56 teachers and 20 teaching assistants. The
interviewee began his career as a maths teacher and is now in his 12th year
as the principal.
What are the most important qualities of an outstanding principal?
engage with the system: principals have to see themselves and their school a)
as part of the wider system. They should care about the improvement of their
school but also about the improvement of other schools and of the system as
a whole. In achieving this, principals have to collaborate with policymakers,
practitionersandthelocalandwider/globalcommunity.Theyneedtoexplore
practices across the world and adopt ones that would benefit their school.
learn from others: principals have to visit other schools and learn from their b)
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 113Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
practices. The interviewee has visited many schools and has adopted many
ofthepracticesheobservedelsewhere.Forexample,fromhisschoolvisits
to Beijing and Shanghai, he adopted peer observation. Teachers at his school
are now encouraged to observe each other and engage in a professional
dialogue about teaching and learning.
beanexcellentmanager:includingbeingexcellentinfinancialadministrationc)
and personnel management.
have a deep understanding of teaching and learning: the interviewee believes d)
that a principal must be a good teacher. S/he must also be charismatic and
have a positive influence on teachers.
love your students: an outstanding principal must love her/his students. The e)
intervieweetoldusthatheloveshisstudentsandhashighexpectationofall
of them.
As a principal, what are the major authorities in your school?
School principals in Hong Kong are able to make decisions on all issues.
There are regulations that they must comply with, but in general there is
plentyofflexibility.
Theintervieweebelievesthatauthorityshouldbeexercisedbothtopdown
and bottom up and that collective intelligence is the key in deriving the right
decision. So, when issues are raised within the school, he firstly seeks the
views of teachers and in certain occasions of the students’ union and of
parents; he then discusses his findings with senior teachers before making
the final decision.
What do you think are the important qualities students should have
in future?
the four Cs – communication, cooperation, critical thinking, and creativity. a)
In Hong Kong, communication includes the ability to speak and write in two
or more languages – in the interviewee’s school students speak English,
Cantonese and Mandarin. Cooperation means working with other people
and establishing networks. Critical thinking refers to pupils’ ability to critically
evaluate and derive their own ideas and opinions.
The school employs a number of strategies and practices to equip students
with the four Cs. The most important is the curriculum reform, which is part
114 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
of a broader reform agenda introduced in Hong Kong. Subjects focus more
on liberal studies and generic skills. Attention is also paid to the informal
curriculuminordertoprovidestudentswiththeopportunitytoexplore
theirinterestsandcultivatecreativity.Forexample,during‘HorizonsWeek’
students do not attend any formal classes but are required to participate in
one or more of the activities offered by the school. These include, among
others,camping,leadershiptraining,sportsinterestgroupsandexcursions
within or outside Hong Kong.
connect and learn from others: students should widen their perspectives by b)
connecting and learning from students of other schools. The interviewee’s
school has links with a number of schools in Hong Kong and China. At the
time of the interview a group of students from a middle school outside Hong
Kong were to visit his school. He believes that such activities offer students
the opportunity to reach out and learn more about the world.
be able to speak different languages: students should be able to speak c)
other languages so that they can live and work in today’s global world. The
interviewee hopes that his students will be fluent at least in Cantonese – their
native language – English and Chinese. The school employs native English
speakers to teach English and in some classes, two teachers are paired to
co-teach parallel lessons using two different languages.
employ a range of assessments: traditionally students were assessed d)
throughpublicexaminations.However,morerecentlyavarietyofdifferent
assessments have been introduced such as coursework, homework,
completing projects, and doing presentations that complement public
examinations.Thesenewwaysoftestingrequireschoolstobecomemore
creative in their teaching.
Mauritius case studyThe interviewee began his career as a teacher and was later promoted to a
principal.
What are the most important qualities of an excellent principal?
be a strategist: principals need to evaluate resources, assess the capabilities a)
oftheirstaffandtheirinstitutionanddevelopstrategiestomaximise
performance.
be adaptive to changes: education is dynamic and principals must also be b)
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 115Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
dynamic. This requires creativity and innovation. Principals must always think
ahead in order to bring transformation, and remember that although change
is difficult it is attainable.
involve parents and the community: all parties have an important role to play c)
in children’s education. Principals should involve and collaborate with parents
and the community to ensure better quality.
be approachable: everyone at the school should enjoy working with the d)
principal.
encourage children’s different intelligences: all students have their own e)
qualities. The interviewee believes, and has been advocating to both the
government and the community, that all children can succeed; it is just that
some are early and some are late bloomers.
promote lifelong learning: Mauritius is a multiracial, multicultural society where f)
a number of different languages is spoken. The goal of education is to ensure
that all children, no matter their background, are given the opportunity to
succeed in life. This is only feasible if children become lifelong learners.
What makes a good student? What are the qualities that students
should acquire?
There is no such thing as a bad student – there are different factors that
contributetosomeonebeingagoodstudent.Wehavetoexamineevery
child’s background and circumstances and help them become a good
student accordingly. The qualities that students should acquire are:
hard work and discipline: students need to work hard, which requires a)
discipline. Teachers should model good behaviour and be themselves hard
working and disciplined.
be able to speak many languages: students should be able to speak a range b)
of different languages. This will enable them to communicate more effectively
with one another and interact with people around the world. In Mauritius,
13–14 languages are taught in school. English and French are compulsory.
Native speakers are usually employed to teach the other 11–12 languages.
beflexibleandadaptable:studentsshouldhaveabroadknowledgeofc)
differentsubjects–forexample,eveniftheyarenotinterestedinbecoming
scientists, they should have a certain level of science knowledge. They
should also have an understanding of themselves and of the community.
116 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Thesewillhelpthembecomemoreflexibleandadapteasiertothedifferent
situations they encounter.
be open to people and other cultures: students should be willing to share d)
experienceswithchildrenfromdifferentcountries,culturesandreligions,and
hold no biases.
What are the common issues and concerns, if any, for students?
The main issues facing students in Mauritius are: family break up – divorce
rates are going up – drugs and AIDS. Counselling is one of the forms of
support offered to students to help them deal with such issues.
How can we ensure high quality teaching?
incentivise: providing incentives increases teachers’ motivation. Certification a)
aftercompletingatrainingcourseisanexampleofsuchanincentive.
professionalise: providing continuing training programmes to increase b)
teacher professionalism is important. Professional development activities
should include conferences and training overseas.
How are teachers selected?
All public servants are selected by the public service commission. Teachers
applyforapostand,afterconsultationwithexperts,thegovernmentdecides
who will be appointed. However, there are many different types of schools in
Mauritius - everyone in Mauritius is permitted to open a school – and so there
aremanydifferentprocessesofappointingteachers.Forexample,theRoman
Catholic church and the authorities in the Chinese community can appoint
teachers for their schools. Private schools can also appoint their own staff –
these schools charge fees and have their own admission policies.
Shanghai case study
The interviewee has been a principal of a boarding high school in Shanghai
for about 20 years. The school has 1,700 students and 129 teachers.
What are the most important qualities of an outstanding principal?
support students in reaching their potential: principals have to create the a)
appropriate conditions. Principals should focus on developing the whole
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 117Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
child and supporting children in becoming lifelong learners. The interviewee
and his staffs’ efforts have proved fruitful in doing just that and their school
hasbeenidentifiedasan‘’ExemplarySchool’‘bytheShanghaiMunicipal
Education Bureau.
respond to stakeholder demand: rapid societal and economic changes b)
have a profound effect on public and in particular parental demands of the
education provided to their children–. The interviewee believes that parents
todayexpectexcellentqualityofeducation.Principalshavetotakeinto
account and respond effectively to the needs of the society, parents and
students.
take an international and global perspective: the principal has to set a vision c)
taking into consideration global needs. The interviewee pointed out that one
of the learnings of the G100 was that education systems in different countries
face similar challenges. Thus, he felt that it is important for principals from
all over the world to open channels of communication so that they can learn
fromeachother,shareexperiences,andworktogether.
What qualities should students possess for the 21st century?
At the interviewee’s school the focus is to prepare students for the 21st
century through the ‘Three Independences’. These are: (a) independent
management; (b) independent learning and creation; and (c) independent
discipline. The school believes that the above qualities will develop lifelong
learners that are able to adapt to social changes and contribute positively to
society.
The school also aims to develop students’ leadership and critical thinking
skills. The principal told us that a group of the school’s graduates, who were
at the time students in top universities, told him that, when they compared
themselves with other students in the university, their strong leadership and
critical thinking stood out.
How can we cultivate the ‘three independences’ and leadership skills in
students?
‘Three independences’ and leadership are cultivated through an enriched and
diversifiedcurriculum,aflexibletestingsystemandhighqualityofteaching.In
more detail:
118 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Enriched and diversified curriculum: A diversified curriculum is offered to
help students identify opportunities that best meet their individual needs and
interests, realize their potential and develop their abilities. In addition to the
subject core courses, the school offers a series of activities such as:
lectures on various topics: these include lectures delivered by school staff •
but also by guest speakers such as renowned professors, educators, and
experts
activities organized by students: students are required to participate in •
various student organizations or special interest groups and lead and
participate in different activities
reading:studentsareencouragedtoreadextensively,especiallytheclassics•
and foreign literature
sports, music, and other activities: every student should be involved with at •
least one activity they enjoy. The school offers a variety of sport facilities to
students such as basketball and volleyball fields, a gym, a swimming pool,
running tracks, an ice-skating ring and so on that meet students’ individual
needs and interests. The school also partners organizations that organise
activitiesinwhichstudentscanparticipate.Forexample,oneofthepartner
organisations often arranges discussions on current social topics and stages
performances
extensivecurriculum:theschool’scurriculumconsistsofabout80courses•
and covers a wide range of subjects and topics. Students are encouraged
to choose courses according to their interests and classes run even with
a limited number of participants (eight to nine students). Several advanced
labs, including biochemical and physics, digital interactive, robotics,
molecular biology and computer labs are available to support classes and
cultivate student creativity
Another innovative practice identified at the school is the introduction of
Question & Answer sessions. During these classes teachers are required to
answer questions posed by students. Q&A allows students to raise issues
that they feel inhibit their learning, develop their critical thinking and develop
their questioning. Given that most Chinese teaching and learning is still
very much teacher-centered with limited teacher-student interaction. the
opportunity given to students in these sessions is invaluable.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 119Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Furthermore, the school provides opportunities for students to develop
their leadership and organizational skills. This is achieved by giving the
responsibility to students to organise several events including the student
election, the end-of-year celebration and the graduation ceremony.
Last but not least, one of the important goals of the school’s curriculum is to
impart values to students that will help them become moral citizens.
Flexible testing system: students are given the opportunity to study during
the summer and be tested in the beginning of the fall semester. If they are
successfulintheirexam(s)theyareabletoprogresstomoreadvanced
courses.Forexample,aGradeOnestudentcouldstudyGradeTwocourse(s)
duringthesummerholidaysandifs/hepassesher/hisexam(s)s/hecould
progress to more advanced course(s) at once.
High quality of teaching:strongemphasisisplacedonexploringeffective
pedagogical practices and improving the quality of teaching and learning at
the school.
Teacher recruitment and evaluation
Teachers are appointed through the following process:
an initial decision is made within the department that needs to appoint a new •
member of staff
the decision is submitted to the school administrators, who review the •
departmental decision. They then submit their recommendations to the
principal
the principal makes the final decision•
The interviewee emphasized the importance of recruiting outstanding new
teachers – many of the school’s teachers are graduates of top universities.
Also,flexibility,andevenbreakingtheruleswhennecessary,toensurethat
thebestcandidateisappointedwasseenasimportant.Forexample,during
the interviewee’s principalship there was a case when a teacher who was
exceptionalinhisestimationappliedforapostattheschool.Thecandidate’s
qualifications however did not qualify her to teach in a high school, which led
120 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
to the school administrators to categorically reject her application. Despite
these issues the interviewee appointed her. His decision proved to be right.
Teacher evaluation was seen as an essential part of teachers’ professional
development. The school assesses teachers on their morality and dedication
to education. Evaluation data include teachers’ own self-evaluation, and
students and head of departments’ evaluations of the teacher assessed.
How to successfully administer a school
In order for a school to be successfully administered, the leadership team
shouldconsistofstrongmembers.Theyshouldsetanexampleofwhatis
expectedintheschool,supportteachersthroughaneffectiveprofessional
developmentframeworkandmodelexcellentpedagogicalpractices.An
accurate self evaluation of the school’s strengths and weaknesses is also
essential as well as a clear idea of what the school needs to improve in the
future and how it intends to achieve it. Gathering intelligence on schools with
good practice, visiting and learning from them is also beneficial.
South African case study
The interviewee is the principal of a public high school in a small town in
the south of South Africa. The school has 326 students and 10 teachers. It
fundsabout70%ofitscostsfromparentalcontributionsandfundraising.The
interviewee had retired but decided to return to teaching because of his love
for children and teaching. He told us: ‘teaching is a part of my nature’ and
students are ‘too important to get myself away from’.
What do you think are the most important qualities of an excellent
principal?
be passionate about children’s education: the most important quality of an a)
outstanding principal is to genuinely care about her/his students and their
education
be compassionate: principals must bring the best out of their students by b)
rewarding, praising and encouraging them. They should also encourage
students to praise and support each other. Principals must be aware and
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 121Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
have an understanding of individual students’ backgrounds and needs and
help them accordingly
create a supportive learning environment: everyone from students and staff c)
to parents should be encouraged and supported to learn. It is also important
to recognise that learning takes place in different ways and to employ a
variety of teaching and learning approaches to support every child’s learning
preferences
connect with the outside world: principals must be willing to reach out and d)
learn from others. The principal being interviewed attends conferences,
meets principals from all over the world and creates networks of support.
Using his own funds, he travelled to London to find a partner school.
Although it proved difficult to identify a school that his school would most
benefit from, his determination and commitment paid off and the partnership
isprovidingextremelyfruitful
learn from others: there is no such thing as ‘the best school’. All schools e)
have their strengths and weaknesses and there is always something to
learn from any school no matter what its performance. The interviewee
told us that attending conferences allows him to learn about other schools’
processes and practices and adopt the ones that most fit his school
What are the most important qualities that students should have?
know that you have the same right to resources as everyone else: if students a)
know that they have equal rights to resources and opportunities, they will feel
empowered to fulfil their dreams.
independent thinking: students should be able to analyse and evaluate b)
information and come to their own conclusions. They should be able to
accept that people have different opinions and that we all have the right to
expressthemwithoutfearorembarrassment.Studentsshouldalsofeel
confidenttoexpresstheirownopinion.
How can we prepare students with these qualities?
providepositiverolemodels:weshouldinspirestudentswithexamplesofa)
people who have achieved their dreams. This way they learn, emulate and
are empowered to follow their own dreams.
engage students in life orientation programmes: these programmes should b)
includework-basedexperience.
122 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
offerawiderangeofextracurricularactivities:attheinterviewee’sschoolc)
these include a weekly information bulletin and an annual arts festival
organised by students. During the arts festival pupils can pursue their
interests and act, sing, or become sound engineers or stage managers.
Students also have the opportunity to visit other schools. These visits benefit
both students and the school as students make new friends, compare their
school to other schools and are able to make suggestions for improvement
to the principal.
How should teachers be selected?
In South Africa, the government is responsible for selecting and appointing
teachers. The interviewee identified knowledge, skills and passion for
education as the main criteria used for such selection. Although the school
can suggest the candidates it sees as most suitable for the job, the final
decision is made by the government. The interviewee argued that principals
are better placed to select and appoint teachers than the government
because of their deep understanding of their school.
Swedish case study
The interviewee is principal of a public upper secondary school in Sweden.
He also works with the education administration to develop vocational
programmes for Stockholm’s 30 upper secondary schools. This work involves
liaising with businesses and identifying the skills that employers require from
tomorrow’s graduates.
What are the most important qualities of an excellent principal?
havehighexpectationsfromstaffandstudents:theprincipalhastoa)
empower teachers to believe that they can lead and manage their classes
and empower children to believe that they are capable of learning anything
they wish to learn.
be able to think strategically: as a leader, the principal needs to set a vision. b)
The vision must be effectively communicated to all staff so that everyone
understands why changes are taking place and implementation is coherent
across the school.
be able to encourage collaboration between colleagues and promote c)
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 123Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
teamwork: the principal should also be part of the different teams formed
within the school, and play a different role in each team.
distribute leadership: the principal should involve both staff and pupils in the d)
school’s leadership and management.
How can we motivate students?
involve students in the process of setting their own goals and make them a)
responsible for their own progress: in Sweden, every child has an individual
development plan. Twice a year, teachers and parents work with pupils to
assess the child’s level of achievement, identify what s/he needs to develop
andsettargetsforthenextsixmonths.Targetscanrefertochildren’s
academicdevelopment–forexampleforreading,mathsorscience–but
also to their behaviour and skills.
make connections between subjects and integrate several subjects in one b)
theme rather than encourage students to undertake individual courses: for
example,studentscanstudyEnglish,socialscience,andmathstogether
instead of just maths.
What makes a good student?
Goodstudentsarecuriouslearnersandschoolsmustexcitestudents’
curiosity at all times. However, some schools fail to do so and in some cases
theyevenkillit.Aswellasexcitingstudents’curiosity,educatorsmusthelp
students understand why it is important to learn.
What are the qualities that students should have for the 21st century?
good communication skills: students must be able to communicate with a)
different audiences and adapt to different situations. They should ‘have a cap
in one pocket, and a tie in the other’ and use them accordingly.
being a global citizen: students in the 21st century should be able to live and b)
work anywhere in the world.
How are schools in Sweden preparing students for the 21st century?
The interviewee is seeking input from business. He believes that business
could provide valuable insights on what schools need to include in their
curriculum.Fromhisexperience,employersvalueknowledgeandskillsbut
also put emphasis on employees’ soft skills. Many schools in Sweden are
124 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
now providing students with training in problem solving, intrapersonal and
interpersonal skills and effective collaboration. The interviewee also mentioned
thatbusinesses’longexperienceintrainingtheirworkforcecouldhelp
schools.
Are there any issues or concerns with students?
Many children come from dysfunctional homes or are diagnosed with learning
difficulties or behaviour problems. Schools have different support systems to
caterforthesedifferentneeds.Forexamplesomechildrenareofferedextra
support within the classroom, others follow separate classes or attend special
schools. Support may also be organised differently at different times. For
example,onedayanextraadultmightbeusedtohelpachildwithspecial
needs,whilethenextdaysupportmightbeofferedtotheteacheronhow
best to manage his/her class and cater for that child.
UK case study
The interviewee is principal of a Catholic Technology College in North-East
England that caters for 1100 students aged 11–18.
As a principal, what are your major responsibilities?
distribute leadership: distributing leadership and establishing appropriate a)
systemstoempowerschoolleaderstoexercisetheirleadershipwereseen
as the most vital responsibility of principals–. The term ‘school leaders’
here encompasses not only leaders who hold official leadership roles but
all teachers. This is because, according to the interviewee, all teachers are
leaders of their classrooms.
enable students to take up leadership roles: students studying at advanced b)
levels have their own leadership team and they virtually run the programmes
themselves.
appoint the best: a principal, with the help of others, must be able to identify c)
talent and ensure that the best teachers are appointed.
set a vision: the principal has to set a vision and involve the school d)
community in formulating it. This way people feel that they have ownership of
what the school is trying to achieve and are motivated to realise it.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 125Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
As a principal, what are your current concerns?
ensure that no one falls into ‘comfort mode’: the principal has to keep a)
pushing things forward, ask pertinent questions, talk to people and discuss
issues.Also,inordertoachieveexcellence,staffneedtofeelappreciated.
The principal must recognise, praise and reward good work. Praise is
particularly effective when it is targeted at an individual’s progress in areas
that were previously identified as weak.
leadership succession: teachers in the UK find principalship unattractive, b)
which has led to a shortage of headteachers. The interviewee tries to ensure
leadership succession by involving teachers in the school’s leadership and
management.
What qualities should students have?
have good interpersonal skills: a good student is able to relate to other a)
people.
think critically: every teacher’s aim should be to develop students’ critical b)
thinking. Students should be encouraged to develop and contribute their own
opinions in the classroom that are based on evidence and not assumptions.
be adaptable: students should be able to adapt to the rapid worldwide c)
changes. They should be prepared to learn new skills, be willing to take risks,
have spiritual resilience and confidence in themselves, and a regard for other
people.
What are the common issues facing the school, if any, with regard to students?
The interviewee was unable to identify any common issues facing students.
He believed that every student has her/his own problems. In order to help
students the school has put in place a support system, which has been
judged‘excellent’bytheEnglishinspectionregime.Amongotherelements
it includes a special needs department, visits from psychologists, and links
to a range of services. The interviewee believes it is critical to create a safe
environment where students feel comfortable to discuss their problems for
the support system to be successful.
Is the main purpose of leadership to improve teaching?
Teaching is important but there is a danger that teaching can be simply
126 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
seen Leadership should focus on learning. Learning is more important
than teaching. There is a danger that teaching is perceived simply as
demonstration, which of course it isn’t.
The role of leadership in learning is to ensure that learning is personalised
for all students. At the interviewee’s school, learning is personalised through
theuseofstudentdata,thedevelopmentofaflexiblecurriculumandclear
evaluation cycles. Emphasis is also placed on creating an environment
conducive to learning: classrooms are clean and stimulating.
If students enjoy learning at school, they are more likely to continue learning
for the rest of their lives. Even if students haven’t been successful at school,
if they are confident and they are praised and encouraged, they will become
lifelong learners and are more likely to re-engage in education later on in life.
What is the relationship between your school and local government?
The relationship between the school and local government is one of
collaboration.Thetwopartiesshareinformationandexpertiseandseek
advice from one another.
How can we motivate teachers?
The most effective way of motivating teachers is by developing their
professionalism. Professionalism brings job satisfaction. It is also important
that the principal, the government and other agencies ensure that teachers
are adequately rewarded – in the UK, a new professional structure, upper pay
scales and teaching and learning rewards have been established in order to
motivate teachers.
How can we ensure high teaching quality?
Encouraging people to come up with new ideas and take risks, monitoring
teachers’ and students’ progress and evaluating practice can all enhance
the teaching quality. Also, evidence based evaluation can be the vehicle for
changing bad classroom practice as teachers do not feel misjudged and
are more willing to make changes in their practice and improve. The school
also needs to encourage collaboration between teachers and create an
atmosphere where teachers feel valued and supported.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 127Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Conducting classroom research can also improve teaching and serve as a
filtering system of good and bad practices. At the participant’s school every
teacher must conduct one piece of action research on teaching and learning
a year. The goal is for teachers to arrive at informed conclusions and make
decisions about their practice based on evidence. Action research allows
teachers to reflect on their teaching and on their students’ learning, recognise
what works and decide on what practices should be repeated or continued
and what should be adjusted or discarded.
128 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
4 a manifesto for the future of schooling
4.1 Communiqué from the international workshop for school principals The workshop principals
We, a group of 100 principals from 14 countries met at the National Academy
of Education Administration (NAEA) in Beijing, China 16–19 October 2006
to discuss the transformation of and innovation in the world’s education
systems. The workshop was organised by iNet, the international arm of the
Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT) and NAEA, with the support
of HSBC. Our mandate is based on three points:
The schools we are privileged to lead are regarded by others as outstanding•
Collectively we represent the voice of many school systems around the world•
We believe that there should be a global sense of moral purpose in education•
We hold the following truths to be self-evident:
Vastinequalityexistswithinschools,betweenschools,andbetween1.
school systems in the world. Such inequality is morally unacceptable and
practically detrimental to the common good of all human beings. While
social, economic and political factors are the primary causes, effective school
leadership and classroom practices can significantly ameliorate their negative
effects on student achievement
Global economic integration and the advancement of information, 2.
communication, and transportation technologies have shrunk the world into
an interdependent and interconnected village. Harmony in this village is vital
to the continuation and further prosperity of the human race
Children are differently talented and schools should strive to cultivate different 3.
talents and help all children realise their potentials. Our privileged task as
educatorsistohelpthemexpandtheirhorizonsandtheirunderstandingof
what it is possible for them to achieve
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 129Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
School leaders are at the forefront of educational innovation and 4.
transformation. They can have a powerful impact on the quality of education
their schools provide for their students. Working together, they can transform
their systems
Education systems and schools in different cultures have developed effective 5.
practices and policies. These practices and policies may be unique to their
owncontextsbutareinvaluablesourcesofinspirationforothers.Thereisan
emerging global agenda for educational reform based on the personalisation
of learning, the professionalisation of teaching, networking and collaboration
and the intelligent and ethical use of data. Leadership has the ability to mould
thesedriversfortransformationtothecontextoftheirschoolsandschool
systems
Hence, we suggest the following to all our fellow principals worldwide:
All schools must provide high quality education to all students. The quality of 1.
schools and school systems should be judged by their ability to both raise
the achievement and reduce the negative impact of social economic and
other background factors on the learner
All schools must take the responsibility to prepare learners through 2.
curriculum provision as global citizens who are capable of negotiating
cultural and linguistic differences, respectful of others and aware of their
interdependence
All school leaders must embrace the personalisation of learning as a means 3.
of enabling every student to reach their potentials, to learn how to learn, and
to share responsibility for their own education
Allschoolsmustexpandtheirdefinitionofsuccesstoincludemorethan4.
student performance in academic subjects (despite difficulties in meaningful
measurement). But we still affirm the importance of basic skills in laying the
foundations for a successful education
All school leaders must recognise their moral obligation and powerful 5.
influence with their students and staff. They can thus act responsibly and
energetically to develop a school culture that is outward looking in engaging
with the wider community, as well as developing the school as a professional
learning community
130 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
All school leaders must become active members of global networks of 6.
educational transformation. Through these networks, they contribute to and
benefitfromaninternationalrepertoireofknowledgeandexpertisebecause
their responsibilities are not only limited to the well-being of students in their
own schools, but children in other schools and other nations
We would also like to support policymakers and the business community in
the discharge of their responsibilities in the process of transformation and
urge them to:
Recognise there is urgency at a global level that, in order to address the 1.
needs of 21st century learners, they should support the transformation of
school education from a negative competitive approach that prevails in many
settings to one that fosters collaboration and cooperation and promotes
global harmony
Help us to take best practice at the school level and use it to create healthy 2.
models of systemic change at a global level, so that all students regardless of
geographiclocationhaveequityandaccesstoanexcellenteducation
Ensure that outmoded institutions or attitudes do not inhibit the ability of 3.
teachers and school leaders to focus on professional solutions to learning
challenges
Ensure that able and passionate people are attracted to and prepared for 4.
teaching and school leadership and are provided with conditions of work that
support continuing professional development, that ensure their long-term
commitment and capacity to achieve success for all students
Provide schools with authority and responsibility to use all of the resources 5.
availabletotheminawaythatwillbestmeettheuniquemixofneedsthat
may be found in each local setting, reflecting the principle that decisions
should be made as close to the student as possible
Ensure that moral purpose is at the fore of all educational debates with our 6.
parents, our students, our teachers, our partners, our policymakers and our
wider community
We define moral purpose as a compelling drive to do right for and by
students, serving them through professional behaviours that raise the bar
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 131Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
of achievement and narrow the gap between the advantaged and the
disadvantaged, and through so doing demonstrate an intent to learn with and
from each other as we live together in this world.
The Workshop Principals
18 October 2006
132 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
4.2 The prospect2 David Hopkins and Yong Zhao
As we have seen, the international workshop for school principals proved to
be a productive and seminal event. So much so that iNet is committed to
repeating the event in 2008 and on a biennial basis thereafter. iNet will also
be developing the themes identified in the communiqué as part of its ongoing
work programme.
The value of such events is that they contribute to a global dialogue about the
future of schooling. In doing this they do not simply reflect on what has been:
they outline a prospect of the ‘good society’ and delineate a pathway towards
it. Such a discourse demands principled and committed action as seen in the
communiqué in the previous section.
Aswelookforwardtothenextworkshoptherearetwoclearmessagesthat
we need to take with us from the Beijing event and that are highlighted in the
communiqué:
The globalised economy demands a diversity of talents. Each nation’s •
schoolsneedcapitalisenotonlyontheirstrengths,butalsoontheirflexibility,
openness, and tolerance. Although preparing citizens for the global economy
is not the sole aim of education, it is certainly an important one
In light of that, we need to remember that there are intolerable gaps in the •
quality of education between the rich and the poor, between inner-city
students and those in the suburbs, and in different racial groups
So in light of what we learned at the workshop – what should we do? In
concluding, there are five lessons that we personally took away from the
workshop.
Moral purpose
The first thing that we, as educators, must do is to ensure that our
practice is imbued with moral purpose. Without that, as is clearly seen
2Some of this concluding section is from Education in the Flat World: Implications of Globalisation on
Education by Yong Zhao and published in Phi Delta Kappa’s Edge Magazine.
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 133Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
in the communiqué, there would not be the passion to proceed or the
encouragement for others to follow. It is impossible to ignore the fact that
there is too much variation in educational quality and deprivation is still too
good a predictor of educational success, which means that too many children
are not given the opportunity to succeed.
Spread the word
Fourteen countries were involved in the international workshop for school
principals. Although this is a good start, there are not only many countries
that did not participate but it is likely that some will never even have heard
about it. What we need to ensure is that participation in and the learnings
of the International workshop for school principals are not limited to what
could become a small elitist group. As more countries and educators become
involved, the evidence on how we can improve education and children’s
future around the world will become stronger. We should develop an
‘educational epidemic’ to ensure that these good ideas spread rapidly
across the world.
Change our mindset
We need to change our mindset to a global one. In so doing we also need to
accept the reality of globalisation and seek opportunities to progress it rather
than get distracted by problems of the past.
A child born today will be entering society as an adult in 2027, and the
changes that can take place in those 20 years will be dramatic. Consider the
last 20: the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the
inventionandcomingofageoftheinternet,theformationandexpansionof
the European Union, the rise of China to the world’s third largest economy,
the addition of some 40 new member states to the United Nations, and the
first and second Gulf wars, to name just a few.
We don’t know what the future will require of our children, but we can prepare
them for it. A global mindset is vital.
134 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global ageTransformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Prepare global citizens
Citizens must be able to competently negotiate cultural differences, manage
multiple identities, comfortably interact with people from different cultures,
and confidently move across cultures as well as the virtual and physical
worlds. To do so, they need a deep understanding of the interconnectedness
and interdependence of all human beings, cultural knowledge and linguistic
abilities that enable them to appreciate and respect other cultures and
peoples,andemotionalandpsychologicalcapacitiestomanagetheanxiety
andcomplexityoflivinginaglobalisedworld.However,thisdoesnotmean
thatweshouldignoretheimportanceofcontextandlocalandnational
identity. The danger is not cultivating them. By suppressing them it is likely
that we will make them dangerously stronger.
Many schools will need to reconfigure their curricula, develop or adapt
a curriculum framework, identify teaching materials, recruit or retrain
professional staff in international education and foreign languages, organise
internationalexperiencesforstudents,andoffercoursesintheseareas.
Some of these tasks can only be accomplished with substantial investment
and policy changes, but schools can begin by:
Learning more about globalisation, international education, and foreign •
language education
Developing, with the help of technology, international partnerships of schools•
Offering foreign languages through online instruction, if needed•
Engaginginteacherandstudentexchanges•
iNet is committed to helping schools around the world work in these ways.
Cultivate diverse talents and involve students in the process
We must also help children develop their multiple intelligences. Although one
cannot teach creativity, one can kill it – through standardisation, conformity,
and a monolithic view of intelligence. To limit the power of schools in stifling
creativity, we must:
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age 135Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Broaden the definition of success: schools must purposefully define student •
success in broader terms and celebrate diverse talents and accomplishments
Keep, and even increase, programmes in the arts, music, sports, literature, •
humanities, and digital citizenship
Allow high school students to choose from a set of different specialisations •
– including art, sports, humanities, language, technology, maths, and science
– rather than require them all to do the same things
Cultivate learning by developing students’ metacognitive skills•
Encourage student voice•
Finally, we are conscious that globalisation has become a crisis in many parts
of the world. Interestingly, the Chinese word for crisis means both ‘danger’
and ‘opportunity’. How globalisation will affect us and the future of our
educational systems depends on how we face the challenges. Policymakers,
teachers, the public and especially education leaders, must come together to
face this crisis. Together, we need to consider how to educate our students
to become valuable contributors to the integrated and interdependent global
economy – to be respected, loved, but not feared, neighbours in the global
village. This is what iNet is committed to doing and what in some small way
the concept behind the international workshop for school principals will
help achieve.
136 Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Transformation and innovation System leaders in the global age
Mission of the Specialist Schools and academies TrustThe Specialist Schools and Academies Trust works to give practical support to the transformation of secondary education in England by building and enabling a world-class network of innovative, high performing secondary schools in partnership with business and the wider community.
inetiNet (international networking for educational transformation) is the international arm of the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust. Its mission is to create powerful and innovative networks of schools that have achieved or have committed themselves to achieving systematic, significant and sustained change that ensures outstanding outcomes for all students in all settings
© Specialist Schools and academies Trust, 2008
Specialist Schools and Academies Trust 16th Floor, Millbank Tower, 21–24 Millbank, London SW1P 4QPTel:02078022300Fax:02078022345Email: info@ssatrust.org.uk Websites: www.ssatrust.org.uk www.schoolsnetwork.org.uk, www.ssat-inet.net
ISBN 1-905150-99-7
Recent titles from the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust
A new shape for schooling
Deep learning – 1
Deep leadership – 1
Deep support – 1
Deep experience – 1
Deep experience – 2
Personalising learning 1– 6:BoxsetandDVD
Alignment
Exhilarating leadership
Resourcing schools for the 21st century – 1: Principles
Resourcing schools for the 21st century – 2: Models – planning for personalising learning
Every school a great school
The new enterprise logic of schools
Crossing boundaries and breaking barriers: Distributing leadership in schools
Snapshots
To see a full list of Specialist Schools and Academies Trust publications visit
www.ssatrust.org.uk/eshop
top related