without reference, identify at least four out of six principles about anatomy and physiology as they...
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Without reference, identify at least four out of six principles about anatomy and
physiology as they relate to laboratory systems
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OBJECTIVE
Function of blood One of the body's connective tissues Transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells and
carbon dioxide waste from the cells to the cells. Protect the body from disease Carries nutrients from the digestive system to the
cells Transports waste from the cells to the kidneys
BLOOD
Composition Blood contains red blood cells, white blood• cells, and fragments of cells called platelets suspended
in a water-based, pale, somewhat yellow fluid known as plasma.
The average human has 5 liters of blood Accounts for 8 percent of the total body
weight Blood is alkaline with a pH between 7.35 and
7.45• Acidosis• alkalosis
BLOOD
Definition: liquid portion of whole blood with the cells removed. fluid portion of the blood blood has not clotted
Components of plasma: 92 percent water 7 percent protien
PLASMA
1 percent ions Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Chloride (Cl-) Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
PLASMA
Definition: plasma minus it‘s clotting factors such as fibrinogen Liquid portion of clotted blood
Blood is allowed to clot and the clear serum is removed (no fibrinogen or other clotting factors)
Most commonly used body fluid for chemical analysis
SERUM
Characteristics also known as erythrocytes Have little internal organization and no nucleus or
organelles organelles are small structures within cells which
perform dedicated functions basically a small organ within a cell
Each blood cell is a flexible, biconcave disk (thinner at the center than at the edge)
RED BLOOD CELLS
Primary purpose of RBC's in the body is to transport oxygen
Number of RBC's in the body average adult male has approximately 5.4 million
RBC's per cubic millimeter (microliter) average adult female has approximately 4.8 million
per cubic millimeter of blood RBC Production
RBC's are produced in the red bone marrow of bones. The process of RBC formation is called erythropoiesis
RED BLOOD CELLS
RED BLOOD CELLS
Contained in the ecytoplasm of red blood cells• Hemoglobin is a protein chemical which has a red
pigment that gives it's color to erythrocytes Hemoglobin contains the element iron, making it an
excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide
• As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the hemoglobin
• as the blood passes through the body‘s tissue’s, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells
• the empty hemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases
HEMOGLOBIN
Red Blood Cells circulate in the bloodstream for approximately 120 days.
Older cells and damaged cells are then engulfed by phagocytes in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, and the red blood cells are broken down
DESTRUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS
The hemoglobin is broken down to release it's amino acids, which can be reused for synthesizing new protein
The iron portion of the hemoglobin is brought to the bone marrow for new hemoglobin formation, and any excess iron is stored in the liver
DESTRUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
Primary Function: to defend the body‘s tissue against infection and substance foreign to the body A normal adult has approximately 7000 white
blood cells per cubic millimeter of Blood Types of WBC's (5 different types in two
major groups) Granulocytes which have granules in their
cytoplasm and include the following:
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
Neutrophils comprise about 60 percent of the white blood cell
count in the body the neutrophil's primary function is phagocytosis
(devours foreign substances) Basophils
least numerous blood cells help initiate inflammation process at the site of an
injury Eosinophils: function during an allergic reaction
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
Agranulocytes have no granules in their cytoplasm and include the following:
Lymphocytesaccount for about 30 percent of all white bloodserve as an important part of the body’s immune system
Monocyeslargest of all white blood cellsfunction primarily as phagocytic (engulfing) cells
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
Purpose for examination of WBCs White blood cell population of the body can
provide valuable insight into disease An elevated white blood cell count may indicate a
microbial infection Also, noting whether particular WBC’s are high in
number can be valuable. This data is obtained by a differential white blood
cell count
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
a general reduction of white blood cells is called leucopenia
an above average population of white blood cells is called leukocytosis
leukocytosis may also indicate cancer of white blood cells called leukemia
WHITE BLOOD CELLS(Leukocytes)
PLATELETS
Characteristics also called thrombocytes, platelets are blood
elements produced in the bone marrow technically, platelets are not cells because they
consist of fragments of cytoplasm enclosed by membranes
PLATELETS
Platelet production platelets form from large cells called
megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow bits of megakaryocyte cytoplasm pinch off within
membranes and are released into circulation approximately 300,000 platelets exist per cubic
millimeter of blood
PLATELETS
Platelet function work along with fibrinogen, calcium, and vitamin K to
form clots a clot begins to form when blood is exposed to air a dried external clot is a scab an internal clot is a bruise
PLATELETS
Homeostasis of the body environment depends on a balance of fluids, electrolytes, acids and bases
In the normal body, the levels of fluids and electrolytes remain constant the input of water and electrolytes is balanced by
selective elimination through the excretory system
if serious depletion occurs immediate replacement is critical
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Electrolyes• the products of substances that dissociate into
electrically charged components when they dissolve in water
• for example, the compound sodium chloride dissociates into sodium ions and chloride ions, which are electrolytes carrying electrical charges
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Acid a chemical compound that liberates hydrogen ions
into a solution examples of acids in the body are hydrochloric acid
and lactic acid Base
a chemical compound that takes up hydrogen ions from a solution, leaving the solution with an excess of hydroxyl (-OH) ions
a base in the body is ammonia
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Body fluids
the fluid content of the body refers to the amount of water in the body
the amount of water can vary, depending upon the weight, sex, age, and fat content of the individual
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
for instance, woman have a relatively lower water content than men because a woman's body contains a higher percentage of , and fat tissue contains very little cellular water
water makes up about 60% of the body weight for an adult male and about 50% of a female's body weight
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Fluid compartments: The body's total water content can be divided into two fluid compartments Intracellular fluid compartment
refers to the water in all body cells almost two-thirds of the body's water exists in this
compartment
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Fluid compartments consists of the body area outside the cells extracellular fluid provides a relatively constant
environment for the cells
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Extracellular fluid compartment continued approximately one-third of the body water exists
in this compartment extracellular fluid contains large amounts of
sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions and small amounts of potassium, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, sulfate, and organic ions
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
water enters the body through the digestive tract and as a result of chemical reactions that produce water as end products
water leaves the body by several exits• the kidneys excrete urine• the lungs give of water in expired air• the skin gives off sweat• the intestines eliminate water in feces
in general terms, the amount of water exiting the body equals the amount entering the body
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Electrolyte balance the quantities of various electrolytes taken into
the body must equal the quantities lost by the body
in the extracellular fluid, two types of ions can be found Cations: which are positively charged (sodium Na+) Anions: which are negatively charged (chloride Cl-)
Sodium Ions sodium ions account for about 90% of the
cations in extracellular fluid
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
when the input of sodium ions exceeds the output, water is also retained in the body, and the volume of plasma and extracellular fluid Increases may cause edema: an abnormal accumulation of
fluid in extracellular body tissues may also cause weight gain when the output exceeds the input a decrease
occurs in the volume of plasma and extracellular fluid, and the blood pressure lowers
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Regulation of sodium levels
reflects how well the kidney is working and is affected by blood pressure
when the blood pressure drops, the blood flow to the kidney is reduced, and the filtration rate diminishes, resulting in less sodium filtered
as the concentration of salt and water increases, the blood pressure elevates and the sodium excretion increases
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Potassium Potassium is the primary intracellular cation It functions in regulating the electrical activity of
the muscle and nerve tissue In the extracellular fluid, potassium influences the
balance of acid and base Excessive potassium can cause fibrillations of the
heart Deficits of potassium can cause arrhythmia of the
heart
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Other ions Other ions balanced in the body are calcium,
magnesium, sulfate, chloride phosphate, and bicarbonate
Calcium ions have roles in blood clot formation, muscle contraction, hormonal activity, nerve conduction, and as structural components of teeth and bones
The most common extracellular anion is chloride, which is almost always linked to sodium
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Acid/Base balance The balance of acids and bases in the body is
associated with the regulation of the hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluids
This concentration, expressed as ph, influences the activity of cell enzymes as well as maintenance of cell structural and cell membrane permeability
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
A strong acid produces the maximum number of hydrogen ions possible and forms ions more completely than weak acids hydrochloric acid is a strong acid carbonic acid is a weak acid
There are many sources of hydrogen ions in the metabolism of the body during the respiration of glucose, carbon dioxide
reacts with water to form carbonic acid which dissociates to release bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions
the breakdown of fatty acids and amino acids also results in acid compounds
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
The regulation of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the body occurs primarily by acid base buffer systems
Acid/Base buffer system A buffer is a solution that prevents substantial
changes in the pH when either an acid or a base enters the system
Usually a buffer system contains a carbonic acid and a salt of that acid.
an example is the carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate system
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
A solution containing both carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate
Should a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid enter the system, it will react with the bicarbonate ions of the sodium bicarbonate producing carbonic acid and sodium chloride
Carbonic acid is a weaker acid than hydrochloric acid, and therefore the increase in hydrogen ions in the solution will be minimal
If a strong base such as sodium hydroxide enters the solution it will react with the carbonic acid to produce sodium bicarbonate a weaker base than sodium hydroxide, and there will be a minimum base shift
FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID/BASE BALANCE
Primary function: regulates the composition and concentration of the extracellular fluids surrounding the body cells extracellular fluids known as interstitial fluids include plasma and fluids surrounding tissue
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system accomplishes its functions by forming urine from blood plasma in the kidneys and associated ducts and organs
URINARY SYSTEM
Location The kidneys are attached to the posterior
abdominal wall of the body outside the peritoneum
KIDNEYS
They lie lateral to the vertebral column and are held in place by adipose and connective tissue Adipose tissue is fatty tissue that surrounds internal
organs Adipose tissue serves as a cushion and as a nutrient
reserve In an adult each kidney weighs about 4 oz and is
about the size of a fist
KIDNEYS
Microscopic structure More than a million microscopic units called
nephrons make up the interior of each kidney The purpose of these nephrons is the production
of urine A nephron looks like a tiny funnel with a very long
stem
KIDNEYS
Kidney function Regulates the volume of blood plasma and
thereby contributes to blood pressure Controls the concentration of waste products in
the blood Regulates the concentration of the plasma‘s
electrolytes Contributes to the acid/base level of the plasma
KIDNEYS
The kidneys 2 million or more nephrons form urine by a series of 3 processes Filtration of water and other dissolved substances
out of the blood Reabsorption of water and other dissolved
substances needed by the body back into the blood
Secretion of waste molecules and excess ions into the urine
FORMATION OF URINE
Once urine has formed it drains out of each kidney and down the ureter into the urinary bladder
To leave the body, urine passes from the bladder down the urethra and out its external opening
URINARY SYSTEM
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