writing general to specific texts

1

Writing General to Specific Texts

Dr. Fang Ping YehAcademic Writing Education Centerfangping510@gmail.com

2

Agenda for today

1. Review of Academic Writing Features

2. Writing General – Specific Texts

3. Preparing Your 3MT Presentation

Review of Academic Writing Features

Pop Quiz

3

4

Q1: Which of the following is NOT a factor that could affect the quality of academic scientific writing?

A. Clarity

B. Coherence

C. Originality

D. Organization

5

Q2: Which of the following sentences demonstrates a more appropriate style for an academic journal?

6

A. There's currently not one generally accepted theory to account for the microscopic motion of ions, but it's commonly agreed that the potential energy of two charges interacting plays an essential role.

B. Currently, no generally accepted theory can best explain the microscopic motion of ions, but it is commonly agreed that interactions described by Coulomb's Law play an essential role.

7

Q3: Which of the following sentences has the most effective degree of explanation?

8

A. Hesitation forms (such as "um", "er", or "ah") exist in almost all spoken languages and usually serve to fill pauses while the speaker searches for the appropriate word or phrase.

B. Hesitation forms or pause fillers (such as "um", "er", or "ah") exist in almost all spoken languages and are usually heard within speech where a person is searching for a word or phrase; these "fillers" serve to fill the space where there would otherwise be a pause.

9

Q4: Which of the following sentences best demonstrates the use of formal academic language?

10

A. Despite numerous campaigns designed to raise awareness of childhood obesity, successive governments have struggled to get rid of the problem.

B. Despite numerous campaigns designed to raise awareness of childhood obesity, successive governments have struggled to eliminate the problem.

11

Q5: Which of these sentences is the most precise?

12

A. There are many things that set the Sagrada Familia apart from other buildings that were constructed during the same period.

B. There are numerous architectural features that distinguish the Sagrada Familia from other buildings that were constructed during the same period.

1. Work with your assigned group

2. Download the copy of each member’s article for analysis

13

Team Work: Paper Analysis (10 minutes)

3. Share your findings regarding the 5 examples of writing features in your own discipline.

4. Discuss why certain stylistic choices were made and compare the disciplinary differences

1.Writing General to Specific Texts

14

15

The Applications of G-S Organization

ü An answer to an essay examinationü A series of paragraphs in a section or a larger

unit of a paperü Background knowledge in a research paperü Opening paragraphs to an analysis or

discussionü An introduction for a longer piece of writing

Example : G-S Text

16

1 The increasing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is attributed to the savings in fuel costs compared to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. 2 EVs and PHEVs save energy due to the employment of reverse regenerating braking during the deceleration cycle. 3 This energy is typically stored in batteries and/or ultracapacitors (UCs). 4The incorporation of on-board energy storage systems (ESS) and generation in PHEVs has been facilitated and dictated by the market demands for enhanced performance and range.

1 The increasing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is attributed to the savings in fuel costs compared to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. 2 EVs and PHEVs save energy due to the employment of reverse regenerating braking during the deceleration cycle. 3 This energy is typically stored in batteries and/or ultracapacitors (UCs). 4 The incorporation of on-board energy storage systems (ESS) and generation in PHEVs has been facilitated and dictated by the market demands for enhanced performance and range.

Opening→ TS (Evs & PHEVs)

More specific information

UCs as the narrowing of

the topic

19

General-to-Specific Structure

General

SpecificBroader

statement

General statement

Elaboration on the statement

More detailed elaboration

Logic Of A Thesis/Dissertation

Introduction Method Result Discussion

General-Specific Text

Conclusion

Specific-General Text

Central Point

Purpose of the Introduction

Introduction

21

Discussion/Conclusion

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

2.Strategies for Organizing a G-S Text

22

Supplementary Handout (G-S): task 1

Strategy 1: “Old to New” Information Flow

23

a. ____ Water regularly changes back and forth from liquid to gas to solid.

b. ____ River ice constitutes a small fraction of the total quantity of ice in the world.

c. ____ The solid phase of water takes many forms.

d. ____ Water is one of the most important substances on earth.

e. ____ Solid forms of water range from small snowflakes to immense polar ice caps.

Strategy 1: “Old to New” Information Flow

24

a. ____ Water regularly changes back and forth from liquid to gas to solid.

b. ____ River ice constitutes a small fraction of the total quantity of ice in the world.

c. ____ The solid phase of water takes many forms.

d. ____ Water is one of the most important substances on earth.

e. ____ Solid forms of water range from small snowflakes to immense polar ice caps.

2

1

3

4

5

25

Strategy 2: More General Statements

1. Generalization or Factual/ StatisticalEvidence

2. Purpose Statements

3. Definitions

Strategy 2: General Opening Statements

26

§ Option 1: A generalization or fact / statistics

1. “For years, Taiwan has suffered losses of life and property from disastrous floods triggered by typhoons.”.

2. “Rainfall is the most important input to most hydrological models.”.

Generalization: Generally accepted information or common knowledge

Strategy 2: General Opening Statements

27

§ Option 1: A generalization or fact / statistics

Fact/Statistical Evidence: A commonly recognized research result

1. “The available records from 1958 to 2010 show that on average 29.2 typhoons form per year, but only 3.4 affect Taiwan”.

2. “In the current decade (2006–2016), worldwide occurrences of floods and extreme rainfall become four times that in the 1980s (EASAC 2018; UNESCO, UN-Water 2020)

Strategy 2: General Opening Statements

28

§ Option 2: A purpose statement

“This paper presents a hybrid automatic calibration method for transition potential based Cellular Automata land- use models by integrating two calibration methods, process-specific and optimisation-based, into a single hybrid approach, combining the advantages of these two methods” (Abstract)

Adapted from Newland et al. (2020). “A hybrid (semi) automatic calibration method for Cellular Automata land-use models: Combining evolutionary algorithms with process understanding”. Environmental Modelling and Software.

Strategy 2: General Opening Statements

29

§ Option 3: A definition

a) “Global sensitivity analysis (GSA) refers to a group of diagnostic modelling tools developed to study how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model can be apportioned to the uncertainty in the input factors (Saltelli et al., 2000).”.

Term = verb + defining information

Strategy 2: General Opening Statements

30

b) “Blockchain can be described as a collection of ledgers organized into blocks that are linked with each

other and are made strongly resistant to alteration by protecting it using cryptography. ”.

§ Option 3: A definition

§ When the term/concept is unfamiliar to your readers§ When it sheds light on the meaning§ When there is lack of agreement or some ambiguity

Which Option?

31

generalization definitionOR

Think Critically …ü Whether you should begin

with a general statement or a definition depends on your purpose.

32

ü Which strategy is more appropriate for your readers?

Ways to Define a Term/Concept

33

34

Option 1: Short Definitions

ügive information about a term in a word or phrase

ücan be placed within either parentheses or commas in a sentence

NOT good for promoting an idea/ a method

Signal Devices:e.g., i.e., known as, defined as, called

35

Verb Example NoteName ü This new species was named Ascochyta

mycoparasitica.Initial attempt to define

Call ü This new method is called activity-based costing, or simply ABC.

(1) Can be defined more than one way

(2) Usually the term is already used for some time

known as ü Another principle source of heat is known as the geothermal gradient.

Refer ü Reductionism primarily refers toinappropriate simplification.

Denote ü Any rotational velocity is usually denoted by f.

Verbs Often Used for Option 1 AWGS, p. 68~69

36

ü One sentence explanation of the meaning of a word

ü brief and somewhat similar to a dictionary definition

üBe specific about the class word assigned to the term/concept and its defining elements

Option 2: Formal Sentence Definitions

37

Option 2: Formal Sentence Definitions

Term = verb + a/an class + that/which + distinguishingdetail

Example:A solar cell is a device that/which converts the energy of sunlight into electric energy.

AWGS, p. 71~73

38

Formal Sentence Definition Formula

Term = Classification + Characteristics

Influenzais

an acute highly contagious infection of

respiratory tract,

which occurs sporadically or in epidemics and that lasts up to a month.

Term = General Class Word + Specific Characteristics

39

Formal Sentence Definition Formula

Term = Classification + Characteristics

DNA microarrays

(or gene chips) are

a powerful genomic tool

through which scientists conduct large-scale population studies to identify the changes in gene sequences associating with particular diseases.

40

The Grammars of Formal Definitions

§ Formal definitions commonly use indefinite articles (a or an) for the term and class, forms of the verb be and a full or reduced relative clause to express the distinguishing characteristics.

Appendix One

41

1. The Use of ArticlesØ Use a/an in the first part of the definitionEx: A host is an animal or plant on which a smaller animal or plant is living.Ø Compare the difference:a) A disinfectant is an agent capable of destroying

disease-causing microorganisms.b) A disinfectant is the agent capable of destroying

disease-causing microorganisms.

42

2. Relative Clauses in DefinitionsØ The distinguishing characteristics in the restrictive

relative clause can be introduced by either a full or reduced relative clause.

Ø There are two common ways of reducing a restrictive relative clause:

1) simple deletion2) changing the word or word form

43

2. Relative Clauses in Definitions1) Deletionsü Drop the relative pronoun and the verb be if the

relative clause contains a prepositional phrase, an adjective, or a passive verb.

Ex: A collagen is a white, inelastic protein that is formedand maintained by fibroblasts. à A collagen is a white, inelastic protein formed and maintained by fibroblasts.

44

(1) Reduce the restrictive relative pronoun if…Ø who/which/that + be / prep. Phraseü A wharf is a structure that is along a waterfront providing a place

for ships to load and unload passengers or cargo.Ø who/which/that + passive verb ü A theater is a building that has been specifically designed for

dramatic performances.Ø who/which/that + “-able” adj ü A robot is a multi-programmable device which is capable of

performing the work of a human.

[that is]

[that has been]

[which is]

45

2. Relative Clauses in Definitions2) Change in Word or Word Formü Reduce the relative clause if the relative clause

contains the verb have. Drop the relative pronoun and have and replace using with

ü Reduce the relative clause if the relative clause contains an active state verb (expressing a state or unchanging condition). Drop the relative pronoun and change the verb to the V-ing form. This does not apply to to be and modal verbs

46

(2) Change in word or word formØwho/which/that + have/has/hadüA parliament is a national governing body which has the

highest level of legislative power within a state.→ replaced by withØwho/which/that + an active state verbüPollution is a from of contamination that often results

from human activity.→ changed to the V-ing form

with

often resulting

47

Option 3: Extended Definitions AWGS, p. 74~75

Ø Extended definitions - When the term is more abstract or requires more explanation, you may need to write an “extended definition”. This longer type of definition may include examples, citations, or detailed descriptions:

Sentence definition

More specific information

An extended definition

48

Example of Extended InformationTerm = Class + Characteristics +

extended details (examples/application)

“Factorization machines (FMs) [50,51]are a generic supervised learning approach that combines the advantages of support vector machines (SVMs) [61]with factorization models [31]”.

Adapted from Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Ren, P., Wang, M., & de Rijke, M. (2022). Bayesian feature interaction selection for factorization machines. Artificial Intelligence, 302, 103589.

49

Example of Extended InformationTerm = Class + Characteristics +

extended details (examples/application)“FMs account for interactions between features with factorized parameters [5,58]; such interactions are defined as combinations of individual features [13]. For example, in a movie recom-mendation scenario, the features for the movie “Spider-Man” can be “comics”, “marvel” and “avengers”. Accordingly, feature interactions can be seen as combinations such as, e.g., “(comics, marvel)”, “(comics, avengers).”

50

Example of Extended InformationTerm = Class + Characteristics +

extended details (examples/application)

“FMs are widely applied in the field of artificial intelligence (e.g., predictive analytics, inference, etc.), ranging from recommendation [52], computational advertising [23] and search ranking [39] to toxicogenomics prediction [75].”

51

Types of Extended Information

Extended Definition

Exceptions / future

predictions

Problems

Process analysis

HistoryApplications

Components / types

Examples

Supplementary Material 2: task 2

ComparativeDefinitions

CompetingDefinitions Contrastive

Definitions

52

Variations in Definitions P. 81~91

53

Competing Definitions

Ø When a definition of a term is not fixed:1. Acknowledge the different definitionsü …what the term means and how it informs

assessment methods remain unclearü … it seems there is little agreement on the

definition of this concept among researchers

AWGS, p. 85

54

Competing Definitions AWGS, p. 86

2. Make clear to your reader the definition you will adoptü For the purpose of this paper, …refers to/ is defined

as/ is considered to be….ü While debate exists regarding a precise definition of …,

the stance adopted in this paper is that….ü In this paper, I have adopted [author’s] definition

of…ü This paper follows [author’s] definition of…

55

Contrastive Definitions AWGS, p. 82-3

Ø Usually demonstrate a distinction between two objects or concepts.

Ø Can be used when the meanings of terms or concepts are agreed upon but can be confusing (especially by a layperson)

üA star and a planetüAn acrylic and a polyesterüConcrete and cement

Ø The former deals with…, while the latter is concerned with…

56

Example of Contrastive DefinitionPatents and copyrights are forms of legal protection thatgrant inventors or artists exclusive rights to their creations fora limited period of time. Patent and copyright owners areguaranteed the possibility to earn a profit and have controlover their creations, while the public is guaranteed eventualfree use. However, the former deals only with the creator ofan invention or process, while the latter is concerned withauthors, playwrights, composers, artists, and publishers.

Ø Introduced by the similarity between the two terms,then transitioning to focus on the characteristicsthat distinguish from one another

57

Comparative DefinitionsØ They typically occur in introductory sections of papers.Ø They can be used to display your knowledge of

complexities surrounding key terms in your field of study.Ø There are basically two approaches to this type of task:q To present a historical account of how a concept has

changed over time.q To present an overview of how various experts today

view a concept differently.

Let’s Practice: Definitions

o List some terms in your own field with meanings different from those in everyday life, such as cloud or chip.

o Write an extended definition of the term.

3

58

Assignment1. Find two examples of different types of

definitions In which section of the article did you find the definitions? Why? Bring your findings to class.

1. Swales, J. M. & Feak, C. B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students: Essential tasks and skills (3rd ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

2. The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/introductions/

3. Undergraduate Writing Center at UCLA. http://wp.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Writing-Research-Paper Introductions.pdf

4. Weissberg, R. & Buker, S. (1990). Writing Up Research: Experimental Research Report Writing for Students of English. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

References

60