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Made in America: An Analysis of Representations of

Patriotism in Country Music

Alexandria Holmes

Allegheny College Department of Communication Arts

Fall 2016

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Acknowledgements

To Winona Vaitekunas, thank you for your support, words of wisdom, and distraction when I needed a break.

To my parents, thank you for your love and

for always believing in me and supporting me through everything.

To Daphne Snyder, thank you for being an amazing person, for making me focus on writing when I didn’t want to,

and for always being ready for a coffee run.

To Joe Tompkins, thank you for being a great comp advisor, pushing me to go beyond my first thoughts and

helping me expand my writing even when I thought I couldn’t.

To Kristen Migliozzi, Cari Koerner, Colleen Bodnar, Jackie Verrecchia, Sonya Shaikh, Ashley Mulryan,

Jocelyne Serafin and Kayla Boleratz, thank you for being the best of friends since freshman year

and the support through the comping process.

To Alyssa Lisle, thank you for being a great friend and sister, and for helping me with everything technology and printing related.

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Table of Contents

Introduction p. 4

Chapter 1: Lit Review

p. 7

Chapter 2: Background p. 17

Chapter 3: Analysis

p. 25

Conclusion p. 38

Bibliography

p. 40

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Introduction

For as long as I can remember I have been listening to country music. The songs that

were released between 1995 and 2005 have always been some of my favorite songs and I

continue to find personal connections to them. During my sophomore year, I took FS201 with

Professor Matthew Ferrence and saw how my love for country music could merge with my

academic interests. Ferrence’s class focused on his book, All-American Redneck, and the

construction of the “redneck” stereotype and how it is often times not accurate and centers on

one caricature. For my final paper for the class, I wrote about authenticity in country music and

how artists create that in their identities. Between my FS201 and my continued love for country

music, I have found more and more connections between patriotism and country music, and the

feelings the country music genre provides for its’ audience. As I began to think about this

project, I knew I wanted to take a deeper look into the country music industry, and was drawn to

the constructions of patriotism and the ways artists use patriotism to establish an identity for

themselves, and in turn how “country music” is perceived as patriotic.

On September 11, 2001, two planes hit the World Trade Center in New York, another hit

the Pentagon and a final plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. Thousands of people were

killed or injured, and thousands more worked tirelessly to rescue and help those in need as part

of fire & rescue departments, non-profit organizations, the military, and more. Americans

searched for ways to help each other and show support, and there was a major increase in

patriotic sentiment in country music as country artists wrote about their experiences and their

love for America. In 2001, from January to September the top country song was a love song, but

from October to December, the top country songs were about America and being patriotic in a

time of fear and war for the country. The first of these songs included “Only in America” by

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Toby Keith and Alan Jackson’s “Where Were You” and “Where I Come From.” Now, even

though there aren’t as many hyper-patriotic country songs, the country music genre is still

thought of as “American” and “patriotic.” From the old-school, down-home ballads about the

South to the rock-n-roll, drinking-beer-in-a-pickup songs of today, country music has had shifts

in sound following major national events such as wars, presidential elections and changes in

economic times—though main themes of patriotism and love have remained. Despite the large

amount of country artists today and the ever-growing number of songs played on radios, the

older music from the decade of 1995-2005 makes appearances on a daily basis because of the

themes and feelings associated with them.

A playlist generated by Apple Music titled “Country Hits: 2002” has the description:

“Still reeling from 9/11, America embraced the intense patriotism of Toby Keith, but the

sentiment didn’t dominate country music across the whole of ’02…” This description explicitly

tells listeners that not all country music of the 2000s followed the patriotic guidelines, but there

are enough country music songs to fill such playlists. In addition to writing patriotic songs many

country artists, such as Zac Brown Band and Toby Keith, travel abroad to play concerts for

American troops in Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan.

In this project, I will argue that patriotism is a constructed concept that influences the

construction of the country music “genre world” (Negus). This construction favors full support

of the military, a pro-war attitude and conservative political beliefs. Patriotism is a key element

of the country music genre and fitting the mold of the “genre culture” leads artists to find success

(Negus). To show how different demonstrations of patriotism influence the genre, I will analyze

three popular objects in the country music genre: the “home” of country music, the Grand Ole

Opry, and artists Toby Keith and the Dixie Chicks. Each of these objects have strong presences

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in the country music world and portray patriotism in different way—whether that is the

hegemonic portrayal of Toby Keith and the Grand Ole Opry that favors masculine, militaristic,

pro-war, pro-American views or the counterhegemonic presentation of the Dixie Chicks that is

less militaristic and conservative. This analysis is significant to media studies because patriotism

is a constructed idea that strongly influences the way people interact with each other and with

country music, and how the country music audience forms thoughts on war and the military.

First, I will provide a literature review of previous work on patriotism and country music,

focusing on ideology and signs, “genre cultures,” “genre worlds,” industry and authenticity,

different types of performers, and public memory. I will then provide background on the objects

I am analyzing to give information before analyzing. Finally, in my analysis chapter, I will take

an in-depth look at three objects and how each constructs patriotism in their musical identity and

how patriotism as a whole is portrayed in the country music world.

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Chapter 1: Lit Review

Through this project I will use a constructionist approach to do a textual analysis of the

representations of patriotism at the Grand Ole Opry and the music of Toby Keith and the Dixie

Chicks. This is important to look at because patriotism is a constructed idea that is often taken

for granted in the production of media and identity in the United States, particularly in the

country music world. It is not a natural concept, rather it is constructed in certain ways; in my

project, it is constructed through the discourses of the music industry and corporate culture, and

the particular artists I am analyzing. In order to do this, I will first lay out what terms I am using

and what each one means in relation to my work. One of the most relevant terms I will be

discussing is culture, particularly the construction of it. I will explore the work of three scholars,

Stuart Hall, Keith Negus, and Michael Butterworth, who each explain aspects of culture

formation and how meaning is developed.

Stuart Hall was a cultural theorist whose work has influenced how researchers look at

identity, culture, and ideology. His work is important to my analysis of patriotism in country

music because of his constructionist approach to culture and signs. Hall writes that we make

sense of the world through the ways meaning is constructed in discourse. Hall says “neither

things in themselves nor the individual users of language can fix meaning in language… we

construct meaning using representational systems—concepts and signs” (177). Meaning does not

inherently come from objects or from one individual, but rather is constructed through the

systems of signs and ideologies of the culture.

Signs in this analysis are words, sounds or images that carry meaning; signs often vary by

culture, shifting based on the beliefs of people. Hall defines culture as “shared conceptual maps,

shared language systems and the codes which govern the relationships of translation between

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them” (175). In other words, culture is the collection of beliefs and ways of understanding those

beliefs. Although individual interpretations of the world may be slightly different, “we are able

to build up a shared culture of meaning and thus construct a social world in which we inhabit

together” (173). Within the United States, each citizen sees the world and interacts in slightly

different ways, but there is a shared culture between everyone that links them and provides a

basis of interaction.

Hall uses Swiss linguist Saussure’s work to break down signs even further, into the signifier

and the signified. Signifiers are the form—the actual word, image, photo—that is being looked

at. The signified is the idea or concept associated with the form. Hall says both signifiers and

signified are required to make meaning, but “it is the relation between them, fixed by our cultural

and linguistic codes, which sustains representation” (179). These codes “fix the relationships

between concepts and signs” and “tell us which concepts are being referred to when we hear or

read which signs” (Hall, 175). Within my analysis, I will be looking at the codes of country

music culture and the signs of patriotism that are constructed therein.

Patriotism has been coded as “country” and naturalized through country music; through

artists’ performances, the lyrics of country music songs and the identity of the audience, a

particular notion of patriotism that favors militarism and constant military support is made to

seem normal and every day rather than a constructed ideology. Country in relation to patriotism

is centered on support of and participation in military service, wearing red, white & blue or the

flag, buying American products and being proud to be American. Naturalized ideas are

constructed in ideology to seem normal. As Nealon and Searls-Giroux state, “ideology is the

making natural of cultural phenomena” (88). Though much of ideology and cultural ideas seem

common sense, “for culture to produce ideas there has to be some consensus on what the present

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material conditions mean,” meaning that the culture must have a common meaning or nothing

will have meaning (Nealon and Searls-Giroux, 85). We come to see the world in particular ways

through ideologies that sometimes we aren’t aware of; certain ideologies that we assume as

natural or commonsense beliefs are actually a construction of a power struggles over meanings

and representations, and that is why I will be analyzing the ideologies of patriotism in country

music.

Genre Worlds and Country Fans

Popular-music studies scholar Keith Negus has done research on the music industry. His

book, Music Genres and Corporate Cultures, is “an extended argument about how the creation,

circulation and consumption of popular music is shaped by recording companies and their

corporate owners” in the making of genre worlds (3). These “genre worlds,” as Negus terms

them, create a stable arena for artists to create and release music where “ongoing creative

practice is not so much about sudden bursts of innovation but the continual production of

familiarity” (25). By continuing to produce sounds and themes that the country music audience

has heard creates a static zone where success can be found and the genre finds definition—while

each new song that is released isn’t a replica of a past song, the chords and themes remain

through generations and produce the particular sound that is known as “country.”

Country music in particular is most successful when the new music released has ties to the

past, not when artists try to mix up sounds. From the chords played to the way artists behave in

public to how they talk in an interview and audiences react to them at a concert, genre worlds are

the cultural map for how the genre “looks” and “sounds,” and how this map is influenced by the

interplay between the economics of the industry and the meanings of the culture. The country

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music industry assumes the audience for country music will be looking for consistency and a

connection to the past rather than new, unique music. This impacts how cultural texts are

produced in specific ways based on economic forces of the industry, working to construct the

market for a particular country music audience to consume the most. Recording studio

executives and songwriters hold the power in this construction, with the assumption that the

audience will have the same tastes, interests, and ideologies, and will therefore consume more.

The music industry constructs a market for the music they produce and an image of the audience

that fits in that specific genre market.

A central theme of Negus’s book is that “an industry produces culture and culture produces

industry” (14). When culture produces industry, “production does not take place simply ‘within’

a corporate environment structured according to the requirements of capitalist production or

organizational formulae, but in relation to broader culture formations and practices that are

within neither the control nor the understanding of the company” (Negus, 19). Negus connects

his work to Stuart Hall’s work, particularly Hall’s “emphasis on culture as the practices through

which people create meaningful worlds in which to live” (20). With this approach to industry,

culture is the centerpiece and everything is produced through culture as a way of life. Negus uses

the term ‘cultures of production’ to describe “how processes and practices within production are

simultaneously cultural phenomena understood through distinct meaningful practices and

integrally connected to broader habits and actions occurring outside the specific place of work”

(21). Culture produces industry because the industry needs culture’s meaning and habits to

continue both inside the workplace and out in the world.

On the other hand, when industry produces culture, “entertainment corporations set up

structures of organization and institute distinct working practices to produce identifiable

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products, commodities and ‘intellectual properties’” (Negus, 14). The way recording studios are

structured and the factory image of continually releasing music creates a particular product that

is easily noticed. Within the country music industry, the result has been that “particular types of

singers were privileged as ‘country’ (white performers adopting specific rustic styles) and how a

range of artists, managers, broadcasters, producers, musicians, songwriters, and publishers

played a part in systematically selecting and shaping what came to be known as ‘authentic’

country music” (Negus, 18). In other words, the fabrication of authenticity means favoring of

certain identities and cultural codes that work through a political economy that highlights how

commercial pressure limits the circulation of oppositional ideas; favored opinions and identities

are promoted while those that contradict the industry’s constructed image of “country music” are

pushed aside and covered up. Negus points out that “staff within the music industry seek to

understand the world of musical production and consumption by constructing knowledge about

it, and then by deploying this knowledge as ‘reality’ that guides the activities of corporate

personnel” (19). The way country music is produced and consumed creates a cultural knowledge

base that becomes the reality of the genre and leads to particular behaviors and styles of musical

performance. In my analysis I will look at how the Grand Ole Opry, Toby Keith and the Dixie

Chicks portray different identities and constructions of patriotism and cultural knowledge about

country music culture.

In his chapter about the corporate culture surrounding country music, Negus discusses the

“fabrication of authenticity” and the link country music has to Nashville. He explains that

“various booms and busts have been accompanied by stylistic changes that, since the earliest

days, have involved the quite deliberate fabrication of authenticity” (103). Authenticity is a

concept and a feeling that connects the realities of fans and artists, bringing beliefs about family,

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community and working hard into the identities of all in the country music world. In the country

music genre world, authenticity is established through a common idea of working hard, being

from a small town and being American. Within the country music industry, authenticity also

comes with an attachment to the South, particularly to the city of Nashville. Negus states that

“Nashville is understood and experienced in various ways: as a geographical place, as a ‘music

community’ and as an industry category” (103). Nashville is more than just a city; it is a place

where music is fostered and it is a hub of a culture that creates the country music industry and a

site of corporate industry producing music culture. Country music emphasizes attitude over

geography, but views Nashville as the geographical pinpoint and ideological center. Negus

continues that Nashville is firmly in the South and carries the burden of meanings that

encompass that identity, though “the music community in Nashville is more insulated” (126).

Tennessee as a whole is a Southern state and the city of Nashville still faces the negative

connotations that come with that; from being predominately Christian, uneducated or poor, there

are societal stereotypes surrounding being from the South, and Nashville carries these burdens

like other Southern cities and towns. Nashville represents a region of musical development and is

a community protected from the full extent of the Southern stereotypes because it is a site of

production and success.

Additionally, Negus talks about two types of country music performers and fans—the “hard-

core” and the “soft-shell.” According to Negus, hard-core performers feature a Southern accent

and an untrained voice, focus on personal life experiences and have an informal approach to their

stage presentations. An additional characteristic attached to hard-core performers is a strong

sense of patriotism and importance placed on supporting the country and the military; Negus

does not discuss this characteristic, but it has become increasingly present in the identities of

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country music artists following 9/11 and the contemporary political atmosphere. Hard-core fans

are “more likely to live in or near the country, more likely to be farm workers or drawn from

blue-collar occupations, and in general have more in common with the stereotypic image of the

country ethos,” which can be summed up and identified in artist Hank Williams Jr. (Negus, 109).

Williams Jr. is a rough and tumble country artist from Louisiana whose father died when he was

young and who grew up in the industry singing tales of his life. In terms of fans, the hard-core

country music audience is represented as “relatively ‘frugal’ and prefer closely related genres

such as bluegrass, religious music and rock” (Negus, 109). Negus explains how hard-core fans

play a central role in sustaining hard-core performance and “give commercial country music its

continuing creditability even as the music changes from decade to decade” (108). Regardless of

how the music shifts over time, authenticity in country music gets coded as hard-core as these

fans remain loyal to artists and a particular style of performance.

Soft-shell performers, on the other hand, tend to perform with a trained voice in “relatively

accent-free standard American English” (Negus, 108). These artists’ music is less about

individual lived experience, rather it focuses on general life events. Soft-shell music works in a

mix of pop techniques to their music and are tailored as professional with “men in slacks and

turtleneck sweaters, and women as ‘folksy but not folk’” (Negus, 108). Soft-shell fans are “more

affluent, better educated, employed in white collar occupations and are less likely to come from a

small town” in addition to being “omnivorous and liking a broader range of music” (Negus,

109). This subtype of fan drifts in and out of the country music world, being attracted to the

genre at times and coming into the genre more as a result of social activities. Though fans may

have more variation in occupation or geography, the ties that bring them together are a common

culture and understanding of the country genre world.

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Public Memory & Patriotism

In his essay “Militarism and Memorializing at the Pro Football Hall of Fame,” rhetorical

scholar Michael Butterworth talks about the influence of “public memory” on the formation of

American identity and attitudes of patriotism. Public memory, as Butterworth writes, “may

constitute attitudes and identities that have consequences for democratic culture” in addition to

serving as a place to “recall an idealized past that may never have existed and to discipline the

public into particular modes of behavior” (243). For example, the way public memory makes

citizens feel about events and the country has a large impact on how they participate in the

democratic system, whether they are encouraged to participate or encouraged to protest. Public

memory works to represent different stories about history—it is an idealized, reconstructed

history of America’s past that influences how citizens and governments interact on a daily basis.

Butterworth’s arguments on public memory as sites of citizenship construction are important

because public memory is contested and shapes how we think about American culture. In my

analysis, this shaping of culture will be discussed in terms of the pro-military action, pro-

American patriotism being shown in country music artists.

At the same time, public memory glazes over the imperfections of history and leaves U.S.

citizens with a vision of what happened and how to act as a result. Butterworth continues:

“memory texts are not innocent references to moments and people of the past, rather they are

ideologically laden sites of rhetorical substance, places where citizenship is constituted and

enacted” (253). According to Butterworth, American public memory is filtered through three

major times of distress in modern history: World War II, the Vietnam War and September 11,

2001. These events hold power over public memory—the ways Americans think about the past,

the present and in their demonstrations of patriotism. When national events like 9/11 happen,

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Butterworth argues media outlets revamp their partnerships with the military, for example, and

actively work to show their support and become platforms of normalizing war. For Butterworth,

patriotism surrounding the NFL is defined via the normalization of war and respect for the

military that becomes commonsense and assumed as neutral not political. In my analysis, I will

discuss the ways Toby Keith and the Grand Ole Opry present patriotism as pro-war and

militarization, and how that has become naturalized into the country music genre world.

Butterworth uses the NFL’s Veteran’s Week to show that events are “non-political enactments of

respect and honor for the nation’s men and women of the armed forces, or, in the words of

ESPN, ‘America’s heroes’” (242). Just as the NFL honors the armed forces, I will show how The

Grand Ole Opry, Toby Keith and the Dixie Chicks use their music to advocate for or critique

America by constructing a particular public memory through their connections to and

reproductions of the genre culture. This public memory is constructed in terms of national events

involving military action, masculinity and what patriotism means.

Merriam-Webster defines patriotism as the “love for or devotion to one’s country.”

Dictionary.com defines it as “devoted love, support, and defense of one's country; national

loyalty.” While both of these definitions are useful as a basis, for this project I will explain how I

am defining patriotism in relation to country music culture. For me in this project as it pertains to

country music, patriotism refers to the all-encompassing love for the United States, full support

of the military and presidential decisions, and sacrifice of self for the nation. As I will argue,

patriotism in country music also has underlying implications of being coded as masculine, white,

lower-middle to middle class and living in the South and Midwest. In my analysis, I will be

looking at what these signs signify in the country music world, and the ways particular artists

portray the signs.

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Diane Pecknold, a postdoctoral teaching scholar at the University of Louisville, said the

country music audience is known for their “insistence on the continued importance of older

definitions and social meanings for country music” and are unwavering in the notion that country

is “the people’s music, a reflection of America’s simple folk traditions” (169). The modern

country music audience holds onto the ideologies of old-school country music and reflects the

representations that artists demonstrate. My work of analyzing patriotism in the country music

industry fits into the broader conversation of constructionism and music through the work of

Hall, Negus and Butterworth on culture and genre worlds. Butterworth discusses patriotism but

in relation to NFL and Negus touches upon country music, I will build off of their work and

connect the country music world to patriotism in the way Hall describes constructionism.

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Chapter 2: Background/Context

In this chapter, I will explain what objects I will be looking at and why they are important

to my project and to the discipline of communications. I will be looking at the Grand Ole Opry,

music by Toby Keith, and the performances of the Dixie Chicks to show how the country music

industry is constructed and presented as patriotic. In addition to the success of preplanned,

assumed patriotism, I will be looking at the negative effects on success when that image is not

held up.

The Grand Ole Opry

It is important to look at the construction of the Opry as the “home” of country music and

the ways patriotism is engraved in every step of the process because it was constructed to act that

way and provides a baseline identity for artists and fans alike on how country music looks. The

Grand Ole Opry began on November 28, 1925 on a Nashville radio station with a show called

“The WSM Barn Dance.” That night started a new wave in country music and the popularity of

the show and the genre has grown since. Through the 1930s, “the show’s emphasis moved from

old-time instrumentals to modern country singers” (Opry.com). Country artists began to take on

more modern identities and move away from the old fiddle and banjo concept. Popularity of the

Opry continued to grow and in 1945, a live show was performed for the first time in what would

become the “tabernacle or mother church” of country music, the Ryman Auditorium. The Ryman

became a centerpiece of downtown Nashville, a large auditorium bringing in crowds of fans each

night a show was performed. The sound of country music at the Opry continued to change

through the 1950s and Opry performers found more success “as the recording industry in

Nashville took hold, Opry membership and hit records often went hand in hand” (Opry.com). In

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the 1960s, the Opry moved out of the inner city when the Grand Ole Opry House and Opryland

were built in suburban Nashville. The Grand Ole Opry House became the new “home” of

country performers and a circle of the original Ryman Auditorium stage was brought to center

stage for the new stage. When the move occurred, the sounds and style of performances changed,

but as the 1980s came, a return to traditionalism was found.

In May 2010, Nashville was struck with devastating floods that caused major damage to

the Grand Ole Opry House and left the stage, and the precious historical circle, underwater.

While the Opry House was being restored, the show continued to be performed from various

locations around the city, never letting the natural disaster take priority over showing fans what

country music was about. Through the repairs, the infamous circle that performers stand on

remained unbroken and was restored, returned to the Opry stage and became a symbol of the

strength of country music.

The Grand Ole Opry places an emphasis on home, country stars “come home” to perform

there and fans are welcomed “home” to see the show. In his essay “Country Music is Wherever

the Soul of a Country Music Fan is,” Jeremy Hill explains this feeling, saying “the fans are the

Opry” and through the shifts in location, “the people mattered more than the material space of

the home” (100-101). The move from the Ryman Auditorium to the Grand Ole Opry House

maintained the realness of country, placing it in what Hill describes as a more authentic setting to

country music. Hill describes the shift as “taking us out of the barn and into a home” (93). The

change in location, and the changing geography of country fans, was not important but the values

and the state of mind of fans makes country music, country music. Hill describes that on the

opening night at the Grand Ole Opry House, President Richard Nixon described “country” as a

state of mind and emphasized temperament and taste as what matters. Nixon’s grand opening

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speech at the Opry House showcased the nationalism artists and fans brought to the show and the

connection between the country music world. Hill looks at a song by Tom Hall where Hall says

“country is all about values: ‘working for a living, thinking your own thoughts / loving your

town, teaching you children / finding out what’s right and standing you own ground.’ … It’s all

in your heart.” (105). These lyrics speak to the love, the values, and the need to do what’s right

that country music artists and fans share that creates authenticity.

In a recent visit to the Grand Ole Opry, I noticed the ways tradition and patriotism are

intertwined in every aspect of the show. On the backstage tour, emphasis is placed on the stars

who have gained membership into the Grand Ole Opry, especially those who honor the men and

women who serve in any branch of the military or police forces. Each dressing room at the Opry

has a theme, including one with a theme of “Stars & Stripes”. This particular room is decked out

with a flag painted across an entire wall, stars and stripes on everything from the couch pillows

to the mirror, and an army badge with the name of the artist in the room that night on the door.

At the end of the tour, guests are ushered into the gift shop where you find clothing, mugs, bags,

blankets and more with phrases such as ‘The Grand Ole Opry,’ ‘United We Stand’ and ‘America

Strong’ written across them. Each of these items also has an artist’s signature of support on it,

many items featuring Kellie Pickler and Craig Morgan as two Opry artists who show unwavering

support for the armed forces. Following the tour and walk around the shop, I attended a show

where service members were honored and applauded, a flag was projected on the large screen

behind the stage, and artists sang and talked about family, home and being proud to be

American.

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Toby Keith

Toby Keith is important to my research because his identity in the industry is predicated

on patriotism and being extremely outspoken about that; he has also found extreme success

through this identity, demonstrating that performing in this manner is the path to a successful

career in the country music industry. Keith has been known as a rough and tumble, hard-core

American artist for his entire career as a country music artist. Keith is a family man; he has been

married 30 years and raised three children, and is now a grandfather to three. In an interview

with Nash Country Weekly, Keith said he plans his tours so that he will be gone from home less

than 60 days a year in order for him to be able to spend most of his time with his family. On his

website, Keith explains that ticket sales used to correlate to how popular his current hit was, but

now, after 15 years of headlining tours, that doesn’t matter to him;

“I can’t tell the difference between having a ‘Red Solo Cup’ or not. I know my crowd is

going to come ready to part. And it puts us in a great atmosphere for writing while we’re

out on the road. It’s rewarding to walk out to my crowd and know my job is to give them

something new they really want to listen to.”

And Keith has continued to do that, from music videos to new singles and radio airtime, his fans

are finding his music.

On his website, Keith shows his support for the troops with a section dedicated to videos

and photos from his USO tours, and a option to order clothing that is strictly made in America

and sports sayings such as “#Merica, never apologize for being patriotic.” Keith does not shy

away from showing his pride and support for his country and encouraging others to do the same.

In my analysis of Toby Keith, I will be focusing on three of his songs: “Courtesy of the Red,

White & Blue,” “American Soldier,” and “Made in America.” I will be looking primarily the

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song lyrics to demonstrate how Keith abides by the constructed rules of the country music

industry to be patriotic and successful.

In “Courtesy of the Red, White & Blue,” Keith sings about American boys and girls

standing to salute and recognize soldiers, how his dad served in the army and was injured but

continued to fly a flag at his home because he was proud to live in the land of the free and

wanted his children to grow up feeling the same way. And of course there’s the famous line,

“you’ll be sorry that you messed with the U.S. of A, cause we’ll put a boot in your ass, it’s the

American way” that sums up Keith’s views on military action and patriotism in America.

“American Soldier” takes a calmer look at the personal lives of a soldier, focusing on the

duty and sacrifice over the fight and danger involved in military service. Keith sings of a soldier

who says “I don't do it for the money, there's bills that I can't pay, I don't do it for the glory, I just

do it anyway.” The soldier who is out on the front lines of battle so his family, and the families

of the listening audience, can sleep in peace at night. The soldier in “American Soldier” is one

that thinks of the future of his children, doing his duty no matter what, and when a sacrifice is

made, thinking “I'll bear that cross with honor, ’cause freedom don't come free.”

“Made in America,” released in 2011, tells the story of a married couple who were raised

in America, buy American products and want to support American companies. Keith’s

description of the man is that “it breaks his heart seein' foreign cars, filled with fuel that isn't ours

and wearin' cotton we didn't grow.” The man flies the flag on his farm, has a Semper Fi tattoo on

his left arm and is willing to spend more in order to buy American products. Keith sings that this

man “ain't prejudiced, he's just made in America.” The woman is “that wife, that decorates on the

Fourth of July, but says 'every day's Independence Day'.” She teaches school and has her class

say the Pledge of Allegiance, regardless of the opinions of others.

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The Dixie Chicks

The Dixie Chicks are important in my discussion of patriotism in country music because

they pushed against the constructed image of supporting troops, and have suffered backlash and

have not been as successful or popular because of it. The Dixie Chicks, a band formed by sisters

Martie Maguire and Emily Robison, and friend Natalie Maines, began their career in 1989 in

Dallas, Texas. The women wrote songs and performed in the area for six years before signing a

label and getting on the fast track to success. However, their fame was cut short, until recently,

after an incident of contradicting the President of the United States while performing a concert

abroad. According to an article in the New York times, in March 2003 while President Bush was

in office and the invasion of Iraq drew closer, Maines introduced the song Travelin’ Soldier at a

London concert and said “just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all…We do not want

this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the president of the United States is from Texas.”

The New York Times article talks about how following the incident, country radio stations

banned their music, protestors destroyed CDs and Maines received death threats. Entertainment

Weekly printed an issue with the Dixie Chicks on the cover where the women were nude and

slurs such as “Dixie Sluts” were painted on their bodies.

Since the incident of not supporting President Bush, the Dixie Chicks scaled back

touring, laying low until summer of 2016 when they announced they would be going on tour

again. In the New York Times, the Dixie Chicks said the controversy “feels like another

lifetime…our country’s changed, we’ve changed, the fans definitely have.” The group’s first

show of their 2016 tour was in Cincinnati, Ohio, and sold more than 20,000 tickets, a record

number for the Dixie Chicks. At the Cincinnati show the women sang a 2000 hit, Goodbye Earl,

a song about a woman and her best friend who murder an abusive husband. While they sang the

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song, a montage of “criminals and shady-looking characters” through history flashed on a screen

behind them. One of those images was a shot of the Republican presidential candidate Donald

Trump with devil horns, a mustache and a goatee scribbled on. Regardless of fans’ opinions on

the candidate, this was another incident of the Dixie Chicks making a political statement while

on tour.

In my analysis of the Dixie Chicks, I will be focusing on two things: the lyrics of

Travelin’ Soldier and the push back they received following their criticism of President Bush.

Travelin’ Soldier shares the story of a young man who meets a waitress on his way out of town

to training camp and asks to send her letters while he’s away. The two become close through

their writing, and she learns about him and where he is stationed, and she is “waiting for the love

of a traveling soldier.” The song speaks to the connection soldiers look to find with home while

they are stationed abroad and fighting for the country, and the love that citizens back home have

for service members. The Dixie Chicks received severe criticism for pushing back on war and on

the commander-in-chief, President Bush, and suffered significant loss of fame and fan support

following the incident.

The disapproval of the Dixie Chicks goes beyond fans; as fellow country stars have found

issues with the ways the women talk about their country. Taste of Country shares that the feud

began when Dixie Chicks lead signer, Maines, was asked about Toby Keith’s Courtesy of the

Red, White & Blue and said “it’s ignorant, and it makes country music sound ignorant.” Through

the next few years, the two did not get along and Keith used a photo of Maines with Saddam

Hussein. Keith says the feud ended when he watched a band member lose a two-year-old

daughter, then saw a cover of Country Weekly that showed Keith and Maines with the headline

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‘Fight to the Death.’ After seeing what his bandmate was going through, Keith said “it seemed so

insignificant, I said ‘enough is enough.’”

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Chapter 3: Analysis

In this chapter I will discuss the ways the Grand Ole Opry, Toby Keith and the Dixie

Chicks create different forms of patriotism within the country music genre. Each of these groups

have created an image of patriotism that is perpetuated through everything they do—the pro-

military, family version of the Opry, the militaristic and masculine version of Toby Keith, and

the anti-war but still supportive of service members image of the Dixie Chicks. The success that

the Opry and these two artists have found is in relation to whether they are in alignment with the

hegemonic opinion of the constructed country music audience, and I will be analyzing how each

follows, or breaks, that idea.

The Grand Ole Opry

The Grand Old Opry symbolizes “home” for the country music industry; from the old Ryman

Auditorium to the modern, and commercialized, Gaylord Opryland Resort and Opryhouse,

“home” has been the main descriptor of the Opry since it started and is continuously told to fans

on tours and at shows. Playing at the Opry is an honor, and as Opry member performers

announce during each performance, performing at the Opry means that an artist has ‘made it.’

Since the beginning, the significance of performing at the Opry has only continued to grow. The

constant reminder through statements at shows, interviews and guest appearances from artists

and fans alike that the Opry is home has constructed the hegemonic ideologies that are

perpetuated by the Opry; particular ways of identifying oneself, demonstrating patriotism that

favors full military support and certain ways of living life are favored and naturalized via the

Opry, and assumed for all artists.

The Opry uses what Michael Butterworth explains as “public memory” and the construction

of what it means to perform there to develop the identity of the Opry today. Butterworth explains

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public memory as attitude and identities that serve as a place to recall an idealized past that may

not have existed in reality, but molds the public to behave in particular ways (243). The Opry’s

history has been told in particular ways to uphold the traditions and honor that the show holds,

and audiences and performers behave in a way that respects that story of history. Because the

Opry is such a large part of the country music industry, it serves as a “memory text”—

“ideologically laden sites of rhetorical substance, places where citizenship is constituted and

enacted” (Butterworth, 253)—that works to construct the genre culture, including notions of

patriotism, in particular ways. The Opry constitutes a form of citizenship that is family oriented,

patriotic in that it is pro-war and pro-military, and honors tradition. In what follows, I will look at

the standing recognition of service members in the audience at the beginning of each show, the

“Stars & Stripes” dressing room, and the products sold in the Opry gift shop.

Similar to sporting events, the Opry begins every show with honoring troops. As the pre-

show festivities begin, the pre-show host asks if there are any service members in the crowd, for

them to stand and for a round of applause to be had for the ‘brave men and women that serve this

country.’ Patriotism is shown in terms of supporting the military and from the first second of the

show, the audience is reminded that the country music world supports the armed forces, and that

as the audience and as Americans, applause and thanks should be given. “True Americans” are to

recognize, support and thank those who serve without asking questions—it has been naturalized

into American culture and particularly into the country music genre world that this behavior is

normal and assumed. This proud, active patriotism is reinforced by the Opry and audience

members are encouraged to carry that image with them as country music fans.

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Figure 1, The Stars & Stripes dressing room is one of the 18 artist dressing rooms at the Opryhouse.

Patriotism is showcased backstage in the “Stars & Stripes” dressing room for visiting artists

who have served or actively show their support for the troops. Figure 1 shows the scene of the

“Stars & Stripes” room, from the distressed flag painted across the wall to the decorative pillows

and posters next to the mirror that feature red, white and blue. Each of these details paints a

picture of the importance of red, white & blue, of the flag, and of historical images of America’s

past such as 9/11 in the identity construction of popular country artists. In this way, the Opry

promotes the idea of “honoring America” by supporting its military ventures; here revering the

troops becomes a particular way of demonstrating patriotism.

The Opry is setting up a way to look at patriotism in relation to the artists chosen to perform

there to produce a vision of what patriotism should look like. The importance of patriotism in

country music is highlighted in this room and makes artists and fans remember that patriotism is

important each time they see it. The culture that is produced is constructed through the beliefs of

Opry members and the history of the Opry being ideologically home for the country music genre.

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Figure 2, Kip Moore poses on the couch of the Stars & Stripes dressing room before performing at the Opry on October 11, 2016

(Opry Instagram).

In Figure 2, artist Kip Moore is shown posing with his guitar against the distressed flag

background before taking the stage at the Opryhouse on October 11, 2016. This picture of Moore

was featured on the Grand Ole Opry Instagram page, showing fans that recognizing the red,

white & blue is just as essential as the artists performing that night. By being in this dressing

room and posing against the large flag wall, Moore is showing his commitment to the patriotic

identity of country music centered on support of the military, and the success that that identity

carries. Moore’s picture and his excitement to perform at the Opry showcase his authenticity,

giving him more connection to fans. Country music artists fabricate authenticity through

connecting to the identities of fans, and to the city of Nashville. Keith Negus explains the

fabrication of authenticity as a feeling that connects fans with artists through beliefs about

family, community and an attachment to Nashville. By performing at the Opry and being in the

Stars & Stripes dressing room, Moore is performing an authentic identity that favors patriotism,

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the idea of home and a genuine connection to his fans. Being in Nashville gives viewers a chance

to see Moore in a site of country music industry production, allowing him to further his career.

Moore fits into the genre world of country music by remaining in the boundaries of what a

country artist looks like with his jeans, boots, baseball cap and guitar against the flag.

Figure 3, The Opryhouse gift shop hosts a table of patriotic clothing, cups, blankets and more for guests to buy to show support

for the country and for the Opry simultaneously.

A walk through the Opry gift shop also showcases the dedication to being patriotic, with

T-shirts, mugs, hats and even shorts featuring American phrases and logos such as “America

Strong”, “United We Stand”, and the flag or stars around each phrase. Each item gives

consumers the chance to show their love for the Opry, the military and the country at the same

time. Figures 3 and 4 show the items the Opry is selling; clothing with phrases that refer to 9/11,

the War on Terror and military and show fans that they should enjoy, and support, both the Opry

and the United States’ military action. The country music industry has influenced how the

culture of the Opry has been formed, creating a particular image of what patriotism looks like

and how fans and artists should engage with it.

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Figure 4, A t-shirt with the phrase “America Strong” is featured in the Opryhouse gift shop.

The Grand Ole Opry maintains a hegemonic concept of patriotism that entails full

military support and showcasing the flag in everything they do. By placing red, white and blue

and the flag on everything they do, the Opry tells fans are artists that they should have the same

ideas and support of the military—the country music audience should have the same

conservative views, hold pro-military ideas and conform to the dominant ideology of the genre

culture.

Toby Keith

Toby Keith makes a political statement through the songs he releases and his

performances; a statement made through hegemonic qualities of patriotism in country music that

make Keith’s conservative, pro-war demonstration of patriotism seem normal. The music that

Toby Keith shares with his fans demonstrates his “hard-core” performer identity and tells his

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audience that they should be as hard-core and patriotic as him. Keith Negus describes the hard-

core identity as featuring a more Southern accent, focusing on life experiences and having an

informal approach to performances (109). Keith’s hard-core identity can be established through

his rough and tumble attitude, dirty jeans and boots and his songs about drinking beer and loving

life. Keith fits the mold of the country music genre world, making choices in outfits, lyrics and

interviews that position him as authentic. In addition to having the ideal hard-core persona, Keith

is also very clear in demonstrating his patriotism and conservative tendencies through his song

lyrics, social media posts, clothing he sells, and concerts abroad. The combination of authentic

and patriotism has found him great success in the industry. Authentic country music artists are

able to make a connection to fans by holding similar beliefs and behaving in similar ways, and

Keith uses each song and performance as a way to showcase his authentic identity as a hard-core

performer and a patriotic U.S. citizen.

Patriotism is a signifier, an idea that is associated with particular symbols and objects. In

the discussion of Toby Keith, patriotism is signaled through images of red, white & blue and the

flag, memories of 9/11 and full support of the United States military. This version of patriotism

coded through war, terrorism and military support has not always existed, but is a representation

that has been repeated through the country music genre culture in the wake of heightened

awareness of terrorism and the attacks on the homeland. Following 9/11, many country music

artists released songs about the tragedies that happened day, the events that followed, and the

way Americans came together in the tough times. The public memory of the events of that day

connected Americans to each other and allowed for country music artists to write music and

reach fans inside the genre, and listeners who were not necessarily country fans. Released in

2002, Toby Keith’s Courtesy of the Red, White & Blue tells listeners that “justice will be served

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and the battle will rage, this big dog will fight when you rattle his cage”—the United States will

fight back and protect when an enemy attacks and threatens the lives of its’ citizens. In the wake

of the attacks, Americans felt vulnerable and wanted to take back the sense of safety that they

previously felt. Keith singing: “Uncle Sam put you name at the top of his list and the Statue of

Liberty started shaking her first, and the eagle will fly, man it’s gonna be hell when you hear

Mother Freedom start ringin’ her bell,” demonstrates how following the attacks on the Twin

Towers, the United States put Al Qaeda on top priority and Americans made sacrifices to defend

their country. Keith takes a hard-core approach to using public memory and encouraging his

audience by using his personal feelings of the attacks and his conservative views on war to write

songs. Keith’s line “you’ll be sorry that you messed with the U.S. of A, ‘cause we’ll put a boot in

your ass, it’s the American way,” further illustrates how America citizens stood up for the

country and joined the military in the wake of 9/11 or did work at home to support troops

overseas. The line “we’ll always stand up and salute, we’ll always recognize when we see Old

Glory flying” provides listeners with an image of civilians and troops standing side by side

saluting the flag, no matter the circumstances. Further along in the song, Keith mentions a father

who is injured fighting abroad but flies the flag in his yard because he wants to show his children

and wife that they can grow up happy and live freely in the United States. The flag symbolizes

strength, freedom, honor, and also militarism and war, in the minds of Keith and his listeners,

and that significance is returned to every time one stands up and salutes. The significance that

the flag holds for Keith and his audience does not inherently exist, but rather is constructed

through the discourse around war and military aggression as part of United States defense.

In American Soldier, Keith takes a calmer approach to the military as he identifies what

makes a soldier. The song starts out by stating, “I don’t do it for the money, there’s bills that I

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can’t pay, I don’t do it for the glory, I just do it anyway,” implying that soldiers may not be paid

much and the glory does not matter, what these men and women are focused on is protecting and

serving the country—as true, patriotic Americans. Further into the song, Keith says “I will

always do my duty no matter what the price, I’ve counted up the costs, I know the sacrifice,”

even when death is on the line, the strong American soldier will stand up the the fight. He

continues “I’ll bear that cross with honor, cause freedom don’t come free,” the freedom of fellow

citizens is the focus of the American soldier, and Keith is sharing that message over and over

through this song. The song closes a powerful statement in the lyrics “I’m out here on the front

line, sleep in peace tonight,” where Keith is projecting the message that the front lines of war are

dangerous and the soldiers out there are fighting for the United States while their families are

safe at home. In this song, Keith is drawing on what Keith Negus explains as culture producing

industry. The constructed culture of soldiers is being used to produce music and industry that

will appeal to Keith’s audience. The culture is created through the practices the soldiers have that

give meaning to their lives, and country music artists use those meanings to produce capital.

In Made in America, Keith describes an all-American couple who is heartbroken seeing

foreign goods in the US and decorates for every patriotic holiday. Keith describes the couple as

“born in the Heartland, raised up a family of King James and Uncle Sam”; a hard-core identity

that is born in the US and raising a family in the Christian church and the same patriotic mindset

as the parents. The chorus leaves the audience hearing “he ain’t prejudiced, he’s just made in

America,” a phrase that tells listeners that it is not biased or discriminatory to only want

American made things, it is just a characteristic of being an American; choosing to support only

American countries is not prejudiced against other countries, it is a duty to the United States.

Made in America uses the public memory of war, of American small businesses, of Christianity

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and of family to exemplify the characteristics of American identity that the constructed image of

the country music audience relates to and adheres to. The produced image of the culture of

Keith’s fan base, the way they live their lives, produces an industry model that promotes an

extreme for of patriotism.

Toby Keith’s unwavering public support of the military and the way he presents himself

create a particular patriotic identity that favors military action and fits the carefully crafted model

of the country music genre. Because he fits the mold of the country music world, Keith has

found success in the industry and continues to grow in popularity. By using his hard-core

performances and drawing on public memory, Keith is part of the production of an industry of

masculine, pro-war, pro-militarism patriotic country music that brings in fans to listen and share

his music as well as making a broader social media presence for him. Keith is making a political

statement with his demonstrations of patriotism; a statement made through hegemonic

characteristics that have made Keith’s brash pro-war, conservative conception of patriotism

seems normal in the United States. Keith takes what is political and portrays it in a way that

makes it seem like it is not political, normalizing polarized patriotism.

The Dixie Chicks

The Dixie Chicks stand out because of the way they have positioned themselves in

opposition to the dominant ideologies of patriotism and the presentation of that in the country

music industry. The women make political statements through their songs and performances, and

are seen challenging the militarism of the United States, particularly in terms of the commander-

in-chief or potential commander-in-chief. The Dixie Chicks have spent much of their career

pushing back against the constructed patriotic identity of the country music world, which has not

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always lead them to find success. In their only song about the military, Travelin’ Soldier, the

women tell the tale of a young girl who is a waitress and meets a young man going off to training

camp, and later to fight in the Vietnam War. Though they just met, they write letters to each

other and the women talk about the girl thinking “our love will never end, waiting for a soldier to

come back again.” As the letters continue, the war progresses and the young soldier gets set off

to war, telling the young girl not to worry and he won’t be able to write for a while. The song

ends with the image of the young girl finding out her soldier has been killed in action; “one

Friday night at a football game, the Lord’s Prayer said and the Anthem sang, a man said ‘folks

would you bow heads for a list of local Vietnam dead.’” Travelin’ Soldier was released in 2002,

not long after the tragic events of September 11, 2001; the song draws on the public memory of

the Vietnam War and watching young men get drafted for war. In the wake of 9/11, the country

was left not knowing what would come, whether there would be another draft or dedicated men

and women would volunteer to serve. The Dixie Chicks make a statement through Travelin’

Soldier about the toll a draft takes on the men drafted and the relationships they have in their

lives. While making the song have a catchy tune and easy to remember lyrics, the women share a

political statement about the draft and how everyone, not just the men going to fight, were

impacted by the draft.

At a concert in London in 2003, the Dixie Chicks introduced Travelin’ Soldier and made

a comment about not supporting the actions of President Bush as he sent troops overseas to fight

in Afghanistan and Iraq. Following their announcement, the Chicks faced significant backlash as

fans showed their outrage at their lack of national support. The Dixie Chicks found themselves

losing popularity, and seemingly stopped writing and performing for the next fifteen years due to

their breaking of the country music genre identity. This new opposition to militaristic patriotism

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and a new approach to the genre where the Dixie Chicks supported the individual soldiers, but

were anti-militaristic did not attract fans in the same way that traditional patriotism did. Hard-

core country music fans did not connect to the Dixie Chicks identity in the same way that they

often connected to Toby Keith’s. The Dixie Chicks stopped going on tour and producing music

for the next ten years until a new album and highly publicized tour brought them back into the

country music scene.

Figure 5, A defaced poster of Donald Trump was shown behind the Dixie Chicks on their tour-opening show in Cincinnati, Ohio in summer 2016. (Huffington Post)

When the Dixie Chicks returned to tour in 2016, their first show was held in Cincinnati,

Ohio. During the performance they sang of one of their popular tunes, Goodbye Earl, a song

about a woman who is in an abusive relationship and her friend helps her kill and dispose of the

man. As the women sang this song, a slideshow of images of criminals played behind them. One

of the pictures was of presidential candidate Donald Trump with cartoon devil horns and a

mustache drawn on. This blatant portrayal of Trump as a cartoon character during election

season positions the Dixie Chicks as political and controversial in a highly public setting. Being

public and opposing the rules of the country music genre world leads to a different type of fan

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draw and a different type of patriotism focused on keeping freedoms and safety, but not

supporting active military influence and war.

The Dixie Chicks step outside the boundaries of the country music industry and create a

new culture of patriotism. The women use the public memory of events to create music that

contrasts the approach taken by the Opry and Toby Keith; their music about the military and the

Vietnam War show compassion for the soldiers as people, but take an anti-war stance. Their

statements about President Bush and the images of presidential candidate Donald Trump contest

the dominant public memory of government authorities, sharing with their audience ideas of

critiquing government officials and disagreement with military action and war.

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Conclusion

The country music audience is a constructed image, and the identities of each artist are

constructed in particular ways to appeal to that audience—a construction that, particularly since

9/11, has been centered in patriotism. The country music industry is constructed through

hegemonic ideologies of patriotism, which some artists adhere to in constructing their identity

and some artists choose to stand in opposition to. The Grand Ole Opry and Toby Keith have used

military support and images of the flag to show their constructed patriotic identities to fans, and

the success that each has found shows audiences and other artists that having a patriotic identity

is beneficial to a career in the country music industry. The Opry uses performance, clothing and

the Stars & Stripes room to show off patriotism through shows each night, demonstrating to

audiences that it is an important aspect of the industry. Toby Keith uses his lyrics and his loud

personality in performing songs to further construct his patriotic identity and connect to the

constructed ideal audience of the industry. The Dixie Chicks take a different approach to their

identity, creating an identity that supports the men and women of the armed forces but that is

anti-militaristic and speaks out against some of the decisions of United States presidents,

particularly in controversial times such as 9/11, the War on Terror, and the 2016 election leading

up to Donald Trump being elected.

Looking at the constructions of each identity I analyzed in this project is important because

patriotism is a constructed ideology and the way artists and fans adhere to patriotic beliefs is

assumed and has been naturalized in our culture, particularly in the country music “genre world.”

Patriotism is a concept that has developed over time in American culture, and the signifiers of it

have continued to grow—from the flag and soldiers to red, white & blue, camo, guns, stars and

country music playing in the background. Country music is not inherently patriotic—it has been

39

constructed as such and fans have been constructed to enjoy that and hold similar beliefs on

military and government. It is important for patriotism to be critically looked at because it is a

naturalized concept that influences the way Americans interact with the world and the way the

country music industry attracts its’ audience.

Through the course of this project, I looked specifically at the country music industry and the

ways patriotism is constructed within that limited genre. However, other music genres have

demonstrated patriotism in songs and artists’ performances in times of fear and war in America. I

looked at a small scope of two artists in particular, Toby Keith and the Dixie Chicks, and the

“home” of country music, The Grand Ole Opry, but there are other artists, such as Alan Jackson

and Darryl Worley, that have constructed overly-patriotic identities that could be analyzed in

depth as well. In addition, constructions of race and gender influence the development of the

country music “genre world”—taking a primarily white, masculine hegemonic identity.

In further research I think I would compare other to genres to the country music world, and

analyze why country music has been designated as the genre of patriotism. The genre has been

labeled as patriotic through hegemonic ideologies of the artists that fit the prescribed mold of the

genre, and in constructed their identities, artists have embraced that aspect to attract the

constructed audience of the genre.

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