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EVS28KINTEX, Korea, May 3-6, 2015
What are the options for Li-ion batteries after automotive use?
Hakim IDJIS 1,2
1Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande Voie des Vignes, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France, hakim.idjis@ecp.fr
2 Armand Peugeot Chair
Introduction
I. Motivations for the recovery of EV batteries
1. A mandatory recycling rate: 50% of battery weight.
2. The use of valuable and potentially scarce materials: Nickel, Cobalt and lithium
3. Batteries have a residual value after automotive end-of-life,
4. Material mining has an impact on the EV life-cycle-assessment.
5. The recovery value chain is emerging
2
Characterization of Li -ion battery recovery
3
Battery technology
4
Pack, Block Module Cells
AnodeCathodeSeparator
Electrolyte
Li +
Casing
Al Cu
graphite
2 Technologies are considered:NMC: Li(Ni 1/3Mn1/3Co1/3)O2 (Reference technology)LFP: LiFePO4 (substituting technology)
� Packaging� Cooling system� Battery Management System � Modules ≈ Cells
Li-ion battery recovery options
• Remanufacturing: Repair of failed batteries in the same configuration for automotive reuse
• Repurposing: Refurbishing of EOL batteries in a different configuration for 2nd life use (stationary energy storage, captive fleets …)
• Recycling: several processes are available5
End-Of-Life
Remanufacturing
Recycling
Repurposing
Recycling processes
6
Disas-sembly
MechanicalConditioning
Hydro-metallurgy
Pyro-metallurgy
Hydro-metallurgy
Disas-sembly
Co Ni
Fe Cu
P1
P2
Li Co
Ni Cu
Al + Cu, Steel
Plastics
Black mass
Al + Cu, Steel
Plastics
Cells
Own(Kwade, 2010)(Sangwan et Jindal, 2012)
Assessment of the recovery options
7
Recycled materials revenue
8
Based on reference batteries : NMC - Li(Ni 1/3Mn 1/3Co1/3)O2 batteries
• Recycling revenue = 1450 €/t
• Co, Ni, Cu = 90% of revenue
• Marginally maximum increase in revenue: + 30 €/t
Battery evolution
• Manganese enrichment (Ni0,1Mn0,8Co0,1): Revenue = 700 - 750 €/t
• Nickel enrichment (Ni0,8Mn0,1Co0,1): Revenue = 1530 €/t
• Shift to LFP (LiFePO4) : Revenue = 400 - 450 €/t
P2
e
P1
e
Contribution of materials (P1)
9
Recycling rate = 58%
Revenue = 1450€/t
• Active materials (Ni, Mn, Co) contribute only to 17% of the recycling rate• With the exception of lithium, the materials considered to be potentially critical
(Ni, Co, Cu) are already recycled. • 10 times lithium price increase� +5% in recycling revenue• Similar conclusions for P2
P1 : Disassembly + Mechanical conditioning + Hydrometallurgy• Assuming the financial data provided in the Lithorec project (Hoyer et al., 2014).
100% NMC batteries. The profitability of P1 is estimated
• It is likely that Recycling will be a net cost, even higher with battery technology evolution and the inclusion of collection cost
P2: Disassembly + Pyrometallurgy + Hydrometallurgy• The difference between P2 & P1 is the operation of pyrometallurgy instead of
mechanical conditioning. Pyrometallurgy requires higher investments.• Recycling revenue being the same, same conclusion for P2 � Recycling will be a
net cost for OEMs.10
Recycling profitability and cost for OEMs
Recycling cost (without collection cost) � Cost for OEM
25% 50% 100%
Pay back period: 8 - 10 y
Internal Rate of Return : 15 - 20% ( -1 000 €/t) ( - 350 €/t) (- 60 €/t)
Pay back period: 5 - 7 y
Internal Rate of Return : 20 - 30% ( - 1500 €/t) ( - 700 €/t) ( - 300 €/t)
Starting activity intensityP1 (Disassembly + Mechanical
Cond. + Hydrometallurgy)
Repurposing
• Repurposing: Refurbishing of EOL batteries in a different configuration for 2nd
life use (stationary energy storage, captive fleets …)
• Repurposing is at stage of development in research projects and OEM’s initiatives
• Analysis of the profitability of repurposing with the following assumptions:
11
Data For a 16 kWh battery For 1 t Source
Initial Investment 22 711 701 €
Max capacity kWh / y 80 000 5 000 ≃ 1 000 t
Variable cost€/kWh 15€-30€ 240€ – 480€ 1 200€ -2 400€ Neubauer et a l ., (2012)
New Bat price €/kWh 250€ - 400€ 4 000€ - 6 400€ 20 000€ - 32 000€
Average in l i terature
Repurposed Bat
price €/kWh
=New * 30%
75€ - 120€ 1 200€ - 2 000€ 6 000€ -9 600€
Neubauer et a l ., (2012),
(2013)
Collection cost €/kWh 19 € 300 € 1 500 € Estimation
Standridge and Corneal ,
(2014)
Repurposing
• Results:
• If new battery price drops under 300 €, repurposing is not profitable � Starting from 2020 – 2025, it is not reasonable to invest in repurposing
• Max cap 80 000 kWh ≃ 1 000 t of batteries � Volume is less an issue for repurposing
• When repurposing is profitable (IRR >= 15%), minimum revenue is 60€ kWh (3 500 € / t) � Repurposing can pay for recycling and reduce overall battery price
New Repur. 15 € 20 € 25 € 30 €
250 € 75 € 7% 5% 2% -2%
270 € 81 € 10% 8% 5% 2%
290 € 87 € 12% 10% 8% 6%
310 € 93 € 15% 13% 11% 9%
330 € 99 € 17% 15% 13% 11%
350 € 105 € 20% 18% 16% 14%
370 € 111 € 22% 20% 18% 16%
400 € 120 € 25% 23% 21% 20%
Variable cost /kWhBattery price
Internal rate of return
New Repur. 15 € 20 € 25 € 30 €
250 € 75 € 41 € 36 € 31 € 26 €
270 € 81 € 47 € 42 € 37 € 32 €
290 € 87 € 53 € 48 € 43 € 38 €
310 € 93 € 59 € 54 € 49 € 44 €
330 € 99 € 65 € 60 € 55 € 50 €
350 € 105 € 71 € 66 € 61 € 56 €
370 € 111 € 77 € 72 € 67 € 62 €
400 € 120 € 86 € 81 € 76 € 71 €
Repurposing variable cost /kWhBattery price/kWh
Revenue / kWh
Remanufacturing
• Remanufacturing: Repair of failed batteries in the same configuration forautomotive reuse
• Today, there is no known remanufacturing activity of lithium-ion batteries
• Analysis of the profitability of remanufacturing with the following assumptions:
13
Data For a 16 kWh battery For 1 t Source
Initial Investment 18 900 000 €
Max capacity kWh / y 480 000 30 000 ≃ 6 000 t
Variable cost€/kWh 80€-140€ 1 280€ – 2 240€ 6 400€ -11 200€
Standridge and Corneal ,
(2014) + Es timation
Remanufactured Bat
price €/kWh 100€ - 200€ 1 600€ - 3 200€ 8 000€ -16 000€ Conservative assumption
Collection cost €/kWh 19 € 300 € 1 500 € Estimation
Standridge and Corneal ,
(2014)
• Results:
• 25% of Max capacity≃ 1 500 t of end-of-life batteries � Volume is less an issue for remanufacturing.
• When remanufacturing is profitable (IRR >= 15%), minimum revenue is 1000 € / t � Remanufacturing can pay for recycling and reduce overall battery cost
14
Starting activity intensity = 25%
80 € 100 € 120 € 140 €
100 €
125 € 27% 3%
150 € 46% 31% 12%
175 € 63% 50% 35% 18%
200 € 80% 67% 53% 39%
Internal Rate of
Return
Reman. variable cost /kWh
Rem.
Bat.
Price
/kWh
80 € 100 € 120 € 140 €
100 € 1 € 19 €- 39 €- 59 €-
125 € 26 € 6 € 14 €- 34 €-
150 € 51 € 31 € 11 € 9 €-
175 € 76 € 56 € 36 € 16 €
200 € 101 € 81 € 61 € 41 €
Revenue / kWhReman. variable cost /kWh
Rem.
Bat.
Price
/kWh
Revenue / kWh
Remanufacturing
Conclusion
15
Recovery option Nature Revenue €/t Comments
Recycling Obligatory Negative
Economies of scale are importantSensitive to the evolution of battery technologyP1 & P2 perform the same in terms of recyclingrevenue and recycling rate
RepurposingOptional, if profitable
4800 - 7000Does not necessitate big volumesSensitive to the evolution of new batteries pricesTechnological challenges, Safety & regulatory issues
RemanufacturingOptional, if profitable 800 - 8 000
Does not necessitate big volumesTechnological challenges, less organizational and legalconstraints
• Remanufacturing seems to be more feasible than repurposing, more challengeshave to be met in repurposing.
• Recycling can not be self sustained just with recycled materials revenue.Remanufacturing or repurposing might be the solution to payfor recycling andreduce the overall battery price.
EVS28KINTEX, Korea, May 3-6, 2015
What are the options for Li-ion batteries after automotive use?
Hakim IDJIS 1,2
1Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande Voie des Vignes, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France, hakim.idjis@ecp.fr
2 Armand Peugeot Chair
Acknowledgments
This work was benefited from the support of the chair “PSA Peugeot CitroenAutomobile: Hybrid technologies and Economy of Electromobility. So-called ArmandPEUGEOT Chair”, led by Ecole Centrale Paris, ESSEC and SUPELEC, and sponsoredby PEUGEOT CITROEN Automobile
17
Biblio• Hoyer, C., Kieckhäfer, K., Spengler, T.S., 2014. Technology and capacity planning for the recycli
ng of lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries in Germany. J. Bus. Econ.
• Neubauer, J., Pesaran, A., 2011. The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve utility energy storage applications. J. Power Sources 196,
• Neubauer, J.S., Pesaran, A., Williams, B., Ferry, M., Eyer, J.,2012. A Techno-Economic Analysisof PEV Battery Second Use: Repurposed-Battery Selling Price and Commercial and IndustrialEnd-User Value (SAE Technical Paper No. 2012-01-0349). SAE International, Warrendale, PA.
• Standridge, C.R., Corneal, L., 2014. Remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling of post-vehicle-application lithium-ion batteries. Mineta National Transit ResearchConsortium, San José, CA
• Kwade, A., 2010. On the way to an “intelligent” recycling of traction batteries. Presented at the 7th Braunschweiger Symposium on Hybrid, Electric Vehicles and Energy Management,Braunschweigh.
• Sangwan, K.S., Jindal, A., 2013. An integrated fuzzy multi-criteria evaluation of lithium-ionbattery recycling processes. Int. J. Sustain. Eng. 6, 359–371. doi:10.1080/19397038.2012.735717
18
Lithorec estimates
Small Large
Capacity
Invest
Fixed expenses €/a
Capacity
Invest
Fixed expenses €/a
6000 BEV-eq/a* 60000 BEV-eq/a*
560 000 € 3 100 000 €
227 000 € 1 020 000 €
1500 t cells/a 15000
2 100 000 € 5 240 000 €
120 000 € 255 000 €
3300 t coating / a 33000 t coating / a
10 000 000 € 40 000 000 €
1 350 000 € 5 380 000 €
Disassembly
Mechanical Conditioning
Hydrometallurgical
Conditioning
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