amusement and theme parks (apoyo foro 3)

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CULTURAL INFLUENCES AMONG THEME PARK VISITORS IN THE

UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AFRICA IN TERMS OF FACTORS

MOTIVATING THE FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE

A

Dissertation

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of the

California School of Business and Organizational Studi

Alliant International University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

by

John Muriithi

San Diego, 2006


UMI Number: 3209200

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© 2006

JOHN MURIITHI

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED





A

Dissertation

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of the

California School of Business and Organizational Studies


by

John Muriithi

Approved by:-~$T. Li/Akunna Winston, D.B.A

Chairperson^nairpjerj—irx

riahnam yy/Ph.D.

Ellen KaK Sehrke, Ph.D.

Ali Abu-Rahma Associate Dean


Abstract of Dissertation




by

John Muriithi


Committeee Chairperson: Akunna Winston, DBA

THE PROBLEM. The failure to account for cultural

differences has been a contributing factor to the mixed

success in the export of theme park brands. The current

trend is for theme park brands to expand into emerging

markets including China, Mexico, South Asia, and South

Africa. The purpose of this study was to examine the role

of cultural and demographic differences in factors that

motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the

United States and South Africa.

METHOD. The author used a field survey research design

to collect data from 455 theme park visitors in the United

States and South Africa. Independent sample t-tests were

used to determine differences between two subgroup means,

while one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to

determine differences between multiple subgroup means.


Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to determine

relationships between variables.

RESULTS. The study found that there were differences

in the types of rides, park image, and type of media relied

on between American and South African attendees. The study

also found more differences in factors motivating

attendance among different races and genders in South

Africa than the United States. The youth and young adults

under the age of 25 in both countries exhibited more

similarities in factors motivating attendance than older

respondents. Finally, while there was a distinct

relationship between household income and frequency of

attendance in South Africa, the study observed no such

relationship among American attendees. Relationships and

differences between variables were tested at a 0.01

statistical significance level.


DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved family.

To my mom and dad for their boundless love, inspiration,

and friendship. To all my siblings for their support and

encouragement. To my dear wife Irene and our wonderful

children Wairimu and Matu for their unfailing patience,

love, and support during the period we lived apart as I

pursued this great challenge, and to my Auntie Jane and her

son Duncan for their invaluable friendship.

iv


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks and appreciation to my dissertation

chairperson, Dr. Akunna Winston, for her wonderful support,

encouragement, and guidance; it made a remarkable

difference for which I will always be grateful. I would

also like to thank my other committee members, Dr.

Meenakshi Krishnamoorthy and Dr. Ellen Kaye Gehrke, for

providing several suggestions that greatly enriched the

dissertation.

I am grateful to my brother Karia for his help with

data collection in South Africa. Finally, I would like to

thank all my other friends and family members who supported

and encouraged me, in particular Dominic, Yasin, Ken, and

Mwaura, for the difference they made along the way.

v


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES .................................................. x

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................1

Background of the Problem ............................ 3

Statement of the Problem ............................. 6

Purpose of the Study .................................. 7

Research Model and Research Questions ............ 8

Research Hypothesis................................. 12

Importance of the Study ............................. 14

Scope of the Study ................................... 15

Definition of Terms .................................. 15

Summary ................................................ 17

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................18

Definition of Theme Parks ........................... 18

History of Theme Parks ............................ 21

Internationalization of Theme Parks ............. 23

Current International Business Issues Related toTheme Parks ......................................... 25

Opportunities for Growth-- EmergingMarkets ........................................26

Importance of Repeat Attendance by Visitorsfrom the Local Market ........................27

vi


Chapter Page

2. (continued)

The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behavior ....29

Standardization Versus Adaptation ofTheme Parks ......................................... 39

Cultural Dimensions and Factors MotivatingRepeat Attendance .................................. 41

Theme Park Rides ................................... 42

Water Rides ......................................... 43

Theme Shows ......................................... 43

Park Image .......................................... 45

Waiting Time on Lines ............................. 46

Media Advertising and Culture .................... 47

Hedonism and Alternative Attractions ............ 49

Demographic Variables and ThemePark Attendance .................................... 50

Globalized Youth ................................... 50

Income and Frequency of Attendance .............. 51

Family Make-Up and Disposable Income ............ 52

Race Demographics and Subcultures ................54

Summary ................................................ 58

3. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES ....................... 5 9

Introduction .......................................... 59

Research Design .......................................59

vii


Chapter Page

3. (continued)

Research Questions ................................... 62

Data Collection .......................................65

Data Sources .......................................... 66

Instrumentation .......................................66

Scoring-Measurement Strength ........................67

Research Procedures .................................. 69

Questionnaire Development .........................69

Pilot Study ......................................... 69

Data Collection..................................... 70

Data Analysis ......................................... 71

Research Hypotheses .................................. 71

Assumptions of the Study ..........................74

Limitations of the Study.... ..........................75

Summary ............................................... 7 6

4. RESULTS AND FINDINGS .................................... 77

Introduction .......................................... 77

Chapter Summary ..................................... 103

5. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........107

Introduction ......................................... 107

Conclusions .......................................... 116

Conclusions, Research Question 1 ................116

viii


Chapter Page

5. (continued)



Conclusions, Research Question 4 ................ 119




Conclusions, Research Questions 8 and 9 ........ 124

Conclusions, Research Questions 10 and 11 ......126

Conclusions, Research Question 12................ 128

Conclusions, Research Question 13 ............... 129

Conclusions on Other Findings ..................... 130

Recommendations for Further Research ............. 131

Concluding Statement ................................132

REFERENCES CITED ..............................................134

APPENDICES

A. THEME PARK SURVEY (UNITED STATES) .................... 147

B. THEME PARK SURVEY (SOUTH AFRICA) ..................... 151

C. INSTRUCTIONS TO SURVEY ADMINISTRATORS ................155

ix


LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Demographic Composition of the UnitedStates Population ..................................... 55

2. Demographic Composition of the SouthAfrican Population .................................... 56

3. Demographic Composition of the Top 35 Percentof the South African Population ..................... 56

4. Importance Attached to High Thrill Rides .............78

5. Importance Attached to Moderate Thrill Rides ........ 79

6. Importance Attached to Water Rides ....................80

7. Willingness to Volunteer to Participate inInteractive Theme Shows .............................. 80

8. Importance Attached to the Image of a Theme Park ....81

9. Willingness to Wait in Line ............................82

10. Level of Reliance on Radio, Television, andthe Internet ........................................... 83

11. Media and Attendance (Direct Mail and Print) ........ 84

12. Rating of Alternative "Self-Improvement"Attractions ............................................ 85

13. Rating of Alternative "Hedonistic" Attractions ......86

14. Frequency of Attendance and Family Incomein South Africa .......................................87

15. Relationship between Frequency of Attendanceand Family Income in the United States ............. 87

16. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among15-24 Year Olds ........................................89

x


Table Page



19. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance amongthe Different Races in the United States ........... 95

20. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance amongthe Different Races in South Africa .................96

21. Age of Respondents ...................................... 97

22. Household Size by Country .............................. 98

23. Gender of Respondents by Country ...................... 99

24. Respondents' Income by Country ........................ 99

25. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance betweenMales and Females in South Africa .................. 101

26. Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance betweenMales and Females in the United States ............ 102

27. Summary of the Differences in the ImportanceAttached to Various Types of Rides .................110

28. Summary of the Differences in the ImportanceAttached to Park Image .............................. Ill

29. Summary of the Significant Differencesin the Level of Reliance on VariousMedia by Attendees .................................. 112

30. Summary of the Relationship between HouseholdIncome and Frequency of Attendance .................113

31. Summary of Significant Differences in FactorsMotivating Repeat Attendance among VariousAge Groups ............................................ 114

xi


Table Page

32. Summary of the Significant Differences inFactors Motivating Repeat Attendanceamong Various Races .................................115

33. Summary of Results of the Differences inFactors Motivating Repeat Attendancebetween Males and Females ........................... 116

xii


Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Following the opening of Disneyland in California in

1955, the theme park industry in the United States and

Western Europe experienced double-digit growth in

attendance figures from the 1960s through to the mid-1980s.

However during the last two decades, annual growth in

attendance has been modest, and theme park brands have

begun expanding to other markets to prolong their product

lifecycle. American theme park brands such as Disney, Six

Flags, and Universal Studios have ventured into Europe and

Japan, while the Danish brand Legoland opened new locations

in the United Kingdom and the United States. These initial

attempts by theme park brands to establish venues outside

their home countries achieved mixed results. While Tokyo

Disneyland has been a remarkably successful venture, Euro

Disney in Paris has made a loss almost every year since it

opened in 1992. Meanwhile, Legoland has had relative

success in the United Kingdom, while its Southern

California venue has performed well below expectations.

1


In the late 1970s, western exporting companies began

to embrace the concept of market integration, adopting

their products to the needs and customs of overseas

clients. Researchers also were expounding on this movement,

with breakthrough studies by Hofstede (1980) and Peabody

(1985). The findings of these studies cautioned against

making international marketing decisions based on

stereotyping of other nations' consumers. Findings

emphasized that the scientific study of national culture

has value in international marketing, and that such

differences, if observed and measured, would be helpful in

predicting consumer behavior. In 1995, Spencer observed

that the failure to account for cultural differences was a

contributing factor to the mixed success in the export of

theme park brands.

The likely trend is for major American and European

theme park brands to focus on opportunities in emerging

markets. One reason is because these markets have middle

classes that are growing faster than anywhere else in the

world (Whelan, 2000). In addition, emerging markets have

world-class tourist destinations that are less expensive

than those in western countries. Theme parks in these

locations are, therefore, well placed to tap into the

2


tourist market. According to King (1981), theme parks are

a cultural product. Since the export of theme park brands

involves the export of the home country's culture, it is

important for marketers to study the role of cultural

differences in order to better understand the extent of

adaptation versus standardization necessary for theme park

brands across national boundaries.

Background of the Problem

Culture is important for analyzing consumer behavior.

In 2001, Malhotra wrote that firms must recognize the

cultural variations that exist among consumers in different

countries in order to be successful in the global

marketplace. In recent years, on account of the large

increase in the number of firms doing business in several

countries, the role of culture in consumer behavior has

become a major area of study by marketers. Many of the

earlier studies on cross-cultural research focused on

traditional consumer goods or services that have a

relatively long history of internationalization.

During the last few decades, there has been a notable

rise in disposable incomes in developed and emerging

markets. This trend is attributable to, among other

3


factors, smaller families, dual incomes, and better

educations (Silverstein and Fiske, 2003). The increase in

disposable incomes has, in turn, led to an increase in

leisure consumption. However cross-cultural comparative

research on leisure consumption is relatively rare in

academic literature (Chick, 2000). The relatively small

body of research available indicates important differences

in leisure consumption habits even when countries have

similar incomes and levels of economic development. Li and

Wong (1998) examined the effects of hedonism and

intellectualism on leisure time consumption in Australia

and Singapore and found that consumers who value hedonism

more than intellectualism were more likely to spend more

time on entertainment activities than on self-improvement

activities. As leisure time brands such as theme park

brands begin to expand into emerging markets, one might

expect that there will be a corresponding increase in the

need for information on cross-cultural leisure consumption.

According to De Mooij (2004), most studies of cultural

implications in marketing have used Hofstede's dimensions

of culture, because they have been found to be relatively

independent of each other and cover most countries of the

world. In addition, when taken together with income,

4


Hofstede's cultural dimensions explain most aspects of

consumer behavior. For this reason, Hofstede's cultural

dimensions are used in this study.

In summarizing, the following factors are the most

important in the background of the problem for this study.

1. The failure to account for cultural differences

has been a contributing factor to the mixed success in the

export of theme park brands.

2. Since the export of theme park brands involves

the export of the home country's culture, it is important

for marketers to study the role of cultural differences in

order to better understand the extent of adaptation versus

standardization necessary for theme park brands across

national boundaries.

3. The likely trend is for major American and

European theme park brands to focus on opportunities in

emerging markets.

This section introduced the background of the problem

for this study. The next sections will deal with the

specifics of the problem, the scope of the study, and the

particular research questions to be investigated.


Statement of the Problem

In the past two decades, American theme parks

expanding globally focused on Europe and Japan. Thus,

Disney opened parks in Tokyo and Paris, Six Flags ventured

into Spain, and Universal Studios opened a theme park in

Japan. The focus in recent years, however, has been on

emerging markets. This is evidenced by the recent entry of

Six Flags into Mexico; the opening of a Disney park in Hong

Kong, China, in September 2005 (Landreth, 2005); and the

proposed opening of Disney and Universal Studios theme

parks in Mainland China. In South Africa, the newly opened

Ushaka Marine Park in Durban is based on a similar concept

to the Sea World brand of theme parks owned by Anheuser

Busch.

The early initiatives at exporting theme park brands

into Europe and Japan did not always achieve the

anticipated results. The surprisingly poor performance of

Euro Disney contrasts with the somewhat unexpectedly

remarkable success of Tokyo Disney (Spencer, 1995).

Universal Studios recently entered the Japanese market,

perhaps expecting similar success to Disney's, but so far,

attendance figures have been below initial projections,

while Six Flags recently decided to withdraw from Europe to

6


concentrate on its venues in the United States and Mexico

(Koranteng, 2004). There are indications that many of the

problems encountered by these theme park brands in

international markets might have been reduced, if cultural

sensitivities had been taken into account. As the export

of theme park brands begins to focus on developing markets,

there is, therefore, a need to examine the cultural

influences among theme park visitors in the United States

and a developing country, South Africa, in terms of factors

motivating frequency of attendance.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to determine the role of

cultural and demographic differences on factors that


United States and South Africa. The study, therefore,

examined culturally-related factors motivating repeat

attendance to the same theme park as well as culturally-

and demographically-related factors motivating frequency of

attendance to theme parks in general.

Repeat attendance to the same park is important from a

market share point of view, while frequency of attendance

to theme parks in general is important to theme park

7


operators from a market size viewpoint. In the next

section, the specific research questions of this study are

discussed.

Research Model and Research Questions

There were a total of 13 questions in this study. The

objective of the research questions was to measure and

predict the differences and relationships between the two

countries with regard to the dependent variable Frequency

of Attendance based on the independent variables as shown

on the research model on page 9.

Ql: Is there a significant difference in the level of

motivation for repeat attendance to experience high thrill

rides between attendees from an individualist culture, the

United States, and attendees from a collectivist culture,

South Africa?

Q 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level of

motivation for repeat attendance to experience moderate

thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture,

South Africa, and attendees from an individualistic

culture, the United States?


motivation for repeat attendance to experience water rides

8


Country Culture

The United StatesIndividualist Low Power distance Short term orientation Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

South AfricaCollectivist High power distance Long-term orientation Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

Rides

High thrill rides Moderate thrill rides Water Rides

DemographicVariables

Age of visitor Race/ Ethnicity Family Income Family makeup

Frequencyof

attendance

AlternativeAttractions

Zoos/Animal parks Museums Arcade games Miniature golf Water parks

Theme Shows

Localhistory -US Localhistory -SA Cultural shows Science fiction shows Animal shows

Park Image

Cleanliness Staff service level Scenery

Media Advertising

TelevisionRadioNewspapers Direct mail Web sites

Times Spent Waiti in Lines Lines at ride locations Lines at park entrance

ng

IFigure 1

Research Model

9


between attendees from a low power distance, high

uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, and

attendees from a high power distance, high uncertainty

avoidance culture, South Africa.

Q4 : Is there a significant difference in the level of

willingness to volunteer to take part in the execution of

theme shows between attendees from an individualist

culture, the United States, and attendees from a

collectivist culture, South Africa?


motivation for repeat attendance due to the image of a

theme park between attendees from a high power distance

culture, South Africa, and attendees from a low power

distance culture, the United States?

Q6: Is there a significant difference in the level of

motivation for repeat attendance as a result of having to

wait in line between attendees from a high power distance



Q 7 : What are the significant differences in factors

motivating repeat attendance among the 15-24-year-old age

group compared to older age groups (25-44, 45-59) in both

countries?

10



motivating repeat attendance among the different races in

South Africa?

Q9: What are the significant differences in factors


the United States?

Q10: Is there a significant relationship between

frequency of attendance at theme parks and family income in

South Africa?

Qll: Is there a significant relationship between


the United States?

Q12: What are the significant differences in the level

of influence that different types of advertising media have

on attendance in the United States and South Africa?

Q13: What are the significant differences in the

ratings of alternative attractions to theme parks between

attendees from an individualist, short-term orientation


collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South Africa?

11


Research Hypothesis

There were a total of 13 hypotheses in this study

corresponding to the 13 research questions.

HI: Attendees from an individualistic culture, the

United States, will have a significantly higher motivation

for repeat attendance to experience high thrill rides than

attendees from a collectivist culture, South Africa.

H 2 : Attendees from a collectivist culture, South

Africa, will have a significantly higher level of


thrill rides than attendees from an individualistic

culture, the United States.

H3: Attendees from a low power distance, high

uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, will have

a significantly higher level of motivation for repeat

attendance to experience water rides than attendees from a

high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture,

South Africa.

H 4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the

United States, will have a significantly higher level of

willingness to volunteer to participate in the execution of

theme shows than attendees from a collective culture, South

Africa.

12


H5: Attendees from a high power distance culture,

South Africa, will have a significantly higher level of

motivation for repeat attendance to theme parks with a

prestigious image than attendees from a lower power

distance culture, the United States.


South Africa, will have a significantly lower level of


wait in line than attendees from a lower power distance


H 7 : There are fewer significant differences in

factors motivating repeat attendance among 15-24-year-olds

than there are among the older age groups, 25-44- and 45-

59-year-olds in both countries.

H8: There are significant differences in factors


South Africa.



the United States.

H10: There is a positive relationship between


South Africa.

13


Hi1: There is a positive relationship between


the United States.

H12: There are significant differences in the level of

influence that different types of advertising media have on

attendance in the United States and South Africa.

H13: Attendees from an individualist, short-term

orientation culture, the United States, are more likely to

favor hedonistic alternative attractions such as arcade

games, water parks, and miniature golf than attendees from

a collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South

Africa.

Importance of the Study

The findings of this study will assist theme park

managers, who have the responsibility of exporting their

brand to other countries. Managers may incorporate the

findings of the study in their planning of theme park

shows, rides, and attractions in different cultural

environments. Optimization of the degree of standardization

versus adaptation necessary for theme park brands in

different cultures will enhance the prospects of success of

theme park brands in the international arena.

14


Scope of the Study

This study examined differences in factors motivating

repeat attendance at theme parks in two different cultures,

South Africa and the United States. Primary data were

collected from interviewing nationals of each country. The

data were quantitative and were collected from theme park

visitors in the Gauteng province of South Africa and from

Southern California in the United States. The ages of theme

park visitors interviewed are divided into the following

age groups: 15-24, 25-44, 45-59, and over 60. Two hundred

and fifty theme park visitors from each country were

interviewed, and care was taken to include a representative

sample from each of the major racial groups in each

country.

Definition of Terms

Individualism refers to the degree to which citizens

of a country act as individuals rather than as members of

cohesive groups; collectivism is the opposite of

individualism.

Power Distance refers to the extent to which less

powerful members of a society consider and accept that

power is distributed unequally.

15


Long-term orientation refers to an emphasis on values

of thrift and perseverance, while short-term orientation

refers to high consumption, low savings values.

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which

people feel threatened by ambiguity and try to avoid these

situations. In countries of strong uncertainty avoidance,

there is a need for rules and customs to structure life.

High thrill rides are designed to provide theme park

visitors with experiences of extreme speed, height, free

fall, and weightlessness. These rides are restricted to

persons over 4.5 feet tall. Some of these rides may include

giant roller coasters, ferris wheels, and tower drops.

Moderate thrill family rides are suitable for both

adults and children over 3.5 feet tall. The rides are

smaller than high thrill rides and do not feature

experiences of free fall or weightlessness. Some of these

rides may include small roller coasters, merry-go-rounds,

and simulator rides such as helicopters and spacecrafts.

Water rides are rides that have water as a

transportation medium. They include rapid rides on boats or

water slides. Their source of thrill comes from the

experience of moving rapidly through water, and the

opportunity to get wet in the process.

16


Park Image is the aggregate rating of a theme park

based on visitors' perceptions of its cleanliness, customer

service levels, and scenery.

Summary

As theme parks are at a mature stage of their product

lifecycle in the United States and Europe, a trend is on

the increase indicating investment in emerging markets with

growing middle classes. Theme parks are cultural products,

and their export to other countries has important cultural

implications. The purpose of this study was to determine

the role of culture on factors that motivate frequency of

attendance at theme parks in the United States and South

Africa. The findings of this study will assist theme park

managers, who have the responsibility of exporting their

brand to other countries. Managers may incorporate the

findings of the study in their planning of theme park

shows, rides, and attractions in different cultural

environments, which will, in turn, enhance the prospects of

success of theme park brands in the international arena.

17


Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This study examined cultural and demographic aspects

related to theme park attendance in the United States and

South Africa. This chapter reviewed major contributions to

existing literature. The literature was reviewed in three

major areas, beginning with the definition and history of

theme parks. This was followed by a discussion on the

internationalization of theme parks and a review of current

international issues pertaining to the industry. The final

section discussed the influence of culture and demographics

on consumer preferences that have a bearing on theme park


Definition of Theme Parks

Theme parks belong to the group of venues that provide

entertainment targeted at the entire family. There are

three main types of entertainment centers in this category.

These include theme parks, amusement parks, and shopping

mall family entertainment centers.

18


The shopping mall family entertainment center is

designed to attract visitors to a shopping complex and keep

them there as long as possible. In 2004, Mooradian wrote

that this type of entertainment center typically is about

several thousand square feet large and usually contains

three or more of the following elements as major

attractions: miniature golf, batting cages, bumper

boats/cars, go-karts, simple rides, and coin-operated

games. Video arcade games, redemption games, as well as

food and beverage services are other features associated

with this type of family entertainment center. Shopping

mall family entertainment centers typically are located

indoors, but outdoor locations are also available.

Theme parks and amusement parks tend to be much

larger, typically several acres in size and with most

activities based outdoors. Traditional amusement parks are

focused on providing a variety of high thrill rides as well

as arcade games. Roddewig, Schiltz, and Papke (1986)

observed that the concept of theme parks differs from the

more traditional amusement parks in that typically there is

a unifying theme around which the park is organized.

Typically the theme concept attempts to create the feeling

of another place and time. Modrego et al. (2000) added that

19


amusement parks focus on entertainment, while theme parks

focus on edutainment.

The Marriott Corporation's definition, as quoted by

Blazey (1984:14), describes a theme park as "A family

entertainment complex oriented to a particular subject or

historical area, combined with entertainment and

merchandise to create a fantasy provoking atmosphere."

The marketing activities of the theme park revolve

around a distinct positioning built around this theme. The

positioning of the renowned Disney brand of theme parks

revolves around Mickey Mouse, arguably America's most

famous cartoon character, and is designed to evoke a return

to childhood experience. King (1981) argued that the

return to childhood is the basic appeal of the Disney

parks, epitomized by Mickey Mouse and the simulation of

other fairy tale classics such as Snow White and

Cinderella.

Zoltak (2003) contended that customers like making

contact with characters they see on television and in

movies. As a result, other parks have followed Disney's

initiative and tried to build their theme park brands

around famous cartoon and comic book characters. Paramount

parks, which initially were positioned as thrill ride-

20


oriented amusement parks, recently began making use of

characters from their parent company Viacom's Nickelodeon

television network to create themed entertainment. This

strong cast of kid-friendly characters includes Sponge Bob,

Dora the Explorer, and Jimmy Neutron. The Six Flags group

of parks is licensed to use Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Batman,

and Superman. The company believes that the use of these

characters promotes increased attendance, supports higher

ticket prices, increases length of stay, and enhances in

park spending (w w w .datamonitor.com) .

History of Theme Parks

The history of theme and amusement parks goes back to

the seventeenth century, when large parks known as pleasure

gardens began to spread across England, France, and other

parts of Europe. A variety of sporting activities was

offered to visitors in an atmosphere of pleasantry

including flowers, fountains, and landscaped pathways.

According to Kyriazi (1976), the oldest and best known of

this generation of amusement parks still in existence today

is Tivoli Gardens, located in Belgium, which dates back to

the mid-1800s.

21


http://www.datamonitor.com

Hildebrandt (1981) wrote that the roots of the modern

theme park could be traced back to the trolley parks of the

late nineteenth century. These early amusement parks were

developed by the transit companies to encourage trolley

riding during the less busy weekends and typically were

located at the end of the trolley line several miles from

the city center near a river or lake. According to

Roddewig et al. (1986), Coney Island at the southern tip of

Brooklyn is the best known of these early amusement park

sites in the United States. It featured a series of rides

and attractions developed by a host of entrepreneurs.

Restaurants, beer gardens, and hotels were also built to

cater to the needs of visitors.

The real change from small, family-owned and -operated

parks of the early part of the century came about with the

postwar prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s. Hunter and

Bleinberger (1996) claimed that the opening of Disneyland

in California in 1955 was perhaps the most significant

development in the history of the modern theme park. King

(1981) argued that Disney differed from the earlier

traditional amusement parks, whose focus was centered

around thrill rides and games of chance, by emphasizing

22


theme shows based on American history and culture presented

in a fantasy adventure setting.

The industry expanded rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s,

and by 1983, annual attendance had reached 65 million.

Twenty-eight of the largest metropolitan areas in the

United States had a theme park within a 100-mile radius

(Formica and Olsen, 1998). In the 1980s, growth in

attendance began to slow down, and average annual growth in

attendance dipped into single figures for the first time

since the 1960s. Theme parks were approaching the maturity

stage in the product life cycle in the U. S. This was

confirmed by even slower growth in the 1990s. According to

Formica and Olsen, between 1991 and 1995, for instance,

attendance at the top 20 theme and amusement parks grew by

14 percent, representing an annual growth of less than 3

percent per year.

Internationalization of Theme Parks

According to Vernon (1979), when an industry or

product category reaches maturity in its home country, it

expands into other markets internationally to prolong its

lifecycle and thus avoid or postpone decline. No surprise,

then, that the market leader, Disney, decided to look to

23


other markets to establish its theme park brand. Tokyo

Disneyland opened in 1983, and Euro Disney in Paris

followed in 1992. Six Flags also ventured abroad in the

1990s by opening theme parks in Mexico, Canada, and Spain.

Meanwhile the Danish toy firm Lego began exporting its

theme park brand by building theme parks in London in 1996,

Southern California in 1999, and Germany in 2002.

These initial attempts at exporting theme park brands

achieved mixed results. Indeed, for most brands, there

were probably as many poor performing parks abroad as there

were successes. Euro Disney, Legoland California, and Six

Flags in Spain are examples of export ventures that

achieved disappointing results.

With all the wealth of knowledge on international

business available from the 1970s and 1980s, one might

expect that renowned theme park businesses such as Disney

and Legoland would have anticipated some of the issues that

led them to experience lackluster results in exporting

their brands. The evidence suggests that this was not the

case, as illustrated by the pricing policy for Euro Disney.

Spencer (1995) cited the case of Disney, who, in their

haste to recover their investment, set initial entry fees

almost 20 percent higher in Paris than in the United

24


States, in spite of the lower disposable incomes and more

conservative spending habits in Europe.

In making marketing and strategic decisions, Disney

management appears to have been operating on the premise

that European culture was closer to American culture than

to Japanese culture. Hence, as cited by Van Maanen (1992),

in Japan, Disney opted for royalty payments in lieu of the

risk of ownership owing to muted expectations about the

Japanese market and the failure to appreciate the

fascination of the Japanese with American culture. As a

result, it is estimated that over the first decade, Disney

probably sacrificed at least a billion dollars in profits

owing to this decision alone (Spencer, 1995). Meanwhile,

according to the Wall Street Journal (October 7, 1998), the

sensitivity of the French to overbearing American cultural

influence was ignored when, for example, Disney management

insisted on strict compliance with American dress code for

staff, a fact that contributed to less than optimum

customer service at Euro Disney.

Current International Business Issues Related to Theme Parks

Theme park managers looking to expand internationally

are concerned with identifying the most promising locations25


abroad. They also want to ensure that first-time visitors

from the local market will make repeat visits.

Opportunities for Growth-- Emerging Markets

In the last two decades, American theme parks

expanding globally focused on Europe and Japan as the main

market opportunities. The focus in recent years, however,

has been on emerging markets. There are several possible

reasons for this trend. Europe has its own fairly strong

theme and amusement park brands including the Tussaud and

Legoland groups. Competition and entry costs, therefore,

are higher. Besides, as Milman (2001) observed, future

demographic trends are similar to the United States, where

the number of younger citizens-- the primary target for

theme parks-- is falling. Emerging markets also have middle

classes that are growing faster than anywhere else in the

world. A case in point is China, which, according to Orr

(2004), is now the fifth largest market for automobiles,

and Disney already has plans, after Hong Kong, to open

another theme park on the Chinese mainland. Emerging

markets also offer world-class tourist destinations at

cheaper rates than western countries, and theme parks in

these locations are well placed to tap into this market.26


Importance of Repeat Attendance by Visitors from the Local Market

According to Roddewig et a l . (1986), most theme parks

other than the Disney family draw as much as 70 percent of

their business from the region in which they are located,

typically within a three hour drive. This allows

sufficient time for a family to drive to the park and spend

about six hours before returning home the same day.

Therefore, theme parks need to understand the consumer

preferences in the local area in order to influence repeat

patronage.

The Disney family of parks may have a larger volume of

tourist visitors, but many of these tourists favor

attending a Disney park closest to home. Thus, according

to Khan (2003), Disney projects that one third of the

visitors to its Hong Kong Park will come from Mainland

China. Spencer (1995) contended that in the 1990s, part of

Euro Disney problems were attributed to the park's failure

to attract enough local visitors from Paris and its

surrounding districts. This suggests that even the Disney

family of theme parks needs to understand the consumer

preferences in the larger regional area in order to

influence frequency of attendance.

27


A review of the literature including studies on

American theme parks by Blazey (1984), Thach and Axinn

(1994), and Formica and Olsen (1998) shows that customer

perceptions of the following elements has a direct bearing

on attendance at theme parks.

Types of rides

Types of theme shows

Waiting time on lines

Park image

Safety concerns

Media advertising

Distance from home

Ticket prices

Discounts and special offers

Food services

Park cleanliness

Weather/climate

The present study examines some of these variables

within the context of national culture with a view to

determining how differences in consumer preferences affect

attendance at theme parks in the United States and South

Africa.

28


The Influence of Culture on Consumer Behavior

According to Lipman (1988), culture influences every

aspect of marketing including the products or services

people buy and the attributes they value. Jain (1989)

argued that similarities and differences in cultural

values, level of economic development, and psychological

perception were the primary factors that marketers should

consider in determining the appropriate degree of

standardization or customization of their marketing.

The increased pace of globalization has greatly

enhanced the importance of cross-cultural marketing

research. According to Malhotra (2001), firms must

recognize the cultural variations that exist among

consumers in different countries in order to be successful

in the global marketplace. Krishnamoorthy et al. (2003)

noted that owing to cultural differences, marketing brands

across countries was far more complex than within a

country.

The impact of culture varies depending on the product.

Some products are more culturally embedded than others.

Products such as computers, digital cameras, and cell

phones have few cultural connotations. On the other hand,

types of food, eating habits, and clothing are often29


strongly associated with people's culture. The successful

export of products or services in the latter categories

will often be determined by the compatibility of the

product or service with the values and belief systems of

the export market (Rogers, 1995).

In 2005, Craig, Green, and Douglas used Hofstede's

dimensions to examine the acceptance of American films in

foreign markets. They found that consumer acceptance of

American films was dependent on the export markets culture.

Cultural similarity was found to be a better predictor of

the performance of a film at the box office than a common

language (i.e., English). According to King (1981), theme

parks are a cultural product; hence, one would expect to

observe culturally-related differences in consumer

preferences across countries.

Gupta (2003) argued that understanding the underlying

dimensions of culture can offer important guidance to

multinational marketers on how to assess which elements of

their marketing initiatives could be standardized and which

should be customized. In the mid-twentieth century post-war

globalization, several marketers argued that consumer needs

and tastes would converge, which would, in turn, facilitate

the standardization of marketing and advertising. Buzzell

30


(1968) contended that societal and economic trends were

working in favor of more standardization of the marketing

process across countries. In his famous and somewhat

controversial article "The Globalization of Markets,"

Levitt 1983), asserted that globalization would result in a

world where customers' needs would be homogenized.

However, these expectations appear to have been

somewhat overstretched. In the latter part of the last

century, many scholars were arguing that marketers who

overlooked cultural differences between nations could be

losing out to those who took care to account for such

differences. Kotler (1986), Sheth (1986), Agrawal (1995),

and De Mooij (2000) all noted that in spite of

globalization, cultural influences nevertheless meant that

customization of marketing initiatives was still necessary

for the success of multinational marketing initiatives.

There are many definitions in literature for the term

"culture." A common theme in many definitions of culture is

that it influences the behavior of members of a given

society in a specific and predictable direction. For

example, Etzel, Walker, and Stanton (2004) defined culture

as,

A set of symbols and artifacts created by a society and handed down from generation to generation as

31


determinants of human behavior. The symbols may be intangible (attitudes, beliefs, values, language) or tangible (tools, housing, products, works of art).(Etzel, Walker, and Stanton, 2004:99)

Etzel et al. (2004) argued that cultures do change

over time as lifestyle changes take place, and marketing

executives should adjust their strategies and plans to be

in tune with these changes. Howard and Sheth (1969), in

their classic book The Theory of Buyer Behavior, explained

that culture is a set of social influences that provide the

buyer with socially appropriate motives for his/her

behavior, including the reassurance that a particular

purchase decision was a good one.

Various researchers have conducted studies in which

they measured similarities and differences in cultural

values. Rokeach (1973) developed a model to measure

cultural values using respondents' rank-ordering on an

agree/disagree scale for each item. Rokeach's value

inventory was based on two types of cultural values—

terminal values and instrumental values. "Terminal values"

described the individual's desired state and existence and

included such conditions as an exiting life, a comfortable

life, and a sense of accomplishment. "Instrumental values"

were the modes of conduct that people might follow to reach

32


the terminal values and included honesty, courage,

ambition, and independence.

Various researchers have used Rokeach's value survey

to compare cultural values among national subgroups in the

United States. In their study of Black and White middle

class consumers, Ness and Stith (1984) found several

similarities in terms of demographic profiles. However,

Blacks showed small but statistically significant

differences in their consideration of a sense of

accomplishment and family security as more important than

did Whites. In 2002, Lindridge and Dibb reported that

British Indians and British Caucasians showed significant

differences in their buying behavior patterns for

televisions, video equipment, and music systems. Milman, in

2001, proposed that theme park managers in the United

States needed to understand the implications of the rapid

increase of the Hispanic portion of the teenage and youth

segments of the market.

Another instrument was developed by Kahl (1983) based

on a "List of Values," inspired by the earlier work of

Rokeach and Maslow. Kahl's list consisted of nine values,

including sense of belonging, fun and enjoyment, warm

relationships with others, self-fulfillment, being well

33


respected, sense of accomplishment, security, self-respect,

and excitement.

Grunert, Grunert, and Beatty (1989) used Kahl's "List

of Values" to conduct a cross-cultural study among students

and parents in Denmark, Germany, and the United States. The

authors found some similarities and differences among the

three cultures. They found that students value fun,

enjoyment, and self-fulfillment higher than their parents

in all three countries, while parents selected security as

their most important value. However, Danish respondents

across both categories rated fun and enjoyment much higher

than either German or American respondents did, while

American respondents rated self-fulfillment higher than

both Danes and Germans.

These previous studies suggest that marketers of theme

park brands need to account for both similarities and

differences in consumer behavior from one country to the

other. This would allow them to leverage significant

relationships in consumer behavior across various markets

to develop a global brand, while addressing significant

differences to optimize unique opportunities in each

market. Previous research done on theme and amusement park

attributes preferred by patrons, however, has focused on

34


comparing consumer preferences within a domestic context,

and there is a gap in the literature on international

cross-cultural study of theme park consumers.

Some of these previous studies include one by Blazey

(1984), which investigated theme park visits by persons 55

years or older and found that moderate thrill rides, live

animal shows, and stage shows were more highly valued than

more modern, higher technology shows. Themed areas with

historical and educational significance also were valued

highly, while souvenirs were considered better value than

arcade games of chance.

In their study of amusement park visitors in a major

American metropolis, Thach and Axinn (1994) observed that

scenery, simulated fantasy adventure, line control,

pricing, and roller coaster rides were highly valued

attributes. Factors such as proximity, comedy shows, music

shows, and animal shows were medium value attributes, while

children's rides and educational value were considered

lower value attributes. Meanwhile, a study by Keng (1994)

conducted in Singapore found that there were significant

differences between locals and tourists in theme park

attributes preferred. Tourists valued Chinese cultural

35


shows higher than locals, while the latter valued rides and

high tech amusement more than tourists did.

There are two well-established models of national

culture that are currently used by marketers to design

strategies for targeting consumers in different countries.

Hofstede developed the first in 1983, while Schwartz, in

1994, developed the second. These models are attractive to

marketers because they provide country scores that can be

used for analysis of consumption data.

Schwartz's model includes seven cultural dimensions,

namely conservatism, hierarchy, mastery, egalitarian

commitment, intellectual autonomy, affective autonomy, and

harmony (Schwartz and Bardi, 2001). A brief description of

each of these dimensions follows.

Schwartz (1994) wrote that conservatism refers to

emphasis on maintenance of the status guo. Concern for

tradition, conformity, and family security are important

elements. In a hierarchical society, class and societal

position are important elements. "Mastery" emphasizes the

pursuit of personal interest, while "egalitarianism"

emphasizes social justice and equality. "Harmony"

emphasizes respect for peaceful coexistence with nature and

other societies. Finally, "intellectual autonomy"

36


emphasizes curiosity, creativity, and broadmindedness,

while "affective autonomy" emphasizes variety and the

pursuit of pleasure.

Hofstede's model (2001) consists of five cultural

dimensions, including individualism and collectivism, power

distance, masculinity and femininity, uncertainty

avoidance, and long-term/short-term orientation. A brief

description of each of these dimensions, as elaborated on

by Hofstede, follows.

"Individualism" is a tendency within a culture to

focus on the individual rather than on the group, and

"collectivism" is a tendency within a culture toward

gregariousness and group orientation. "Power distance"

refers to the extent to which less powerful members of a

society consider and accept that power is distributed

unequally. "Femininity" emphasizes caring for others and

quality of life, while "masculinity" emphasizes achievement

and success. "Uncertainty avoidance" refers to the extent

to which people feel threatened by ambiguity and try to

avoid these situations. In countries of strong uncertainty

avoidance, there is a need for rules and customs to

structure life. Long-term orientation was a dimension added

to the original 1983 dimensions following collaboration

37


between Hofstede and Michael Bond (Hofstede, 2001). "Long

term orientation" refers to an emphasis on values of thrift

and perseverance, while "short-term orientation" refers to

high consumption, low savings values.

Most applications of cultural dimensions to marketing

have used Hofstede's dimensions because they are fewer and,

therefore, more practical, have been found to be relatively

independent of each other, and cover most countries of the

world. De Mooij (2004) wrote that together with income and

level of development, Hofstede's cultural dimensions could

explain more than half of the differences in consumer

behavior. For these reasons, this study also will make use

of Hofstede's dimensions to investigate the role of

cultural differences in attributes motivating frequency of

attendance at theme parks.

Hofstede found that developed Western countries were

highly individualist, whereas developing nations were more

collectivist. Based on the index developed by Hofstede

(1983), the U. S. is among the most individualistic

societies, with an Individualism index of 91. On the other

hand, Triandis, McCusker, and Hui (1990) observed that

African societies are collectivist. A study by Eaton and

Louw (2000) supported the position that South Africa was

38


largely a collectivist society. However, Eaton and Louw

also cautioned that there were important differences within

South Africa primarily based on race. Hofstede's 1983

index, based on studies conducted among International

Business Machines (IBM) employees, found that South Africa

had a medium Individualism score of 65. According to Mbeki

(2001), owing to South Africa's political system at that

time, Hofstede's (1983) study surveyed Caucasian IBM

employees. Hassan and Kaynak (1994) wrote that Hofstede

later studied East Africa and West Africa and found that

they had Individualism scores of 27 and 20, respectively.

Since there are well-documented cultural similarities among

indigenous Africans, these data suggest that the aggregate

Individualism score for South Africa is lower than 65 but

higher than the scores for East and West Africa. This

argument also is applicable to scores for the rest of

Hofstede's cultural dimensions.

Standardization Versus Adaptation of Theme Parks

In 1994, Hassan and Blackwell observed that the

marketing of brands internationally may be standardized or

adapted to local needs. Jain (1989) wrote that the main

considerations that influence standardization of marketing39


strategy are culture, level of economic development, and

psychological perception. Proponents of standardization

argue that owing to education, travel, technology, and

communication, consumers across the world are more alike

than they are different. The arguments for adaptation or

localization are founded on the view that consumers have

different tastes and needs based on nationality, culture,

age, ethnicity, income, and psychological factors. Hence,

products should be adapted to each market to cater to these

differences.

Adapting a product or its marketing for each country

may be too costly and may not necessarily be the right

thing to do. Often the challenge is to determine the

optimum level of adaptation that allows international

brands to leverage their multinational appeal while

recognizing local differences that are critical for

success.

Theme shows may be classified into the several

categories. Some of the main categories common across most

parks include animal shows, history shows, cultural shows,

science fiction shows, and cartoon character shows. There

are several elements of theme shows that may be

standardized on account of their international nature. The

40


successful use of world famous cartoon characters such as

Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny, Superman, Nickelodeon, and Donald

Duck in other markets is understandable, given the

universal nature of television shows that have made these

characters instantly recognizable to kids around the globe.

Theme parks, however, may wish to adapt history and

cultural shows and attractions to suit local visitors,

owing to national pride and ethnocentrism. According to

Wang and Chen (2004), when consumers prefer products or

brands from their own country instead of brands from other

countries, they are displaying consumer ethnocentrism and

national pride. The 2001 World Values Survey shows

Americans, Greeks, and Irish have high patriotism scores,

while Germans and Belgians have very low scores. According

to De Mooij (2004), patriotism was measured based on the

percentage of respondents who said they were proud of their

nationality.

Cultural Dimensions and Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance

A review of the major theme park attributes where

cultural factors have implications for repeat attendance

follows. These attributes form the basis of the Research

Questions on cultural dimensions motivating attendance.41


Theme Park Rides

There are two main types of rides offered at theme

parks; these are high-thrill giant roller coaster rides and

moderate-thrill rides. Thrill rides have been associated

with amusement parks for more than a century. King (1981)

pointed out that the original Disney Park did not feature

rides when it first opened. King added that their

subsequent inclusion is testimony to their ability to

attract visitors. High- and moderate-thrill rides are now

a key ingredient of most theme parks. Many of these rides,

particularly the moderate-thrill rides, now incorporate

themes based on history, science fiction, or other types of

adventure.

Greenfield et al. (1999) argued that individualism is

closely associated with risk taking and thrill seeking. In

recent years, there has been a big rise in extreme sports

in the United States, which indicates an eagerness on the

part of millions of Americans to participate in activities

closer to the metaphorical edge. Roberts (1994) wrote that

Americans are bigger risk takers than the more collectivist

Japanese and hence their greater love for extreme sports.

Newman (2004) observed that theme park managers often cite

the ongoing competition between venues to design taller and

42


faster rides as testimony to America's appetite for thrill.

The arguments above suggest that the relative importance of

high-thrill rides at theme parks would be higher in the

United States than in South Africa.

Water Rides

Many theme parks now also offer water rides. According

to De Mooij (2004), low power distance and weak uncertainty

avoidance cultures attach more importance to sports as a

leisure activity. The similarity between water sports and

water rides suggests that a low power distance, weak

uncertainty avoidance culture such as the United States

would attach greater importance to water rides as a

motivation for repeat attendance than would a higher power

distance, strong uncertainty avoidance culture such as

South Africa.

Theme Shows

The two main activities that theme parks offer are

theme shows and rides. Rides are skewed toward provision of

entertainment, while theme shows provide both education and

entertainment. King (1991:26) stated that "Theming is a

way of collecting information or knowledge in an inviting

43


way. Theme parks successfully connect entertainment and

enlightenment." According to John Jakobson, President and

General Manager, Legoland California, as cited by Lucas

(2004), balancing education with entertainment is one of

the major marketing objectives for the Lego brand.

Milman (2001) wrote that theme shows could be

classified into interactive and passive categories. Passive

shows are those with little or no active involvement by the

audience in the performance of the show. These shows

typically include historical attractions and stage plays

such as cultural or musical shows. On the other hand,

shows featuring science fiction and animal tricks typically

involve more interaction with the audience. Milman found

that American managers of theme parks anticipated that

theme shows would need to be more interactive in the future

in order to attract visitors. In 2001, Hofstede wrote that

consumers from high individualism environments exhibit

extroverted and more active behavior in group situations

than those from collective cultures. Speaking up or

volunteering for attention-attracting roles in group

situations also was more common in high individualism

societies. This is an indicator toward a higher preference

44


for interactive theme shows in high individualism cultures

than in lower individualism cultures.

Park Image

According to Kotler (1984), "image" is a set of

beliefs, ideas, and impressions a person holds of an

entity. In the marketing realm, that entity is normally a

product or service. He argued that the more favorable the

image, the more likely the consumer was to make a repeat

purchase. Zikmund and D'Amico (2003) argued that the

product or brand image is an individual's impression of

what that product or brand represents. They asserted that

consumers frequently prefer one brand to another because of

its image, and that products are purchased or avoided not

because of what they cost or how they work but rather

because of what they say about the buyer or the user. In

1994, Thach and Axinn found that American consumers related

park image to attributes such as cleanliness, scenery, and

park prestige. Earlier, McClung, in 1991, had identified

crowds as an important factor in the consumer's perception

of theme park image.

In 2004, De Mooij wrote that people in high power

distance cultures seek to demonstrate their position in

45


society by showing that they have sophisticated tastes.

Such behavior is evidenced by social-status-reinforcing

habits such as expensive dressing and the patronizing of

prestigious places. Status was also important in masculine

cultures. Those cultures that score highly on both high

power distance and masculinity would have consumers who are

highly motivated by status. Such countries include South

Africa, Italy, and East Asian countries. Countries that

score low on both counts, such as the Scandinavian

territories, would have a low status need. Consumers in the

United States, which has a low power distance score and a

high masculine score, would be expected to have a moderate

need for status and prestige.

Waiting Time on Lines

In 2002, Hightower, Brady, and Baker found that

waiting time on lines was related to perceived service

quality at sporting venues in the U. S. This implies that

theme parks and other leisure entertainment venues need to

be aware of the effect waiting times have on consumer

behavioral intentions.

In low power distance cultures, there is a greater

respect for individual equality, while in high power

46


distance cultures, national elites hold relatively

authoritarian values (Hofstede, 2001). Theme parks are part

of the leisure and entertainment industry targeted at the

middle and upper income groups. The United States has a

large middle class, a relatively low power distance score.

It is therefore expected that respect for individual

equality translates to a greater tolerance for waiting

one's turn in a queue. On the other hand, South Africa has

a higher power distance index and a smaller middle class.

One might therefore expect less tolerance for waiting in

line by theme park visitors in the latter culture.

Media Advertising and Culture

Etzel et al. (2004) observed that the goal of

advertising is to sell goods, services, or ideas. This

goal is reached by communicating with a target audience

using advertising messages relayed through various media

including television, radio, newspapers, magazines, direct

mail, billboards, and the Internet. Etzel et al. added that

the goal of advertising was to change consumer behavior by

effectively informing and persuading the target prospect.

In 2003, Gupta contended that culture plays a role in

how information is scanned, selected, validated, and

47


prioritized by consumers. He argued that prior

understanding of the extent to which marketing

communication efforts should be customized was an important

competitive advantage for multinational marketers. Chen and

Allmon (1998) argued that consumer perceptions of the media

in different cultures influence the effectiveness of these

media. For example, television was found to be a more

entertaining and informative media in Australia than in

Taiwan, suggesting that television may be a more effective

media in the former culture.

In 1991, McClung wrote that in the United States,

children's desire to visit a park and media advertising are

important factors in the decision of household heads to

attend a particular theme park. Specifically, children's

desire was rated higher than the effect of media

advertising by American household heads. These studies

suggest that theme parks' advertising strategies should

account for cultural differences in various international

markets in selecting the appropriate media to influence

attendance.

48


Hedonism and Alternative Attractions

According to the United States Amusement Industry

Consumer Survey of 2000, conducted by the International

Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA), the

attractions that theme park visitors consider as substitute

venues include museums, zoos, miniature golf courses,

shopping arcade family entertainment centers, and water

parks. Museums and zoos have a considerable educational

emphasis, while the other attractions have an emphasis on

play and pleasure. There is evidence that individualist and

short-term orientation cultures prefer to spend their

leisure time on hedonistic activities. For example, Li and

Wong (1998) examined the effects of hedonism and



more than intellectualism are likely to spend more time on

entertainment activities than on self-improvement

activities. The United States has a similar culture to

Australia, and it was expected that American respondents

would have a stronger preference for hedonistic attractions

than South Africans.

49


Demographic Variables and Theme Park Attendance

A review of the major theme park attributes where

demographic characteristics have implications for repeat

attendance follows. These attributes form the basis of the

Research Questions on demographic factors motivating

attendance.

Globalized Youth

Theme parks are targeted at the middle class income

segment. In 1994, Hassan and Blackwell contended that

across the globe, the middle class teenage and youth

markets (13-25) are becoming increasingly similar because

of intense exposure to western television programming. In

2004, De Mooij noted that in Japan, the 18-25 age group

exhibits very similar consumer behavior characteristics to

Western counterparts. However, once they enter the job

market, they begin to conform more to typical Japanese

behavior. It is therefore expected that there will be a

greater degree of similarity in factors motivating

attendance at theme parks among the teenage and youth age

groups than among older consumers in the two markets.

50


Income and Frequency of Attendance

According to Lamb, Hair, and McDaniel (1999), while

the overall income of a country is important for marketers,

the distribution of this income within the population is

just as critical. In 2003, Silverstein and Fiske wrote that

dual incomes, smaller families, and better education had

led to a 50 percent increase in real household income

between 1970 and 2000 in the United States. They further

noted that about two thirds of American households had

middle class incomes of at least $25,000. The distribution

of income in South Africa is more skewed than that in the

United States (C.I.A. World Fact Book, 2005). The living

standards measure (LSM) is an internationally used rating

to determine lifestyles based on income and psychographics

profile. According to the South African Advertising and

Research Foundation available at

www.eighty20.co.za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11

April 2005), 22 percent of South Africans fall within LSM

groups 7-10 that can be described as middle-middle class or

better. If the lower middle class, or LSM 6, is included,

then about one third of South Africans can be described as

enjoying at least a lower middle class standard of living

by international standards.

51


http://www.eighty20.co.za/databases/examples.cgi

In 2002, Hightower, Brady, and Baker wrote that

although Americans were spending more on leisure

activities, relatively little was known about which factors

influence consumers' behavioral intentions in this area.

There are many competing leisure alternatives to theme

parks. This is attested to by the flattening out of growth

in attendance since the early 1990s. It is expected that

there would be a direct relationship between income and

repeat attendance. However, the strength of this

relationship may differ from one country to the next, based

on factors such as available leisure alternatives and

cultural related preferences.

Family Make-Up and Disposable Income

Family sociologists often define a nuclear family as

one consisting of one or two generations of immediate

family members living in the same household, including

parents and their non-adult children. The extended family,

by contrast, may include three or more generations of a

family living in the same household, parents, non-adult

children, grandparents, and even occasionally, great-

grandparents (Ketzer, 1991) . This particular form is common

in many Asian and African households. Another version of

52


the extended family is where the two-generation nuclear

family invites cousins or other close relatives into their

household. This form of extended family is very common in

middle class African households, where wealthier relatives

often take in less endowed relatives whom they help to

educate, usually in exchange for help with domestic chores

(Mungai, 2001).

Family households in African societies are documented

as being on average larger than Western families, owing

partly to the extended family phenomenon and also partly to

the historical tendency to have more children, because

those children who survived and became relatively well off

financially traditionally looked after their parents in

their old age (Mungai, 2001; Siquana-Ndulo, 1998). Prior to

the industrial revolution, families in Europe were

predominantly large for reasons similar to those advanced

for the relatively large size of present-day African

families, according to arguments made by scholars, and

urbanization and capitalism resulted in smaller nuclear

families in latter-day western societies (Ziehl, 2002).

One other important difference between White families which

constitute the bulk of the population in the United States

and Black families which constitute the bulk of the

53


population in South Africa is that single-parent families

are more prevalent among Black families in both countries

(Zein and Eitzen, 1990; Ziehl, 2001).

In light of the preceding observations, family make-up

very probably has implications for consumer behavior. This

is because a larger African family with the same annual

household income will have more members sharing this income

than is the case for a smaller family in the United States.

One therefore might expect annual income to be a stronger

predictor of the amount of money available for leisure

consumption in a developing country with a higher

prevalence of larger families that in the U. S., where

family sizes are on average smaller.

Race Demographics and Subcultures

Both the United States and South Africa are multi

racial societies. In the U. S., the main racial groups are

Caucasians, Hispanics, and African Americans. There is

also an increasing number of Americans of Asian descent.

South Africa has citizens of African, European, and Asian

origin. South Africa also has a sizable population of

mixed race inhabitants. The demographic compositions of

54


American and South African populations are indicated in

Table 1 on this page and Table 2 on page 56.

Because of the high pricing level of tickets, theme

parks essentially are targeted at the middle classes and

upper income groups. Silverstein and Fiske (2003) noted

that in the United States, the majority of the population

belongs to these categories. In South Africa, only 35

percent of the population qualifies as members of the

leisure-consuming middle class. The ethnic and cultural

composition of this population is, therefore, of interest

to marketers of theme parks, as is illustrated in Table 3

on page 56.

Table 1

Demographic Composition of the United States Population

Race/ EthnicityPopulation

(mil.) PercentageCaucasians 199 67Hispanics 38 13African Americans 35 12Asian Americans 12 4Others 12 4Totals 296 100

Source: U. S. Census Bureau, 2004(http://www.census.gov/population (accessed 11 April 2005)

55


http://www.census.gov/population

Table 2

Demographic Composition of the South African Population

Race/Ethnicity

Population (mil.) Percentage

Blacks 33. 0 76.8Whites 5.0 12 .1Coloreds 3.5 8 . 5Indians 1.0 2.5Others 0.5 0.1Totals 43.0 100.0

Source: http://www.eiqhty2 0 .c o .za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11 April 2005)

Table 3

Demographic Composition of the Top 35 Percent of the South African Population

Race/EthnicityPopulation

(mil.) PercentageBlacks 6. 5 44Whites 5.0 34Coloreds 2.4 16Indians 0.9 6Totals 14.8 100

Source: http://w w w .eighty2 0 .c o .za/databases/examples.cgi (accessed 11 April 2005)

Every country has cultural attributes that are common

to that particular nation. In the United States, for

56


http://www.eiqhty2

http://www.eighty2

example, the dominant culture is the Anglo Saxon culture o

the majority Caucasian ethnic group. As a result, English

is the common language in the United States. The

distinction between ethnic subcultural boundaries may be

less pronounced in the United States than in South Africa,

since the latter's middle classes do not have a dominant

culture due to a more diverse ethnic composition. However

there is evidence of distinct cultural assimilation in

South Africa in spite of its political history. For

example, De Mooij (2004) found that the values of white

English and Afrikaans-speaking South Africans were more

similar to the values of black South Africans than they

were to English and Dutch values.

While aggregate cultural dimensions are of importance

to marketers because they can take advantage of economies

of scale, the distinct sub cultural differences also are

important for more precise segmentation. Milman (2001)

wrote that the number of Hispanic teens was growing six

times as fast as the rest of the teen-aged population, and

the theme park and attraction industry needed to develop

products that will take into consideration these

demographic changes. The differences in ethnic preferences

57


within each country in this study, therefore, are examined

and reported.

SummaryIn this chapter, the researcher has reviewed selected

literature relevant to the present study. The purpose of

this review was to provide a background to the research

questions and hypotheses that form the basis of this study.

The researcher reviewed the literature in three major

areas, beginning with the definition and history of theme

parks. This was followed by a section on the

internationalization of theme parks and a discussion of

current international issues pertaining to the industry. In

the final section, the researcher discussed the influence

of culture and demographics on consumer preferences that

have a bearing on theme park attendance in the United

States and South Africa.

58


Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Introduction

In this chapter, the researcher discusses the research

methods employed in conducting the study. These methods

include research design, research questions, dependent and

independent variables, sources of data, sampling

techniques, collection of data, validity and reliability,

research assumptions, limitations and delimitations of the

study, and a summary of the methods and procedures.

Research Design

This study involved the use of descriptive methods to

measure differences and correlational methods to measure

relationships between theme park patrons in the United

States and South Africa. The author measured differences

in the characteristics of the two populations using

independent sample t tests, while differences among

multiple variables were measured using one-way analysis of

variance (ANOVA). Relationships were measured using

Pearson's correlation coefficient.

59


The researcher designed questionnaires that were

administered to theme park patrons in the Gauteng Province

of South Africa and in the Southern California area of the

United States as they exited the theme parks. The

respondents were nationals of South Africa and the United

States, respectively. The dependent variable was frequency

of attendance at theme parks. The independent variables

were the following:

1. Country Culture

For the United States, the cultural variables

were:

Individualist

Low Power Distance

Short-term Orientation

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance

For South Africa, the cultural variables were:

Collectivist

High Power Distance

Long-term Orientation

Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

For both countries, the quasi-independent

variables were:

1. Rides


High thrill rides

Moderate thrill rides

Water rides

2. Theme Shows

Interactive theme shows

3. Park Image

Cleanliness

Staff service level

Scenery

Quality/value ratio

4. Time Spent Waiting in Lines

Lines at ride locations

Lines at park entrance

5. Advertising Media

Television

Radio

Newspapers

Direct mail

Web sites

6. Alternative Attractions

Zoos/animal parks

Museums

Arcade games

61


Miniature golf

Water parks

Frequency of attendance at theme parks was determined

by respondents' reported choices of different levels of

motivation by factors that influenced attendance. Personnel

trained in data collection and administration of surveys

administered questionnaires to respondents. All respondents

understood and spoke English.

Research Questions

There were 13 research questions in this study:

Ql: Is there a significant difference in the level of




South Africa?



thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture,




motivation for repeat attendance to experience water rides

62


between attendees from a low power distance, high

uncertainty avoidance culture, the United States, and

attendees from a high power distance, high uncertainty

avoidance culture, South Africa?



















countries?

63




South Africa?



the United States?



South Africa?



the United States?

Q12: What are the differences in the level of


attendance in the United States and South Africa?

Q13: What are the differences in the rating of

alternative attractions to theme parks between attendees

from an individualist, short-term orientation culture, the

United States, and attendees from a collectivist, long-term

orientation culture, South Africa?

64


Data Collection

The population of the study was theme park visitors

who were nationals of their respective countries. The

sampling frames were visitors to theme parks in the Gauteng

Province in South Africa and in the Southern California

area in the United States during the period of data

collection in each country. The researcher used a non

probability convenience design for data collection. As

there are many theme parks in Southern California in the

United States, the researcher selected two for the purpose

of this study. Participation in the survey was voluntary,

and the results of the survey were anonymous and strictly

confidential. Personnel trained in data collection and

administration of survey instruments administered

questionnaires at random to respondents as they exited the

theme parks. Personnel interviewed a total of 250

respondents in each country. Eighteen invalid

questionnaires were returned from the United States,

leaving a total of 232 valid respondents. In South Africa,

27 invalid questionnaires were returned, leaving a total of

223 valid respondents. The purpose of the questionnaire was

to collect statistical measurements of vital information on

65


consumer preferences that may have a direct relationship to

frequency of attendance at theme parks.

Data Sources

The study focused on theme park visitors who were 15

years or older in the United States and South Africa. In

the United States, visitors to Disney's two theme parks in

Anaheim were interviewed at various public locations within

Anaheim. In South Africa, respondents were drawn from

visitors to Gold Reef City in Johannesburg. A total of 250

respondents from each country completed the survey

questionnaire.

Instrumentation

The instrument in this study was a questionnaire

developed by the researcher to collect responses that

measured levels of motivation from various factors that

have a bearing on frequency of attendance at theme parks.

The researcher developed a total of 23 measurement

questions with 133 choices resulting in 31 answers per

questionnaire from the 13 research questions of this study.

66


Scoring-Measurement Strength

The researcher used nominal and interval data

measurements to achieve the scoring. Seventeen of the 23

questions used a five-point interval scale.

Questions 2-7 used a Likert scale to measure the

levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance to

experience various categories of rides including high

thrill rides, moderate thrill rides, and water rides. The

scales in questions 2-4 were assigned numerical values

ranging from not important = 1, slightly important = 2,

somewhat important = 3, important = 4, and very important =

5. Scales in questions 5-7 were assigned percentage values

ranging from less than 10 percent = 1, between 10 percent

and 30 percent = 2, between 30 percent and 50 percent = 3,

between 50 percent and 75 percent = 4, and over 75 percent

= 5.

Question 9 used a Likert scale to measure the level of

preference to watch theme shows in which the audiences are

active participants. The scale was assigned numerical

values ranging from strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2,

neutral = 3, agree = 4, and strongly agree = 5.

Questions 10-13 used a Likert scale to measure the

levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance due to

67


the image of a theme park based on various image attributes

including park cleanliness, staff service level, park

scenery, and quality value ratio. The scale was assigned

numerical values ranging from not important = 1, slightly

important = 2, somewhat important = 3, important = 4, and

very important = 5.

Questions 14 and 15 used a Likert scale to measure the

levels of consumer motivation for repeat attendance based

on short waiting time in lines at the park entrance and at

ride locations. The scale was assigned numerical values

ranging from strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, neutral =

3, agree = 4, and strongly agree = 5.

Question 17 used a Likert scale to measure the

likelihood of choosing to visit alternative family

entertainment attractions by consumers. The alternative

attractions included zoos/animal parks, museums, arcade

parks, miniature golf, and water parks. The scale was

assigned numerical values ranging from not at all likely =

1, slightly likely = 2, somewhat likely = 3, likely = 4,

and very likely = 5.

68


Research Procedures

The research procedures consisted of three steps. The

first step was the questionnaire development, and the

second step was the pilot study. The third step was the

administration of the survey instrument.

Questionnaire Development

The researcher developed the questionnaire and

submitted it to the chairperson and committee supervising

the study. This group examined the questionnaire for

content and reliability. The researcher then made

corrections and changes. Finally, the Internal Review Board

(IRB) approved the questionnaire.

Pilot Study

The researcher submitted the questionnaire to eight

doctoral students at Alliant International University, who

examined it for its validity and reliability. The

researcher used the feedback from these students to make

provisional improvements to the instrument. The professor

in charge of measurement statistics at the College of

Business at Alliant International University then examined

the questionnaire for validity and reliability in

69


conjunction with the chairperson in charge of the study.

The researcher made the necessary corrections and changes

based on their recommendations. Thereafter, the researcher

tested the questionnaire among 30 San Diego residents who

had visited either Disneyland or Sea World within the

previous three months. The researcher made further

revisions to the questionnaire based on this pilot test and

in conjunction with the advice of the chairperson in charge

of the study.

Data Collection

Field personnel trained in data collection conducted

the data collection under the supervision of the

researcher. All respondents completed the questionnaire in

the presence of the field personnel at the theme park

venues pre-selected by the researcher for data collection.

The field personnel approached park visitors as they left

the parks and explained the purpose of the survey. Willing

participants 15 years and older then were issued the survey

instrument accompanied by an introductory letter from the

chairperson in charge of the study. Respondents completed

the questionnaires and handed them back to the field

70


personnel. The researcher then collected the

questionnaires for data analysis.

Data Analysis

The type of data collected included nominal and

interval data. The interval data was based on a five-point

Likert scale. Descriptive statistics were utilized for

reporting frequencies, means, and standard deviations. The

following statistical measures were used in the study:

independent sample t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson's

correlation coefficient. Independent sample t-tests were

used to determine differences between two subgroup means,

while ANOVA was used to determine differences between

multiple subgroup means. Pearson's correlation coefficient

was used to determine relationships between variables.

Relationships and differences between variables were tested

at a 0.01 statistical significance level.

Research Hypotheses

Thirteen hypotheses were formulated for the purpose of

the study. These hypotheses are as follows:



71



rides than attendees from a collectivist culture, South

Africa.











South Africa.

H 4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the




Africa.




72









H 7 : There are fewer significant differences in



59-year-olds, in both countries.

H 8 : There are significant differences in factors


South Africa.



the United States.


freguency of attendance at theme parks and family income i

South Africa.

Hll: There is a positive relationship between

freguency of attendance at theme parks and family income i

the United States.

73





H13. Attendees from an individualist, short-term



games, water parks, and miniature golf courses than

attendees from a collectivist, long-term orientation

culture, South Africa.

Assumptions of the Study

There were six major assumptions made while conducting

the study. The assumptions must be accepted if the

findings of the study are to be regarded as reliable. The

study assumed the following:

1. All the questionnaire items in this study were

clearly understood by the respondents.

2. The respondents answered all the questions in the

survey instrument truthfully.

3. The instrument was appropriate for collecting

data related to the study and adequate for measuring all

that it was intended to measure. The instrument had been

74


pilot tested before use to check for its reliability and

validity.

4. The statistical tests used were the most

appropriate for the research questions in the study.

5. Theme parks in South Africa and the United States

are sufficiently similar to allow a meaningful comparison

between park visitors in the two markets to be made.

6. Hofstede's cultural dimensions, as discussed in

the literature review section of the study, adequately

reflect the aggregate cultural differences between the

United States and South Africa.

Limitations of the Study

There were three major limitations in the current

study:

1. The study was limited to Southern California in

the United States and to Gauteng Province in South Africa.

Any attempt to generalize the results of this study to

reflect similarities and differences between the United

States and South African consumers must, therefore, be made

with caution.

75


2. A non-probability sampling technique was used.

This should be borne in mind when generalizing results to

the rest of the population in each country.

3. The study examined similarities and differences

between theme park visitors in the United States and South

Africa from a cultural perspective. Other perspectives such

as level of economic and technological development were not

investigated in the current study.

Summary

In this chapter, a detailed review of the research

methodology employed in the study to answer the research

questions was undertaken. A descriptive, correlational

design was used in the study. Primary data were collected

through questionnaires completed by theme park visitors in

the United States and South Africa. Field researchers with

prior training administered the questionnaires to visitors

15 years and older as they exited the theme parks. The

data were analyzed using independent sample t tests, one

way analysis of variance, and Pearson's correlation

coefficient. Finally, limitations and assumptions of the

research were listed and discussed.

76


CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

Introduction

The objective of this chapter is to present and

explain the data gathered rather than draw interpretations

or conclusions. The purpose of this study was to determine

the role of cultural and demographic differences on factors

that motivate frequency of attendance at theme parks in the

United States and South Africa. The statistical tests used

in this study were independent sample t-Test, Pearson's

correlation coefficient, and one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA). Owing to the large number of tests run, in order

to ensure reliability of results, in all cases statistical

significance-- the probability (p) that a result was not

obtained by chance-- was set at the 0.01 level. The

findings are presented and analyzed according to the

research questions. The data are presented in the form of

tables followed by a brief description in words of the

notable information in each table. A summary of the results

and findings of the study is provided at the end of the

77


chapter. An asterisk (*) is used to denote all values of p

that are statistically significant.

Table 4

Importance Attached to High Thrill Rides

Country N Mean SDReliability t Significance

(Alpha) value (p)

UnitedStates 232 4.14 1.28

0.86 4.35 < 0 .01*SouthAfrica 223 3.63 1.23

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument questions for

this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient* = statistically significant

Table 4 shows that attendees from the United States

attached significantly more importance to high thrill rides

than did attendees from South Africa. The results of the

level of importance attached to moderate thrill rides are

illustrated in Table 5.

78


Table 5

Importance Attached to Moderate Thrill Rides

Country N Mean SDReliability

(Alpha)t

valueSignificance

(p)


SouthAfrica 223 3.81 1.05 0.79 -9.91 <0.01*


this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient * = statistically significant

Table 5 clearly demonstrates that attendees from the

United States attached significantly less importance to

moderate thrill rides than did attendees from South Africa.

The results of the level of importance attached to water

rides are illustrated in Table 6, page 80.

One sees from Table 6 that there was no significant

difference in the importance attached to water rides

between attendees from the United States and attendees from

South Africa. The results of the level of willingness to

participate in interactive theme shows are illustrated in

Table 7, page 80.

79


Table 6

Importance Attached to Water Rides

Country N Mean SDReliability t

(Alpha) valueSignificance

(P)


SouthAfrica 223 3.15 1.09

0.79 1.72 0.09


this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient

Table 7

Willingness to Volunteer to Participate inInteractive Theme Shows

Country N Mean SDt

valueSignificance

(P)


SouthAfrica 223 1. 65 0. 60

1 o UD 0 . 35

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation

80


Table 7 shows that there is no significant difference

in level of willingness to volunteer to participate in

interactive theme shows between attendees from the United

States and attendees from South Africa. The results of the

level of importance attached to the image of a theme park

are illustrated in Table 8.

Table 8

Importance Attached to the Image of a Theme Park

Country N Mean SDReliability

(Alpha)t

ValueSignificance

(p)


SouthAfrica 223 4 . 68 0.45

0.84 -13.84 <0.01*

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of the instrument guestions for

this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient * = statistically significant

Table 8 demonstrates that attendees from the United

States attached significantly less importance to the image

of a theme park than did attendees from South Africa. The

81


results of the level of willingness to wait in line are


Table 9

Willingness to Wait in Line

^ ^ Reliability t SignificanceCountry N Mean SD »1 Alpha value p

United 232 3 ^71 Q ^94States

S°uth 223 3.65 1.21 0.64 0.71 0.4*Africa


this variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient

Table 9 reveals that there is no significant

difference in the level of motivation for repeat attendance

due to having to wait in line between attendees from the

United States and attendees from South Africa. The results

of the level of reliance by attendees on the various media

are illustrated in Table 10, page 83, and Table 11, page

84 .

82


Table 10

Level of Reliance on Radio, Television, and the Internet

„ t SignificanceCountry Medium N Mean SD n , ,J value_________ p

U.S. 232 2.13 0.77Radio 0.34 0.73

S .A. 223 2.11 0 . 84

U.S. 232 2.38 0. 69Television -8 . 48 <0 .01*

S.A. 223 2.86 0. 51

U.S. 232 2.42 0.72The Internet 5.48 <0.01*

S .A. 223 2.00 0. 90

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant

Table 10 reveals the following:

1. There was no significant difference in the level

of reliance on radio as a source of information on theme

parks between attendees from the United States and

attendees from South Africa.

2. Attendees from South Africa relied significantly

more on television as a source of information on theme

parks than did attendees from the United States.

83


3. Attendees from the United States relied

significantly more on the Internet as a source of

information on theme parks than attendees from South Africa

did.

Table 11

Media and Attendance (Direct Mail and Print)

Country Medium N Mean SDt

valueSignificance

(P)U.S. 232 2.01 0.80

S.A.Print

223 2.42 0.79-4 .40 <0.01*

U.S.

S.A.Directmail

232

223

1. 72

1.74

0.76

0.84-0.15 0.88

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviation U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant

Table 11 demonstrates the following:


more on the print media as a source of information on theme

parks than attendees from the United States did.

2. There was no significant difference in the level

of reliance on direct mail as a source of information on84


theme parks between attendees from the United States and


Table 12

Rating of Alternative "Self-Improvement" Attractions

Reliability t SignificanceCountry N Mean SD (Alpha) value (p)

U.S. 232 3.58 0.940.71 -2.95 <0.01*

S.A. 223 3.89 1.31

Note: N = number of respondent SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of instrument questions for this

variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant

Table 12 shows that attendees from South Africa rated

self-improvement attractions (zoos, animal parks, and

museums) as significantly preferred alternative

entertainment attractions to theme parks than attendees

from the United States. The results of the relative rating

of hedonistic attractions are illustrated in Table 13.

85


Table 13

Rating of Alternative "Hedonistic" Attractions

Country N Mean SD Reliability t(Alpha) value

Significance(P)

U.S. 232 3.25 1.080.57 2.19 0 .13

S.A. 223 3.46 0.95

Note: N = number of respondents SD = standard deviationAlpha = Reliability of instrument questions for this

variable as measured by Cronbach alpha coefficient U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa

Table 13 shows that there was no significant

difference in the rating of "hedonistic" attractions

(arcade games, miniature golf, and water parks) as

alternative entertainment attractions to theme parks


South Africa. The results of the relationship between

frequency of attendance and family income in South Africa

are illustrated in Table 14.

86


Table 14

Frequency of Attendance and Family Income in South Africa

Pearson'sN Correlation Significance

223 R = 0.44 p < 0.01*

Note: N = number of respondents* = statistically significant

Table 14 makes clear the finding that there was a

significant and positive relationship between household

income and frequency of attendance at theme parks in South

Africa. The results of the relationship between frequency

of attendance and family income in the United States are


Table 15

Relationship between Frequency of Attendance and Family Income in the United States

NPearson's

Correlation Significance

232 R = 0.05 p = 0.43

Note: N = number of respondents

87


Table 15 makes clear that there was no significant

relationship between household income and frequency of

attendance at theme parks in the United States. The results

of the similarities and differences in factors motivating

repeat attendance among the 15-24 year olds are illustrated

in Table 16, page 89.

Table 16 reveals that there were 5 of 13 significant

differences in factors motivating repeat attendance among

theme park visitors aged 15 to 24 years old between

attendees from the United States and attendees from South

Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:

1. Attendees from the United States rated high

thrill rides as a significantly higher motivating factor

for repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.

2. Attendees from South Africa rated moderate thrill

rides as a significantly higher motivating factor for

repeat attendance than attendees from the United States

did.

3. Attendees from the United States rated water


repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.

88


Table 16

Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among 15-24 Year Olds

Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance Nt

valueP

value

Importance of high thrill rides 3.22 <0.01*

Importance of moderate thrill ridesU.S.

-3.28 <0.01*

Importance of water rides = 75 2. 68 0.01*

Willingness to volunteer for shows S . A. 1. 01 0.32

Importance of park image= 71 -7 . 01 <0.01*

Willingness to wait in line 1.71 0.09

Reliance on radio for info on parks 0.07 0 . 95

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks 0 . 70 0.48

Reliance on television for info on parks -0.75 0.46

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 3.36 <0.01*

Reliance on print media for info on parks -1. 95 0.05

Preference for self-improvement attractions 0. 33 0.74

Preference for hedonistic attractions 1.48 0.14

Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant


significantly more on the Internet as a source of informa

tion on theme parks than attendees from South Africa did.

89


5. Attendees from the United States attached

significantly less importance to the image of a theme park

than did attendees from South Africa.

Table 17


Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance

t Pvalue value

Importance of high thrill rides

Importance of moderate thrill rides

Importance of water rides

Willingness to volunteer for shows

Importance of park image

Willingness to wait in line

Reliance on radio for info on parks

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks

Reliance on television for info on parks

Reliance on Internet for info on parks

Reliance on print media for info on parks

Preference for self-improvement attractions

Preference for hedonistic attractions

U.S.= 116

S.A.= 120

3. 65 <0., 01*

-8 . 85 <0.. 01*

0 . 73 <0 . 47

-2 .16 0 .. 03

-11 .46 <0. -X \—1

o

-1 . 05 0.. 30

1 . 11 0 . .27

-0 . 63 0 .. 52

-8 . 12 <0.. 01*

3. 35 <0.. 01*

-4 . 31 <0.. 01*

-3 . 75 <0.. 01*

-2 . 50 0 .

-X 1—1

o

Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant

90


One can see from Table 17 that there are 8 of 13

significant differences in factors motivating repeat

attendance among theme park visitors aged 25 to 44 years

old between attendees from the United States and attendees

from South Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:

1. Attendees from the United States rated high

thrill rides as a significantly higher motivating factor

for repeat attendance than did attendees from South Africa.



repeat attendance than attendees from the United States

did.



than attendees from South Africa.






information on theme parks than attendees from South Africa

did.

91



more on the print media as a source of information on theme


7. Attendees from South Africa rated "self-

improvement attractions," i.e., zoos, animal parks, and

museums, as significantly preferred alternative attractions

to theme parks than did attendees from the United States.

8. Attendees from South Africa rated "hedonistic

attractions," i.e., arcade games, miniature golf, and water

parks, as significantly preferred alternative attractions

to theme parks than attendees from the United States did.

One notes in Table 18, page 93, that there were 6 of

13 significant differences in factors motivating repeat

attendance among theme park visitors aged 45-59 years old


South Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:



repeat attendance than attendees from the United States.



than attendees from South Africa.

92


Table 18


Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance N

tvalue

Pvalue

Importance of high thrill ridesU.S.

0.72 0.47

Importance of moderate thrill rides = 38 -5.00 <0.01*

Importance of water ridesS.A.

-0.03 0. 98

Willingness to volunteer for shows = 31 -0.24 0.81

Importance of park image -4.79 <0.01*


Reliance on radio for info on parks -1.12 0.27

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks -0. 14 0.89

Reliance on television for info on parks -7 .1 <0.01*

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 2 . 88 <0.01*

Reliance on print media for info on parks -0 . 99 0.32

Preference for self-improvement attractions -2 . 78 <0.01*

Preference for hedonistic attractions -2 . 84 <0.01*

Note: N = number of respondents U.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant



parks than attendees from the United States did.

93




information on theme parks than did attendees from South

Africa.

5. Attendees from South Africa rated "self-

improvement attractions," i.e., zoos, animal parks, and

museums, as significantly preferred alternative attractions

to theme parks than attendees from the United States did.

6. Attendees from South Africa rated "hedonistic

attractions," i.e., water parks, miniature golf, and arcade

games, as significantly preferred alternative attractions

to theme parks than did attendees from the United States.

Table 19, on page 95, demonstrates that there was only

1 of 13 significant differences in factors motivating

repeat attendance among attendees of different ethnic

groups in the United States. There are significant

differences in the preferences for high thrill rides among

the various ethnic/racial groups in the United States.

94


Table 19

Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among the Different Races in the United States

Factors motivating frequency of attendance N

Fvalue

Pvalue

Importance of high thrill rides 4 . 55 <0.01*

Importance of moderate thrill rides 1.28 0.29

Importance of water rides Caucasians = 145

0. 90 0.48

Willingness to volunteer for showsHispanics

1.77 0.12

Importance of park image = 38 2 . 34 0.04

Willingness to wait in line African Americans

= 290. 34 0.89

Reliance on radio for info on parksAsian

1.46 0.20

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks Americans = 7

Others

-0.80 0.50

Reliance on television for info on parks 1.41 <0.22

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks = 12 1.46 0.20

Reliance on print media for info on parks 1.29 0.27

Preference for self-improvement attractions 2. 65 0.02

Preference for hedonistic attractions 0.52 0 .76


95


Table 20

Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance among the Different Races in South Africa


Fvalue

Pvalue

Importance of high thrill rides 0 . 61 0.72

Importance of moderate thrill rides 2 .71 0.01*

Importance of water rides 2 . 63 0.02

Willingness to volunteer for shows Blacks = 151

0.43 0.86

Importance of park imageWhites

0 . 69 0. 66

Willingness to wait in line = 43 0. 69 0. 66

Reliance on radio for info on parks Colored = 19 0 . 90 0.50

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks Indians 2 . 97 <0.01*

Reliance on television for info on parks= 8

0.89 0.50

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 2 . 03 0.06

Reliance on print media for info on parks 2 . 7 *i—1Oo

Preference for self-improvement attractions 13. 41 <0.01*


N o t e : N = number of respondents* = statistically significant

Table 20 shows that there were 4 of 13 significant

differences in factors motivating repeat attendance between

attendees of different races groups in South Africa. These

factors are summarized as follows:

96


1. There are significant differences in the

preferences for moderate thrill rides among the different

races in South Africa.

2. There are significant differences in the reliance

on direct mail as a source of information among the

different races in South Africa.

3. There are significant differences in the reliance

on print media as a source of information among the


4. There are significant differences in the

preferences for self-improvement attractions among the


Table 21

Age of Respondents

Country- Mean Age N SD MinimumAge

MaximumAge

UnitedStates 31. 9 232 10. 65 15 64

SouthAfrica 31.5 223 10.20 14 70

Total 455


97


Table 21 displays the information showing that the

mean and standard deviation of the ages of respondents in

South Africa and the United States were similar. The

relative sizes of the respondents' households are


Table 22

Household Size by Country

tCountry N SD Mean Median Value Significance

UnitedStates 232 1.6 3.2 3.0

SouthAfrica 223 1.2 4.5 5.0 1 00 00 N) p <0.01

Total 455


Table 22 indicates that the average household size

among attendees was significantly smaller in the United

States than it was in South Africa. The relative

representation of males and females among the respondents

is illustrated in Table 23.

98


Table 23

Gender of Respondents by Country

Country N Male Percentage Female Percentage

UnitedStates 232 120 51.7 112 48.3

SouthAfrica 223 96 43.0 127 57.0

455 216 47 . 4 239 52 . 6

Note: N = number of respondents

Table 23 indicates that both males and females were

well represented in the study in each country. The

distribution of the respondents' income in both countries

is illustrated in Table 24.

Table 24

Respondents' Income by Country

Annual Income(000s USD) <3° 30-45 45-60 60-75 >75

United States 35 43 41 48 66

South Africa 99 44 30 26 23

99


Table 24 shows that the frequency spread of the

respondents' incomes was skewed toward the lower end of the

income brackets for South African respondents. In the

United States, income distribution was more evenly spread

among respondents, although there was a slight skewing

toward the upper end income bracket.

Table 25 on page 101 indicates that there are 3 of 13

significant differences between males and females in terms

of factors motivating frequency of attendance in South

Africa. These factors are summarized as follows:

1. Males rated high thrill rides as a significantly

higher motivator to attend theme parks than did females.

2. Females rated moderate thrill rides as a

significantly higher motivator to attend theme parks than

did males.

3. Females rated "self-improvement attractions,"

i.e., zoos, animal parks, and museums, as significantly

preferred alternative attractions to theme parks than males

d i d .

100


Table 25

Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance between Males and Females in South Africa

Factors motivating frequency of attendance N

tvalue

Pvalue


Importance of moderate thrill rides

Importance of water rides

Males = 96

-4 .20

1.01

<0.01*

0.31

Willingness to volunteer for shows Females = 127 1.12 0.26

Importance of park image -1. 60 0 .11

Willingness to wait in line -1.82 0.70

Reliance on radio for info on parks 0 .84 0.40

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks -0.26 0.80

Reliance on television for info on parks -2 . 30 0.02

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks -0.82 0.42

Reliance on print media for info on parks -0.14 0.15

Preference for self-improvement attractions -2.85 <0.01*



Table 26 shows that there is only 1 of 13 significant

differences between males and females in terms of factors

motivating freguency of attendance in the United States.

101


Males rated high thrill rides as a significantly higher

motivator to attend theme parks than females did.

Table 26

Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance between Males and Females in the United States


tvalue p value


Importance of moderate thrill rides Males = 120 -1.58 0.16

Importance of water rides Females 0.34 0.73

Wil/lingness to volunteer for shows= 112

0.15 0.88

Importance of park image -1.34 0.18


Reliance on radio for info on parks -0.09 0 . 95

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks 0.71 0.48

Reliance on television for info on parks 0.75 0.45

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 0.05 0. 95

Reliance on print media for info on parks 0.27 0.79

Preference for self-improvement attractions -1.16 0.25



102


Chapter Summary

In this chapter, the objective was to present and

explain the data gathered rather than to draw

interpretations or conclusions. The findings were presented

and analyzed based on the research questions. The data were

presented in the form of tables followed by a brief

description in words of what information was worth noting

in each table. In summary, the major findings presented

were the following:

Attendees from the United States attached

significantly more importance to high thrill rides than did



significantly less importance to moderate thrill rides than

did attendees from South Africa.

There was no significant difference in the importance

attached to water rides between attendees from the United

States and attendees from South Africa.



than attendees from South Africa did.

There was no significant difference in the level of

motivation for repeat attendance due to having to wait in

103


line between attendees from the United States and attendees

from South Africa.

There was no significant difference in the level of

reliance on radio and direct mail as sources of information

on theme parks between attendees from the United States and


Attendees from South Africa showed significantly more

reliance on television and print media as sources of

information on theme parks than attendees from the United

States did.

Attendees from the United relied significantly more on

the Internet as a source of information on theme parks.

Attendees from South Africa rated "self-improvement"

attractions (zoos, animal parks, and museums) as

significantly preferred alternative entertainment

attractions to theme parks than did attendees from the

United States.

There was no significant difference in the rating of

"hedonistic" attractions (arcade games, miniature golf, and

water parks) as alternative entertainment attractions to

theme parks between attendees from the United States and

attendees from South Africa

104


There was a significant and positive relationship

between household income and frequency of attendance at

theme parks in South Africa

There was no significant relationship between

household income and frequency of attendance at theme parks

in the United States

There were only five significant differences in

factors motivating repeat attendance among theme park

visitors aged 15-24 years compared to eight significant

differences for respondents aged between 25-44 years and

six for respondents aged 45-59 years between attendees from

South Africa and the United States.

In the present study, there was only one significant

difference in factors motivating repeat attendance between

attendees of different ethnic groups in the United States.

However, there were 4 of 13 significant differences in

factors motivating repeat attendance between attendees of

different ethnic groups in the South Africa.

The average household size among attendees was

significantly smaller in the United States than in South

Africa.

The implications of these findings are discussed in

the following and final chapter. This is followed by

105


conclusions from the study and recommendations for future

research.

106


CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of the important

elements of the previous sections of the study followed by

a discussion on the findings of the study. The author

presents summary tables of the key findings detailed in

Chapter 4 for ease of reference. The researcher discusses

the conclusions and recommendations drawn from the research

findings.

According to recent literature on theme parks in

academic journals, the failure to account for cultural

differences has been a contributing factor to the mixed

success in the export of theme park brands. As American and

European theme park brands are focusing now on expanding

into emerging markets such as China, Mexico, and South

Africa, this study aimed to examine the role of cultural

and demographic differences in factors motivating frequency

of attendance at theme parks in the United States, a

developed country, and in South Africa, an emerging market.

107


The purpose of this study was to determine the role of

cultural and demographic differences on factors that


United States and South Africa. The findings of the study

should assist managers of theme park brands expanding

internationally in their decisions on standardization

versus adaptation of attractions offered at theme parks.

The study sought to test hypotheses on consumer

preferences based on differences in cultural and

demographic attributes. The study used Hofstede's (2001)

dimensions to investigate the role of cultural differences

in factors motivating frequency of attendance at theme

parks. Hofstede's model consists of five cultural

dimensions including individualism and collectivism, power

distance, masculinity and femininity, uncertainty

avoidance, and long-term/short-term orientation. A brief

description of these dimensions as described by Hofstede

follows.

According to Hofstede (2001), individualism is a

tendency within a culture to focus on the individual rather

than on the group, and collectivism is a tendency within a

culture toward gregariousness and group orientation. Power

distance refers to the extent to which less powerful

108


members of a society consider and accept that power is

distributed unequally. Femininity emphasizes caring for

others and quality of life, while masculinity emphasizes

achievement and success. Uncertainty avoidance refers to

the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguity and

try to avoid these situations. In countries of strong

uncertainty avoidance, there is a need for rules and

customs to structure life. Long-term orientation refers to

an emphasis on values of thrift and perseverance, while

short-term orientation refers to high consumption, low

savings values.

The study utilized a descriptive, correlational

design. Primary data were collected through questionnaires

completed by theme park visitors in the United States and

South Africa. There were 232 respondents in the United

States and 223 respondents in South Africa. Questionnaires

were administered randomly by trained field researchers to

visitors 15 years and older as they entered or exited the

theme parks.

The data were analyzed using independent sample t-

tests, ANOVA, and Pearson's correlation coefficient.

Relationships and differences between variables were tested

at a 0.01 statistical significance level.

109


The major findings of the study included the

following:


significantly more importance to high thrill rides than did



significantly less importance to moderate thrill rides than


Table 27

Summary of the Differences in the Importance Attached to Various Types of Rides

t, • j ^ t SignificanceType of Ride Country N Mean . , .value p)

High thrill rides

U.S. 232 4.134.2 <0.01*

S.A. 223 3. 64

Moderate thrill rides

U.S. 232 2.84-10.14 <0.01*

S.A. 223 3.82

Note: N = number of respondentsU.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa* = statistically significant



than did attendees from South Africa.

110


Table 28

Summary of the Differences in the Importance Attached to Park Image

Country N Mean t value Significance

United States 232 3.91-13.84 p<0.01*

South Africa 223 4.68


4. Attendees from South Africa showed significantly

more reliance on television and print media as sources of

information on theme parks than did attendees from the

United States, while attendees from the United States

relied significantly more on the Internet as a source of

information on theme parks.

Ill


Table 29

Summary of the Significant Differences in the Level of Reliance on Various

Media by Attendees

Country Medium Respondents Mean t value Significance

U.S. Print 232 1.95-6.61 p<0.01*

S.A. 223 2.41

U.S. Television 232 2.38

00001 P<0.01*S.A. 223 2.86

U.S. Internet 232 2.425.48 P< 0.01*

S.A. 223 2.00

Note: U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa * = statistically significant

5. A significant and positive relationship between

household income and frequency of attendance at theme parks

existed in South Africa, but none existed in the United

States.

112


Table 30

Summary of the Relationship between Household Income and Frequency

of Attendance

Pearson'sCountry N Correlation Significance

South Africa 223 0 .44 p< 0.01*

United States 232 0.05 p= 0.43

Note: N = no of respondents* = statistically significant

6. Only 5 of 13 significant differences in factors

motivating repeat attendance among theme park visitors 15-

24 years old between attendees from the United States and

attendees from South Africa are evident compared to eight

significant differences for respondents between 25-44 years

old and six for respondents 45-59 years old.

113


Table 31

Summary of Significant Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance

among Various Age Groups

Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance15-24

t25-44

t45-59

t

Importance of high thrill rides 3.22* 3. 65* NSImportance of moderate thrill rides -3.28* -8.85* -5.00*

Importance of water rides 2. 68* NS NS

Willingness to volunteer for shows NS -2 .16 NS

Importance of park image -7.01* -11.46* -4.79*

Reliance on television for info on parks NS -8. 12* -7.1*

Reliance on the Internet for info on parks 3.36* 3.35* 2 .88*

Reliance on print media for info on parks NS -4.31* NS

Preference for self-improvement attractions NS -3.75* -2.78*

Preference for hedonistic attractions NS -2.50* -2.84*

Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant

7. There was only one significant difference in

factors motivating repeat attendance between attendees of

different ethnic groups in the United States. However,

there were 4 of 13 significant differences in factors

motivating repeat attendance between attendees of different

ethnic groups in South Africa.

114


Table 32

Summary of the Significant Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance

among Various Races

Factors Motivating Frequency of AttendanceU.S.

F valueS.A.

F value

Importance of high thrill rides 4 . 55* 0.61

Importance of moderate thrill rides NS 2 .71*

Reliance on direct mail for info on parks NS 2.97*

Reliance on print media for info on parks NS 2.7*

Preference for self-improvement attractions NS 13.41*

Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant U.S. = United States S.A. = South Africa

8. There were fewer differences between males and

females in factors motivating frequency of attendance at

theme parks in the United States than there were between

males and females in South Africa.

115


Table 33

Summary of Results of the Differences in Factors Motivating Repeat Attendance

between Males and Females

U.S. S.A.Factors Motivating Frequency of Attendance t value t value

Importance of high thrill rides 2.63* 2.90*

Importance of moderate thrill rides NS -4.20*

Preference for self-improvement attractions NS -2.85*

Note: * denotes significance at p = 0.01 NS = not significant U.S. = United StatesS.A. = South Africa

Conclusions

The conclusions are discussed in the order of the

research questions. Each research question and hypothesis

is restated for the convenience of the reader. A statement

on whether the findings supported the hypothesis follows.

The implications of the findings are discussed

subsequently.

Conclusions, Research Question 1




116



South Africa?




rides than attendees from a collectivist culture, South

Africa.

The findings of the study support this hypothesis and

are consistent with earlier findings by Greenfield et al.

(1999) and Roberts (1994) that individualism is closely

associated with risk taking and thrill seeking. Marketers

of theme park brands should, therefore, place more emphasi

on the number or speed of high thrill rides in the United

States than they would in South Africa.


Q 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level o


thrill rides between attendees from a collectivist culture





117





If individualistic Americans have a higher appetite

for extreme thrill than the more collectivist South

Africans, it is to be expected that the latter would

exhibit a higher appetite for moderate thrill rides than

the former. The finding that attendees from the United

States attached significantly less importance to moderate

thrill rides than attendees from South Africa did was,

therefore, consistent with the arguments advanced by

Roberts (1994) and Greenfield et al. (1999). Marketers of

theme park brands, therefore, should place more emphasis on

the number and variety of moderate thrill rides in South

Africa than they would in the United States.


Q 3 : Original question reads: Is there a significant


to experience water rides between attendees from a low

power distance, high uncertainty avoidance culture, the

United States, and attendees from a high power distance,

high uncertainty avoidance culture, South Africa?

118







South Africa.

This hypothesis was not supported by the findings of

the study. It is worth noting that at a less rigorous

significance level such as 0.10, this hypothesis would have

been supported. However, it is possible that the assumption

made in the study that an affinity for water sports leads

to a similar affinity for water rides may be the reason

that this hypothesis is not supported by the findings.







H4 : Attendees from an individualist culture, the



119



Africa.


the study. At face value, this finding departs from

Hofstede's (2001) view that individuals from collective

societies are less willing to volunteer for attention-

attracting roles in group situations. A possible

explanation for this is that South African respondents may

view the opportunity to participate in a theme show watched

by their friends as a prestigious or image boosting

opportunity.












120


The findings of the study supported this hypothesis.

This is consistent with earlier work by De Mooij (2004),

who argued that people in high power distance cultures seek

to demonstrate their position in society by showing that

they have sophisticated tastes, and that such behavior is

evidenced by social-status-reinforcing habits such as

expensive dressing and patronizing prestigious places.












The study found that there is no significant


due to having to wait in line between attendees from the

121


United States and attendees from South Africa. This means

that Hypothesis 6 was not supported.

A probable explanation for this finding may be a

result of using "willingness to pay extra money to avoid

waiting in line" as one of attributes to measure the extent

to which attendees disliked waiting in line at rides and

entrance gates. Although respondents in both countries

were drawn from corresponding income groups, the

distribution of these respondents' incomes within the range

was skewed toward the higher end in the United States and

the lower end in South Africa. This may have influenced the

findings, as higher income earners are more likely to be

willing to pay extra to avoid standing in line. Another

factor that should be examined is whether the waiting time

on lines at theme parks in the two markets is similar. It

also should be noted that most American theme parks offer

fast passes, while those in South Africa do not.





countries?

122


H 7 : There are a fewer significant differences in



59-year-olds, in both countries.

The findings of the study show that this hypothesis

was supported. A closer look at the attendance factors in

which age group differences were reported reveals findings

of interest to marketers. The over-45 age groups in both

countries do not seem to value high thrill rides. With the

exception of the Internet, media habits of the under-25s

appear similar in both countries but clearly different

among older consumers. In South Africa, the older age

groups rely significantly more on traditional media such as

print and television for sources of information on theme

parks than do their counterparts from the United States.

The older age groups in South Africa also showed

significantly more inclination to visit alternative

entertainment attractions to theme parks than did their

American counterparts.

This corroborates previous findings by Hassan and

Blackwell (1994), who argued that the middle classes

teenage and youth markets (13-25) throughout the world are

becoming increasingly similar because of intense exposure

123


to western television programming. The finding also

corroborates De Mooij's finding in 2004 that in Japan, the

18-25 age group exhibits very similar consumer behavior

characteristics to Western counterparts. However, once they

enter the job market and move into middle age, they begin

to conform more to typical Japanese behavior and therefore

exhibit more differences in consumer behavior compared to

their contemporaries in the West.

The implications of these findings are that there is

more latitude to standardized theme park attractions and

shows designed for the youth and teenage segments across

markets, while some degree of adaptation may be necessary

for attractions and shows targeted at older age groups.

Marketers also may need to investigate what needs to be

done to enhance the attractiveness of theme parks to the

over-25s in South Africa, as they currently exhibit a

preference for alternative family entertainment

attractions.

Conclusions, Research Questions 8 and 9



South Africa?

124


H 8 : There are significant differences in factors


South Africa.



the United States?



the United States.

Both South Africa and the United States are

multicultural societies, and any significant differences in

consumer preferences among the various races would be

useful to marketers. The findings of this study show that

while there was only one significant difference among

different ethnic groups in the United States, there were 4

of 13 significant differences among ethnic groups in South

Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of

attendance at theme parks. A closer look at the United

States data reveals that the reported higher preference

among Hispanics for high thrill rides can be attributed to

their younger average age (Hispanic attendees had a mean

age of 28 versus 33 for the rest of the United States

respondents) . The lower preference for high thrill rides

125


among Blacks can be explained largely by the larger

proportion of females among Black respondents in the study

sample. Hence, Hypothesis 8 was supported, while Hypothesis

9 was not.

A possible reason for this is that in the United

States, the dominant culture is the Anglo Saxon culture of

the majority Caucasian ethnic group. As a result, English

is the common language in the United States, while South

Africa has several official languages representing each

major ethnic group. The distinction between ethnic sub

cultural boundaries, therefore, may be less pronounced in

the United States than in South Africa.

Conclusions, Research Questions 10 and 11



South Africa?



South Africa.



the United States?

126


HI1: There is a positive relationship between


the United States.

Hypothesis 10 was supported by the findings of the

study, but Hypothesis 11 was not. A possible reason for

this may be that the United States has a more affluent

population than does South Africa. Many lower middle class

Americans have sufficient disposable income to afford

regular attendance at theme parks, while in South Africa,

only those in the upper middle classes can afford regular

attendance. It also may be possible that Americans have a

larger choice of alternative leisure entertainment venues

than do South Africans.

Family make up may be another explanation for the

findings. This is a possibility because a larger African

family with the same annual household income will have more

members sharing this income than is the case for a smaller

family in the United States. The average (mean) size of the

respondent's household in South Africa was 4.5 members

versus 3.2 members in the United State. One might,

therefore, expect annual household income to be a stronger

predictor of the amount of money available for leisure

consumption in South Africa than in the United States.

127



Q12: What are the significant differences in the level

of influence that different types of advertising media have

on attendance in the United States and South Africa?




The findings of the study show that this hypothesis

was supported. Attendees from South Africa showed

significantly more reliance on television and print media

as sources of information on theme parks than did attendees

from the United States, while attendees from the United

States relied significantly more on the Internet as a

source of information on theme parks. This corroborates

previous findings by Chen and Allmon (1998), who found that

consumer perceptions of the media in different cultures

influence the effectiveness of these media. It is

possible, however, that the level of Internet penetration

may have influenced the findings of the study. Nonetheless,

it is important for marketers to take cognizance of these

differences in media habits when making advertising and

promotion decisions for theme park brands in different

countries.

128



Q13: What are the significant differences in the

ratings of alternative attractions to theme parks between

attendees from an individualist, short-term orientation


collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South Africa?

H13: Attendees from an individualist, short-term



games, water parks, and miniature golf than attendees from

a collectivist, long-term orientation culture, South

Africa.


the study. This contradicts earlier findings by Li and Wong

(1998), who examined the effects of hedonism and



more than intellectualism are likely to spend more time on

entertainment activities than on self-improvement

activities. Further investigation may be necessary to

determine why this hypothesis was not supported. A possible

contributing factor is the apparently secondary rating of

theme parks as preferred family entertainment attractions

129


among South Africans over 25 years of age when presented

with alternative choices.

Conclusions on Other Findings

In both countries, males reported high thrill rides as

a significantly greater motivator to visit a theme park

than did females. Of perhaps greater interest, however, is

the fact that this was the only significant difference in

factors motivating attendance between males and females in

the United States, while in South Africa, there were two

more significant differences. Females reported moderate

thrill rides and self-improvement alternative attractions

(zoos, animal parks, and museums) as significantly more

important than was reported by their male counterparts.

This is a factor worthy of note by marketers.

Further investigation may be necessary to determine

why males and females exhibit a greater number of

differences in factors motivating attendance in South

Africa. It is possible that cultural factors such as the

greater power distance between males and females in South

Africa may be an underlying reason for this observation.

130


Recommendations for Further Research

Some of the findings of this study warrant further

investigation. The large number of differences in factors

motivating attendance at theme parks among the different

races and genders in South Africa warrants further

investigation. This would enable theme park managers to

determine what they might need to do to make allowances for

some of these differences.

While the youth and young adults in both countries

displayed similar preferences in factors motivating

attendance, it would be interesting to do a series of

longitudinal studies to determine whether similar

preferences will continue as this age group enters the late

20s and early 30s. This would enable theme park managers to

determine whether a greater degree of standardization may

be possible as today's globalized youth mature.

This study investigated differences in factors

influencing attendance among domestic visitors to theme

parks in South Africa and the United States. A similar

study examining factors influencing attendance among

tourists visiting theme parks in both the United States and

South Africa is recommended, as foreign visitors constitute

131


a sizable proportion of theme park attendees in both

countries.

Similar studies can be done regarding other countries

such as China, Brazil, India, South Asia, and Mexico that

are prime target markets for theme parks. Future studies

may include the role of other factors that influence

freguency of attendance, such as annual and seasonal

passes. Preferences for corporate versus indigenous

souvenirs and merchandise sold at theme parks may also be

included in future studies. Finally, cross-cultural

studies on factors motivating attendance for other types of

family entertainment centers can be conducted. Attractions

such as ice rinks, arcade games, and miniature golf are now

opening up in most large cities of the developing world.

Concluding Statement

This study reinforced previous work done on Hofstede's

hypothesis, particularly that by De Mooij (2000, 2004), who

showed that cultural and demographic variables explain most

differences in consumer preferences, particularly when

similar income groups are compared. The study also showed

that marketers of theme park brands in different markets

need to account for cultural differences when designing

132


attractions such as high and moderate thrill rides,

selecting media for advertising and promotion purposes, and

positioning the theme park brand in terms of image and

prestige.

The study also showed that marketers can afford to

standardize theme park attractions targeted at the teenage

and youth markets, while some degree of differentiation is

necessary for older consumers. Finally, the study showed

that gender differences in factors motivating attendance at

theme parks are bigger in a high power distance culture

than in a low power distance culture.

These new insights should enable international

marketers of theme park brands to design strategies that

reflect the appropriate balance between standardization and

differentiation of theme park attractions. This will, in

turn, enhance the likelihood of successful entry into new

markets.

133


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APPENDICES


APPENDIX A

THEME PARK SURVEY (UNITED STATES)


Theme Park Survey (United States)

A university in California, U.S.A. is conducting research on cultural influences among theme park visitors in the United States and South Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of attendance. This questionnaire is to be used in this research. Your answers w ill be held in strict confidence and w ill be used only for academic research. I f you have any questions, please call doctoral researcher John Muriithi at 858 231 2113 or [email protected]

1) How many visits have you made to theme parks in the last 12 months? Please mark only one X

One Two Three Four Five or more

How important are these rides in making your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line

Veryimportant Important

Somewhatimportant

Slightlyimportant

Notimportant

2) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters & towerdrops)

3) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters and adult merry- go-round rides)

4) Water rides

During a visit to a theme park, what percentage of your time do you allocate to the following types of rides? Please mark only one X in each line

75% or more

Between 50 and 75%

Between 30 and 50%

Between 10 and 30%

Less than 10%

5) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters, towerdrops)

6) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters, adult merry-go- round rides)

7) Water rides

8) “I prefer to watch theme shows where the audiences are active participants.’ only one X

’ Please mark

Strongly agree Agree Neutral DisagreeStronglyDisagree

148


mailto:[email protected]

9) During interactive theme shows, if volunteers were needed, are you likely to volunteer to participate? Please mark only one X

Yes No

How important are these attributes in motivating your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line

VeryImportant Important

SomewhatImportant

SlightlyImportant

NotImportant

10) Neatness of the park11) A high standard of service by the staff12) Its scenery is pleasant? (Landscaping and design )13) A competitive ticket price.

“I would be willing to pay a few extra dollars to avoid long lines at the following locations.” Please mark only one X

StronglyAgree Agree Neutral Disagree

StronglyDisagree

14) At the park entrance

15) Inside the park at ride locations

16) What media sources mark only one X in eac

are you likely to use as sources of information about theme parks? Please a line

Most Likely Somewhat Likely Least Likely

a) Radio

b) Direct mail

c) Television

d) Web sites

e) Newspapers

149


17) How likely are you to visit the following attractions as an alternative to theme parks? Please mark only one X in each line

Very likely LikelySomewhat

LikelySlightlyLikely Not Likely

a) Zoos/animal parks

b) Museums

c) Arcade games

d) Miniature golf

e) Water parks

18) In what range is the total household income of your family? Please mark only one X

Over $75,000 $60,000-75000 $45,000-60,000 $30,000-45000Less than $30,000

19) The number of members living in our household is. Please mark only one X

1 2 3 4 5 6 More than 6

20) What was your age at your last birthday? ________________yrs.

21) What ethnic group do you consider yourself a member of? Please mark only one X

Caucasian HispanicAfrican

American Asian American Other

22) What is your country o f birth? ___________________________________

23) What is your gender? Male Female

Thank you for taking time to fill out this questionnaire

150


APPENDIX B

THEME PARK SURVEY (SOUTH AFRICA)


Theme Park Survey (South Africa)

A university in California, U.S.A. is conducting research on cultural influences among theme park visitors in the United States and South Africa in terms of factors motivating frequency of attendance. This questionnaire is to be used in this research. Your answers w ill be held in strict confidence and w ill be used only for academic research. I f you have any questions, please call doctoral researcher John Muriithi at 858 231 2113 or [email protected]

1) How many visits have you made to theme parks in the last 12 months? Please mark only one X

One Two Three Four Five or more

How important are these rides in making your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line

Veryimportant Important

Somewhatimportant

SlightlyImportan

Notimportant

2) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters & towerdrops)

3) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters and adult merry- go-round rides)

4) Water rides

During a visit to a theme park, what percentage of your time do you allocate to the following types of rides? Please mark only one X in each line

75% or more

Between 50 and 75%

Between 30 and 50%

Between 10 and 30%

Less than 10%

5) High thrill rides(Giant roller coasters, towerdrops)

6) Moderate thrill rides (Small roller coasters, adult merry-go- round rides)

7) Water rides

8) “I prefer to wat only one X

:h theme shows wh<re the audiences are active participants.’’ Please mark

Strongly agree Agree Neutral DisagreeStronglyDisagree

152


mailto:[email protected]

9) During interactive theme shows, if volunteers were needed, are you likely to volunteer to participate? Please mark only one X

Yes No

How important are these attributes in motivating your decision to visit a theme park? Please mark only one X in each line

VeryImportant Important

SomewhatImportant

SlightlyImportant

NotImportant

10) Neatness of the park

11) A high standard of service by the staff12) Its scenery is pleasant? (Landscaping and design )13) A competitive ticket price.

“I would be willing to pay a few extra dollars to avoid long lines at the following locations.” Please mark only one X

StronglyAgree Agree Neutral Disagree

StronglyDisagree

14) At the park entrance

15) Inside the park at ride locations

16) What media sources mark only one X in eac

are you likely to use as sources of information about theme parks? Please i line

Most likely Somewhat likely Least Likely

a) Radio

b) Direct mail

c) Television

d) Web sites

e) Newspapers

153


17) How likely are you to visit the following attractions as an alternative to theme parks? Please mark only one X in each line

Very likely LikelySomewhat

LikelySlightlylikely Not likely

a) Zoos/animal parks

b) Museums

c) Arcade games

d) Miniature golf

e) Water parks

18) In what range is the total household income of your family? Please mark only one X

Over Rand 500,000

Rand 300,000- 500,000

Rand 180,000- 300,000

Rand 120,000- 180,000

Less than Rand 120,000

19) The number o f members living in our household is. Please mark only one X

1 2 3 4 5 6 More than 6

20) What was your age at your last birthday? ________________yrs.

21) What ethnic group do you consider yourself a member of? Please mark only one X

Black White Colored Indian Other

22) What is your country of birth? ___________________________________

23. What is your gender? Male Female

Thank you for taking time to fill out this questionnaire

154


INSTRUCTIONS

APPENDIX C

TO SURVEY ADMINISTRATORS


Administration of Questionnaires

To the field personnel administering the questionnaires: Please read the following instructions. Thank you for your assistance and cooperation.

If possible, questionnaires should be administered to respondents as they stand in line waiting to enter the theme park, as they are likely to be more attentive than when exiting the park.

Respondents should be approached on a random basis to ensure that the sample is representative with respect to age, gender, and race. Briefly explain the purpose of the survey as indicated at the top of page one. Let the respondents know that the survey should take approximately three minutes to complete.

When each respondent has completed the survey, please check that they have answered all questions.

Question 1 to 15: Respondents should mark one X perquestion.

Question 16: Respondents should mark one X per line,Total number of Xs marked = 5 (five)

Question 17: Respondents should mark one X per line,Total number of Xs = 5 (five)

Questions 18, 19 Respondents should mark one X per and 21: question.

Please return all completed questionnaires to:

John MuriithiCollege of Business Administration and Organization StudiesAlliant International University10455 Pomerado RoadSan Diego, CA 92131-1799

156


amusement and theme parks (apoyo foro 3)

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