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Quality Standards for Assessment: Guidelines for Assessment, Evaluation, and

Reporting of Student Learning

An Educator’s Handbook

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This handbook was produced through the collective efforts of the Learning Services and Foothills Administrators Association department of Foothills School Division. Divisional Project Coordinator: Lisa Blackstock - 2009

(Director of Staff Development) Rebecca Forchuk – 2019 (Director of Staff Development)

Assessment Specialist Coordinators: Janice Ottewell - 2009

(Foothills Assessment Specialist Team) Beverley Barca - 2009 (Foothills Assessment Specialist Team) Marsi Quarin-Wright - 2019 (Instructional Coach) Shelly Read - 2019 (Curriculum and Instruction Facilitator) Shanda Dupras – 2017 (Instructional Coach) Doug Stevens – 2019 (Director of Student Learning)

Handbook Contributors: Foothills Administrator’s Association Leading and Learning Group

© 2009 Foothills School Division - revised © 2019 Copyright of this document is owned by the Foothills School Division #38 P.O. Box 5700, 120-5th Avenue West, High River, Alberta Canada, T1V 1M7 No reproduction of this document, in whole or in part, may be made without the express authorization of Foothills School Division.

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Contents AssessmenttoSupportLearning...................................................................................................................................................10Triangulation..........................................................................................................................................................................................24AssessmentFORLearning................................................................................................................................................................11AssessmentASLearning....................................................................................................................................................................11WhatisAssessment“AS”Learning?.............................................................................................................................................11AssessmentPracticesthatDevelopAssessmentCapableLearners..................Error!Bookmarknotdefined.

Assessment Capable Learners Checklist .......................................................................................... 14

How do we make learning visible for students? .............................................................................. 14LearningTargets...................................................................................................................................................................................16SuccessCriteria.....................................................................................................................................................................................19.........................................................................................................................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined.Simply constructing criteria with students is not enough. Students need to do something with the criteria – either self-assess, peer assess, assess exemplars… the criteria needs to be a learning tool to identify next steps to improve learning........................................................................................19DescriptiveFeedback..........................................................................................................................................................................20OngoingEvidence....................................................................................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined.

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If the greater value is given the score, Then value the score.

If the greater value is intrinsic,

Then value the child.

There is, I think, a far greater value in teaching the intrinsic desire to learn than in teaching to achieve a score.

If the desire to learn is in its place,

Then achievement will find its place.

Stanish

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Introductory Remarks

“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.” Toffler

What we want schools to do is changing. “Schools have the responsibility for preparing all students for tomorrow’s world; teachers have the wherewithal to guide all students to high levels of learning; and assessment, first and foremost, is part of student learning” (Earl, 2003, p. 14). This seemingly straightforward shift requires significant changes in the way teaching and learning occur in 21st century schools. “[It is] a radical break with the past that requires us to stop and completely rethink most of what we do” (Gilbert, quoted in Friesen, 2009, p. 3). In the past, a school’s purpose used to be to sort students from the highest to the lowest achiever. Today, the mission is to ensure the highest achievement of the largest number of students. What used to be the ‘basics’ are no longer considered to be sufficient education for students to function as successful adults in our ever-changing, digital society. Successful participation in the world community requires skills far beyond the basics. Problem solving, critical thinking, adaptability, transferability, as well as “…[t]he ability to ‘learn, to go on learning, and to help others to learn’ ” (Gilbert quoted in Friesen, 2009, p. 5) epitomize the complexity of the goal of education today. It goes without saying that the assessment tools educators use must be able to measure the successful application of these skills. In keeping with this new mandate, Foothills School Division has revised Policy H-710, Assessment, Evaluation and Reporting of Student Learning. The purpose of this supporting handbook is to lend practical support to teachers and administrators across Foothills School Division as they implement this new policy. However, “[y]ou need to learn it by doing it and having mechanisms for getting better at it…” (Fullan, 2005, p. 69). This document is comprised of the research-based rationale behind current, best practice, accompanied by useful tools that will enable the educator to implement change in assessment, evaluation, and reporting practices. “Successful organizations mobilize themselves to be ‘all over’ the practices that are known to make a difference” (Fullan, 2008, p. 77). We know that this handbook will make a difference to student learning. The content of this handbook is also offered to parents as an informative document to apprise them of the changes in assessment, reporting, and evaluation practices. In gaining insight into the 21st century classroom, parents can better support their child’s learning. “When parents are involved in talking about learning with their children, children achieve more. The more parents are involved, the higher the student achievement levels” (Henderson & Berla, quoted in Davies, 2008, p. 27).

Denise Rose Former Superintendent 2003-2013 Foothills School Division

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How to Use this Resource This handbook outlines the quality assessment practices within Foothills School Division from Kindergarten through to Grade 12. To support the professionals’ journey from knowing to doing, this updated version is intended to deepen teacher understanding and to support application of the assessment principles and procedures outlined in AP 360.

Purpose of Assessment The purpose assessment is three threefold:

Ø FOR Learning: informs instruction, monitors student progress Ø AS Learning: develops student independence; students know how to learn Ø OF Learning: judges and communicates academic achievement

Table 1.1 The Purpose of Assessment, the Nature of Assessment for Different Purposes, and the Uses of Assessment Information FOR Learning ASLearning OFLearningDefinition: • “ongoingexchangeofinformation

betweenstudents&teachersaboutstudentprogresstowardclearlyspecifiedlearneroutcomes…”(AAC,2016)

• “opportunityforstudentstouseassessmenttofurthertheirownlearning...reflectontheirownlearningandidentifyareasofstrengthandneed…studentssettheirownpersonalgoalsandadvocatefortheirownlearning”(Nevin,)

• “assessmentexperiencesdesignedtocollectinformationaboutlearninginordertomakejudgmentsaboutstudentperformanceandachievementattheendofaperiodofinstruction…”(AAC,2016)

Whentouse:

• Usedtoinforminstructionandimpactlearningintheimmediatefuture

• Developsindependentlearnerswholearnabouttheirlearningthroughouttheprocess

• Usedtorecordandreportwhathasbeenlearnedinthepast(OntarioEducation,2010)

Grading: • Notusedforgrading • Notusedforgrading • UsedforgradingNatureofAssessment:

Formative:• Occursregularlyduringinstruction• Usedtoinforminstructionandimpact

learningintheimmediatefuture• Support,modelingandguidanceare

providedbyteacher

Formative:• Alsoreferredtoas

“assessmentcapablelearners”

• Occursregularlyduringinstruction

• Informsnextstepstoimpactlearninginimmediatefuture

• Support,modelingandguidanceareprovidedbyteacher

Summative:• Occursatorneartheendofa

periodoflearning• Reportsonstudents’learning

atthatpointintime• Maybeusedtoinform

instructionandinterventions

Benchmark:• Ensuresstudentdoesn’tgounnoticed

orfallthroughthecracks• Screensorflagsstudentsfor

discussionaroundinterventionsandpossiblefurtherdiagnosticassessment.

• GRADE,MIPI

Diagnostic:• Digsdeeperintostudentdifficulties;

find“why”thestudentisstruggling.• Assessespre-requisiteskills.• Allowsustoaddressthecause,notthe

symptom.

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• F&P;MathRunningRecords

Teacher’s Role in Assessment The teacher has four roles in the assessment process:

Ø Teacher as Designer: Designing assessment tasks and criteria before the learning takes place.

Ø Teacher as Coach: Providing effective feedback that moves learning forward.

Ø Teacher as Judge: Assessing expectations for students outlined in the Program of Studies.

Ø Teacher as Reporter: Communicating and sharing information about student learning.

Teacher as Designer • Designing assessment tasks and criteria before the learning takes place by identifying:

Teacher as Coach • Providing effective feedback that moves learning forward by designing:

Modified from AAC Framework 1. What students will learn. What students will know, understand and be able to do. 2. How to intentionally plan instruction, how evidence will be collected and appropriate assessment tools/strategies. 3. How to reduce barriers from the onset to develop learning of ALL students.

Modified from AAC Framework

1. How to engage students in their learning.

2. Opportunities for students to develop deep understanding through practice and responding to feedback.

3. Opportunities and structures for student reflection on learning and using feedback in order to move their learning forward. 4. Formative assessment to inform instructional decisions.

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Teacher as Judge • Assessing expectations for students outlined in the Program of Studies by:

Modified from AAC Framework 1. Designing summative assessment that demonstrates achievement of

learner outcomes and allows the opportunity to achieve Mastery or Excellence.

2. Considering the extent to which the evidence from summative assessments are consistent with current student performance. Considering how and when professional judgment might be used?

3. Considering a triangulation of assessment evidence that includes a variety of meaningful, assessment sources.

Teacher as Reporter • Communicating and sharing information about student learning by designing:

Modified from AAC Framework

1. How to communicate assessment results to students and others who have a right to know.

2. How assessment for and of learning will be communicated.

3. How non-achievement factors will be communicated.

4. How next steps in learning will be communicated.

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Designing for Understanding Framework Designing for Understanding is a framework for intentional planning that creates learning opportunities for students to apply knowledge, skills and understandings in authentic, novel situations. This is a reflective and flexible process; it is a way of thinking about how we design intellectually engaging learning to ensure high achievement levels of all students.

Stage 1 Guiding Questions: -What outcomes are essential and endure over time? -How are the outcomes relevant to the world around us? -What thought-provoking, open-ended questions can be asked to engage? How do student questions drive learning? -What knowledge & skills will be needed to show understanding? -How do we plan for student variability? -How do we reduce barriers from the onset?

DesignforUnderstanding

Stage1:Whatdostudentsneedtoknow,understandand

do?

Stage3:Howwillthey

learnit?Whatdotheydoiftheyalreadyknowitordon'tknowit?

Stage2:Howwillwe

knowtheyhavelearnedit?

Stage 3 Guiding Questions: -How will I establish or maintain positive classroom climate and procedures? - How will I intentionally establish and maintain positive relationships with all students? -How will I differentiate based on the interests and learning needs of my students? -How will I address barriers for learning on the onset? -What will I do if they already understand at high levels? -What will I do if they don’t understand? -How will I design learning to allow for uncoverage? -How will I make learning authentic to the discipline and/or life beyond the walls of my classroom? -What kinds of thinking do I want students to do? -What high yield instructional strategies will I use? -How will I infuse technology to improve or support learning? -How will I design instruction to ensure student-centered classroom with rigor* (see page)?

Stage 2 Guiding Questions: -Based on what students will know, understand and be able to do, what does: * Mastery, Proficient, Acceptable and Beginning look like and sound like? (Kindergarten to Grade 8) *Excellent, Proficient, Satisfactory, Limited and Poor look like and sound like? (Grade 9 to 12) -How will I ensure assessments allow the opportunity to achieve Mastery or Excellence? -How will I ensure balanced assessments that are fair, accurate, timely and motivating? -How will formative assessments be designed to monitor progress, allow second chances and guide instruction? -How will I develop assessment capable learners? -How will I differentiate assessments? Key Concepts:

Intellectual engagement and student achievement requires purposeful, intentional design that considers curriculum and the needs of the learners. Instructional design and assessment are tightly aligned; in order to assess Mastery or Excellence, we must design for it. Designing for understanding is a way of thinking about learning; it is not about a template to fill in. All three stages of design must be aligned. We start by making meaning of the Program of Studies from the General and Specific Outcomes as well as the front matter. We assess knowledge, skills and understandings identified; then we design learning to ensure high achievement levels of all students. A safe, caring, inclusive culture is essential when developing student-centered classrooms.

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Assessment Practices to Support Learning

Assessment to Support Learning Learning is developmental: students grow and learn at different rates and in different ways. As a result, teachers intentionally plan regular assessment for learning tasks to check for student understanding and adjust instruction and interventions accordingly. “‘That is why the most important assessment does not happen at the end of the learning—it happens during the learning, when there is still time to do something with the information’ ”(Wiliam quoted in Rubin, 2011). In one study conducted by Wiliam in the United Kingdom, students whose teachers regularly and consistently embedded effective formative assessment learned 75% more than those taught by other teachers in the same schools. The following five key strategies are recommended by Wiliam to maximize the critical impact of daily assessment practice:

Ø Sharelearningintentionswithstudents;Ø Elicitevidenceofachievementthroughon-the-spotassessments;Ø Provideeffectivefeedbacktostudentsthatmoveslearningforward;Ø Activatestudentsaslearningresourcesforoneanother;Ø Activatestudentsasownersoftheirownlearning.

When learning is the goal, teachers and students collaborate and use ongoing assessment and descriptive feedback to move the learning forward. Teachers assess all the time, using a variety of strategies to engage learners in the process of monitoring their own learning in order to reduce any gaps. The Assessment Reform Group (2006) has identified seven characteristics of assessments that promote learning:

Ø Assessmentisembeddedinthedesignoftheteachingandlearning.Ø Studentsknowthelearninggoals.Ø Studentsunderstandthelearningtargets.Ø Studentsareinvolvedinself-assessment.Ø Feedbackenablesstudentstotaketheirnextsteps.Ø Teachersholdthebeliefthateverystudentcanlearn/improve.Ø Assessmentinvolvesbothteacherandstudentsreviewingandreflectingonthe

assessmentevidence.

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Assessment FOR Learning

“Assessments are only as good as the actions that arise from them.” Chris Tovani, 2017

It is essential that assessment for learning aligns with the design plan and instruction. Teachers intentionally gather evidence about what students know, understand and can do in relation to the intended learning targets. Although there are numerous assessment for learning tools and strategies teachers have access to, the focus is on using the information from them to effectively to guide instruction and monitor student progress. It is not about simply using entrance/exit slips, peer feedback, or having rubric; it is only formative assessment when we respond to that information to improve learning. Questions for teachers to consider are:

Assessment AS Learning “A key premise is that for students to be able to improve, they must have the capacity

to monitor the quality of their own work during actual production.” Sadler

What is Assessment “AS” Learning? Preparing students for life-long learning and for success in the 21st century demands we provide opportunities for students to engage in and take active responsibility for their learning. In order to develop independence and self-efficacy, we develop students who are Assessment Capable Learners, which is developed from Kindergarten through to Grade 12. Students who are assessment capable learners use assessment as a learning tool to better understand themselves as a learner and are motivated to take next steps to improve their learning. They are able to accurately assess and self-regulate their own learning. Students who are assessment capable learners are able to answer these three questions in relation to their learning: Stiggins et al (2006) suggest a framework that educators can use to guide the process of implementing assessment for learning and aligns with the three questions.

Using Assessment for Learning to Develop Assessment Capable Learners Where am I going?

1. Provideclearandunderstandablelearningtargets.2. Useexemplarsthatdemonstratedifferentlevelsofachievement.

How has this informed me, as the teacher, of my impact on student learning? How have I, as the teacher, responded because of this information to ensure improved student learning?

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Where am I now?

3. Offerregular,effectivedescriptivefeedback.4. Teachstudentstoself-assessandsetgoals.

How can I close the gap?

5. Designlessonstofocusononeaspectofqualityatatime.6. Teachstudentsfocusedrevision.7. Engagestudentsinself-reflection,andletthemmonitorandsharetheirlearning.

*adapted from Stiggins (find resource) Developing assessment capable learners uses the principles of formative assessment while making it visible to students and ensuring they take an active role in their learning. When students are actively involved in these questions, it has an effect size of 1.44, whereas an effect size of 0.4 is equal to one year of growth for one year of school. Assessment Practices that Develop Assessment Capable Learners

Ø Identifyingandco-constructingsuccesscriteriatoensurestudentsunderstandtargetØ ProvidingeffectivedescriptivefeedbackØ Collectingon-goingevidenceaboutstudentlearningØ DevelopingselfandpeerassessmentskillsØ Developingandmonitoringlearninggoalswithstudents

The checklist with the criteria for Assessment Capable Learners is found on page 14 (English version) and page 15 (French version). Watch how-to-videos and/or read blogs from Foothills School Division teachers who have participated in a three year long action research project on developing Assessment Capable Learners. You are invited to submit videos or examples for publishing to the Director of Staff Learning, Cynthia Glaicar.

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Assessment Capable Learners Checklist How do we make learning visible for students? Where am I going? Students can… Rarely Sometimes Consistently

• describethecriteriaforsuccess

• co-constructcriteriaforlearningtargetswhennecessary

• setrealisticlearninggoals

Where am I now? • accuratelydescribewheretheyareinrelationto

thecriteriaforsuccess(self-assess)atanypointintheirlearning

• usecriteriaand/orexemplarstocompareandreflectonthequalityoftheirwork

• makequalityjudgmentsabouttheirwork

How do I close the gap between where I am now & where I want to go? • activelyworktowardsaccomplishinglearning

goals

• applystrategiesfornextstepswhentheyarestuck

• askquestionswhentheydon’tunderstand

• analyzeworksamplestodeepenunderstanding

• selectlearningstrategiestoimprovetheirwork

• collectevidenceoftheirlearning

• seekdescriptivefeedbackfromothers

• monitortheirownprogress

• useassessmentresultstoimprovelearning

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Est-ce que je suis un apprenant capable d’évaluation ? Où est-ce que je veux être dans mon apprentissage ?

Je peux… Rarement Parfois Toujours Décrire les critères nécessaires à ma réussite.

Construire les critères pour mes buts d’apprentissage.

Établir des buts d’apprentissage réalistes.

Où suis-je dans mon apprentissage ? Je peux… Rarement Parfois Toujours

Décrire où je suis dans mon apprentissage en utilisant les critères.

Utiliser des critères ou des exemples pour comparer et réfléchir sur la qualité de mon travail.

Évaluer la qualité de mon travail.

Comment combler l’écart ? Je peux… Rarement Parfois Toujours

Travailler pour accomplir mes buts d’apprentissage.

Utiliser des stratégies pour trouver les prochaines étapes quand je suis bloqué(e).

Poser des questions quand je ne comprends pas.

Analyser mon propre travail pour aider ma compréhension.

Collectionner des preuves de mon apprentissage.

Choisir des stratégies d’apprentissage pour améliorer mon travail.

Demander de la rétroaction des autres.

Surveiller mon propre progrès.

Utiliser mes résultats pour améliorer mon apprentissage.

Translated by Christie Jensen

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Learning Targets Whylearningtargets?

“The ultimate goal of the lesson should be to raise achievement. To raise achievement, we must ask ourselves, ‘Achievement of what?’ (Moss & Brookhart, p. 21).

The purpose of learning targets is to provide teacher clarity. Teacher clarify is considered a high impact teaching approach according to Hattie’s research and has an effect size of 0.75, where an effect size of 0.4 is equal to one year of growth for one year of learning. However, simply listing targets on the whiteboard and telling students what they are supposed to learn will not yield high impact on learning. In order to achieve teacher clarity, the following criteria must be met:

Ø Teachershavecompleteclarityaroundwhatstudentsneedtoknow,understandanddo.Ø Teacherscommunicatelearningintentionstostudents.Ø Purposefocusesonstudentlearning,ratherthananactivity,assignment,ortask.Ø It’snotenoughforjusttheteachertohaveclarity.Most importantly,bothteachers

andstudentsunderstandthelearningtargetandthesuccesscriteria. An easy check for teacher clarity is to ask students the following three questions:

Whatisaneffectivelearningtarget?

Moss and Brookhart (2012) define learning targets as:

student friendly descriptions via words, pictures, actions, or some combination of all three of what you intend students to learn or accomplish in a given lesson (p. 9).

When creating learning target consider your lesson’s reason to live”. A learning target includes: • essentialcontent• essentialreasoning• aperformanceofunderstanding

Essential content requires linking knowledge, skills and understanding to the larger learning picture. Teachers identify:

1. Whatareyoulearningtoday?2. Whyareyoulearningit?3. Howwillyouknowyouhavelearnedit?

ü StudentFriendlyü Useswords,pictures,and/oractionsü UnderstoodbyteachersANDstudentsü Descriptiveandspecificü Developmentallyappropriateü Clearcriteriaforsuccessü Includesaperformanceofunderstanding

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Ø Theknowledgethelessonfocuseswhileconsideringconceptsandgeneralizations.Ø Theskillsrequired(outlining,summarizing,solvingproblems,etc).Ø Whetherstudentswillbelearningsomethingnew,practicingsomethinginorderto

masterit,orapplyknowledge/skillstoanewcontext Essential reasoning requires teachers to identify:

Ø Thekindsofthinkingwillpromotedeepunderstandingandskilldevelopment.Ø Thethoughtprocessesthatallowstudentstobuilduponwhattheyalreadyknowandcan

do. Performance of Understanding serves as an instructional purpose whereby providing clarity about how students will provide evidence of the learning target and can be used to identify next steps in instruction. Teachers identify:

Ø Howtheperformanceofunderstandingisinfluencedbyoutcomesratherthanrestatingtheoutcome(subtledifference).

Ø Oneofanumberofwaysastudentcanlearnandproduceevidenceofwhattheyarelearning.

Ø Howwhatweaskthemtodobecomesboundtowhattheyintendtolearn. Students should be able to say: “If I can do this, then I will know that I have reached my learning target.” Teachers should be able to say: “If my students can do this, then I will have strong evidence that they’ve mastered the learning target.” (Moss, 2012). They must occur during the day’s lesson which means that homework cannot be considered a performance of understanding. A teacher could consider using an entrance slip in a following lesson to monitor progress, check for consolidation and provide interventions for those who require further learning or practice. WhatdoesaneffectiveLearningTargetsoundlike?

A Learning Target…

Learning Outcome Learning Target 1. You will compare and order decimal to thousandths.

1. We are learning how to represent decimals with base 10 blocks. We will show that we can do this by building decimals with base 10 blocks to see which decimal is greater or less than. To know how well we are learning this, we will look at your base 10 models, your pictures and your reasons that explain why one decimal is greater than or less than another decimal. This is important so you can understand why adding zeros after a decimal number does not change its value.

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2. You will be able to write an effective poem.

2. Today, our learning target is to add description to our Remembrance Day poem so the reader feels emotion when they read it. To know how well we are learning this, we will identify the words or phrases in our poems that make the reader feel emotion. This is important because we use very few words in a poem, so they must be strong and we want people to understand why Remembrance Day is important.

3. I can identify the proper end punctuation of a sentence.

3. I can use question marks. To be able to do this, I must learn and understand that: • Questionmarkscomeattheendofasking

sentences.• Anaskingsentenceusuallybeginswithaword

thatasksaquestion,likewho,what,when,where,whyorhow.

IwillshowIcandothisbychangingtellingsentencesintoaskingquestions.

4. I can identify proper nouns. 4. We are learning to find proper nouns in a story. You will know you can do this when you are able to say: I can read a story and circle all of the proper nouns I find.

5. I can add numbers to 10. 5. In math, we are learning how to + to 10 using pictures. You will know when you can do this if you are able to say: I can listen to the story and show a picture of ________ +_________ = __________.

+ =

Howdoweeffectivelysharelearningtarget?

Sharing learning targets requires more than simply writing statements on the board or stating them at the beginning of the lesson. It is important to use a variety of strategies during formative assessment to ensure students recognize, understand, and aim for what is important to learn during the lesson. While students are engaged in the performance of understanding, they use the target to self-assess the quality of their learning and receive timely suggestions and strategies that feed their learning forward while they are learning (Moss & Brookhart, p. 43). When sharing learning targets, teachers can consider one of the following frameworks, especially if they share them verbally:

Four Step Framework I Can Framework Ø Wearelearningto….Ø Wewillshowthatwecandothisby…

Ø Wearelearningto…Ø Youwillknowyouareabletodothis

whenyouareabletosay“Ican….”

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Ø Toknowhowwellwearelearningthis,wewilllookfor….

Ø Itisimportantforustolearnthis(orbeabletodothis)because…

Success Criteria Success criteria is essential in providing teacher clarity (ES 0.75). It requires teachers to identify and understand what success looks like and sounds like at each level of achievement. When designing for understanding, it is critical to begin with the end in mind not only for knowledge, skills, and understanding but also for assessment. Teachers can begin to develop success criteria by engaging in the following questions:

Ø Giventheoutcomes,whatwillstudentsbeabletodo,sayorshowmeiftheyhaveanin-depth,insightfulunderstanding?

Ø Whatwillstudentsbeabletodo,sayorshowmeiftheyhavestrong,solidunderstanding?Howisthisdifferentfromin-depthorinsightful?

Ø Whatwillstudentsbeabletodo,sayorshowmeiftheyhaveabasicunderstanding?Howisitdifferentfromstrongorsolid?

Ø Whatdoesitlooklikeorsoundlikeifstudentsarenotthereyet? Teachers can begin at any level of achievement; order does not matter. What is important is that teachers take the time to differentiate each level of achievement BEFORE learning begins and before designing assessments. Once teachers identify each level of understanding, they can then ask themselves:

Ø Basedonwhatin-depthunderstandingandinsightfulapplicationlookslikeandsoundslike,whatassessmentswillallowstudentstheopportunitytodemonstratethatlevelofunderstanding?

To develop an understanding of success criteria, an important strategy is to co-construct criteria with students but simply constructing criteria with students is not enough. Students need to do something with the criteria – either self-assess, peer assess, assess exemplars… the criteria needs to be a learning tool to identify next steps to improve learning. There is a common misconception that co-creating criteria means developing rubrics with students. This is not the case. There are creative ways to co-design a rubric with students but it is not always engaging nor does it lead to an understanding of the criteria. In high school, Cooper (2006) states that taking the time to develop rubrics is not an efficient use of time. Therefore, teachers must consider other ways to effectively co-construct criteria. Consider the following tools to support how you might co-create success criteria with students.

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1. Give the students the big question to consider – “What makes a poem survive centuries and makes people continue to read them throughout time?”

2. On their own, write down everything they think they know on a piece of paper. 3. With a partner, compare lists to make one master list. Is there anything you did

not have on your list or would like to take off? 4. With another group, compare lists to make a new master list. Is there anything

you did not have on your list or would like to take off? 5. Generate a list that the class compiled about criteria for effective poems 6. Take the list the students generated to create a rubric. 7. The next day, students compare the rubric with their list of effective criteria. 8. Discuss with students if the rubric is missing any of the criteria and/or if any of

the criteria is unclear. Makes changes based on student input. 9. Hand out exemplars. In groups of 4, have students assess each poem;

however, they must justify their evaluation using the language and criteria of the rubric.

10. After sharing group responses and discussing, have students compare the rubric to the task. Is there anything else to add or delete from the rubric? Are any of the criteria unclear to them? Change if needed.

Criteria: Science Lab Yes Not Yet Please Notice… Scientific method is complete and easy to follow

✔ I rewrote this twice.

Data are accurately presented and interpreted.

✔ Details in my diagram and I also included a chart this time.

Conclusion is valid. ✔

Conference Requested ☐ Date(s) Received: Assessed By: ☐ Teacher ☐Self ☐Partner ☐Other

Using a bullseye target, have students identify what criteria hits the bull’s eye and what does not. Watch the video (link to Lindsay’s video).

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Descriptive Feedback What matters most about formative assessment is effective feedback. Research shows that when given only a mark, student learning does not improve. When a mark along with feedback, learning still does not improve. However, when providing only feedback, student learning improves the most (Black & Wiliam, 1996). Therefore, if we want student learning to improve, feedback is the most effective way to do so. However, not all feedback is created equal. When providing feedback, it is essential to ensure students are prepared to hear the feedback. Also, the feedback must be given in a way that students can understand the feedback you give them. When using peer assessment, it is important to note that much of the feedback students get from peers is incorrect. Rather than not using peer feedback, it is important to note that the art and science of effective feedback needs to be developed. Essentially, it is the teacher’s professional responsibility to provide feedback to move student learning forward and to ensure a student gets accurate feedback.

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Evaluation Practices to Support Learning At some point in time, teachers are required to make a professional judgment of student achievement based on the outcomes in the curriculum referred to as Assessment OF Learning. It is important to review the evidence of student learning and ask the questions: “Did the student learn what was required?” “To what level of achievement did they demonstrate their understanding?” When assessing the degree to which students have attained the enduring understandings indicated from the outcomes in the curriculum, teachers move to the role of judge:

Modified from AAC Framework

1. Designing summative assessment that demonstrates achievement of learner outcomes and allows the opportunity to achieve Mastery or Excellence.

2. Considering the extent to which the evidence from summative assessments are consistent with current student performance. Considering how and when professional judgment might be used?

3. Considering a triangulation of assessment evidence that includes a variety of meaningful,

assessment sources.

Assessing Understanding

Designing Summative Assessments

HowdowedesignsummativeassessmentthatarereliableandallowtheopportunitytoachieveMastery/Excellence?

Designing quality assessment tools, whether pencil/paper or performance/projects, takes more than creation and administration of the task. The following principles support the development of assessments that provide accurate, reliable information:

Principle 1: DESIGNING with the END in mind Clear Learning Goals & Indicators: Well before summative assessments are given to students, teachers should have complete clarity around what is being assessed and the standards at each level. Categorical grading is not meant to be subjective; however, that requires teachers to identify indicators for each level of achievement before the unit is taught. It is essential to be clear about the criteria. Backwards by design requires teachers to not only identify what it is students must know, understand and do but to also consider what the indicators might be for each level of achievement. Based on having clear learning goals and indicators, summative assessments can then be designed. It is important to note the criteria needs to be

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based on levels of understanding rather than compliance with non-academic indicators such as following directions and neatness. Questions to consider BEFORE designing assessments are: • Identifywhatstudentsshouldbeabletoknow,understandanddobytheendoftheunit

basedontheoutcomesandfrontmatterfromthecurriculum.• Identify:

• Ifastudenthasanin-depthunderstanding,insightfulapplicationoftheknowledge,skillsandunderstandings,whatwilltheybeabletodo,sayorshowme?

• Whatiftheyhaveastrongunderstanding?Whatdoesthatlooklikeandsoundlike?

• Whatiftheyhaveabasicunderstanding?Whatdoesthatlooklikeandsoundlike?

• Whatiftheyhavealimitedunderstanding?Whatdoesthatlooklikeandsoundlike?

• Determinetheassessmentmethodsyouwillneedbasedonwhatin-depth,insightfulunderstandinglookslikeandsoundslike.Notethatoneassessmentmethodwillnotprovidesufficientinformationtodeterminealevelofunderstanding.

Principle 2: Outcomes-Based Reporting Levels of achievement are based solely on the learner outcomes from the Alberta curriculum. Thus, we assess and communicate academic achievement based directly on the Alberta Program of Studies. This includes consideration of front matter, general outcomes and specific outcomes. When considering criteria for what to assess, it is important that it aligns with the procedural and conceptual knowledge and enduring understandings. For support with creating criteria that aligns to outcomes and understanding, consult Creating Credible Criteria from Alberta Assessment Consortium and Rubric Wordsmith. This does requires the FSD log in. Please ask your administrator or Instructional Coach for username and password. Non-Achievement Factors Since a student’s mark reflects their understanding of the outcomes, non-achievement factors should not impact grades. Attendance, behavior, attitude and late assignments should be communicated separately from grades as they are still important to the overall development of a student. Bonus Marks “Extra credit and bonus points stem from the belief that school is about doing the work, accumulating points, and that quantity is the key—with more being better—rather than about achieving higher levels of learning” (O’Connor, 2007, p. 32). Extra points for an especially fancy pretty little title page on an assignment, for example, are unwarranted, and will misrepresent the true level of performance. When outward appearance supersedes content, the level of understanding is muddied. “Bonus marks distort achievement grades because they mix other factors with achievement” (O’Connor, 2002, p. 95).

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Use of Zeros A zero is an extreme number, which, mathematically, has a devastating effect on a grade. “If the grade is to represent how well students have learned, mastered, established learning standards, or achieved specified learning goals, then the practice of assigning zeros clearly misses the mark” (Guskey, 2004, p. 35).

Regrettably, zeros are sometimes used as a type of punishment for behavioral infractions such as cheating, tardiness, or incompletion of the work. “Zeros are not even related to learning or achievement but to non-academic factors like behavior, respect, punctuality, etc.” (O’Connor, 2002, p. 151). Some may believe that the punishment of a zero is justified and deserved, but…“[n]o studies support the use of zeros or low grades as effective punishments” (Guskey, 2004, p. 144).

Some teachers may hope that assigning a zero when students fail to submit work will lead to more responsible action in the future. However, students who may struggle with the content or find it to be irrelevant, would rather take a zero than demonstrate their level of understanding. It is important to take the mindset that “the consequence of not showing their learning, is to show their learning”. There are several strategies that support students who may not complete the required assessment tasks:

• Establish a school-wide, integrated support system. For example, set up supervised learning centers, completion contracts, tracking systems for incomplete tasks, and communication processes for students and parents so that all students can be successful. For example, have students stay after school or assign a flex block where they need to complete the task.

• Communicate with parents so they are aware their child is missing a task. If it is summative, do not assign it for homework as there is no assurance the student completed the task individually.

• Devise a system wherein all staff work together to ensure that all students complete their learning

requirements.

• Communicate clearly the expectations for completion of assessment tasks to students.

• Endeavour to include regular conference opportunities to meet with students who may have difficulties completing tasks.

• Assign Incomplete for missing work, rather than awarding a zero.

Group Work A student’s grade should be based on their own understanding of the outcomes in the curriculum. Although co-operative learning is an effective instructional strategy and collaboration is a competency we develop, individual achievement should be assessed when working in groups. The difficult with cooperative learning groups is that one grade is given when each student within the group may have a different understanding of the content. For example, a student who did not understand the outcomes may have relied on those members who did. The mark would not be an accurate reflection of their understanding.

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Instead of assessing the learning task completed, try to use the process of collaboration to develop knowledge, skills and understandings in the formative stages of assessment. Ensure that summative assessment allow students to demonstrate their own understanding of the content.

Principle 3: Standards-Based Reporting Consistency: Standards-based reporting refers to assessing based on grade level expectations rather than on a curve or comparing student’s work to one another. Standards must be developed by teachers and be based on outcomes as well as appropriate developmental level of students. It is critical to understand what levels of understanding and thinking looks like at each grade to ensure we are not expecting too much or too little of students. Improving consistency amongst grading and standards must be deliberate amongst staff. Recommendations to improve grading consistency are:

• Usescoringguidessuchasrubricstofocusdecisionsoncriteriaandperformance-levelrequirements.ReferencetheAlbertaAssessmentConsortium’s“CommonFlawsofRubrics”and“CreatingCredibleCriteria”toensurerubricsareclearer.

• Useamodelanswerorexemplarasareferenceforexpectationsofstudents.• Forconstructed-responseassessment,gradeallstudents’responsesononequestion

beforemovingontothenextquestion.• Evaluatequalitiesofworkthatarenotpartofthecriteriaseparatelyanddonotcount

thosetowardsthegrade.Examples:neatness,effort,color,format,etc• Participateinvaliditymarking:

o Anotherknowledgeablecolleagueregradessomeofthetasksyouhavegraded.o Gradeworkanonymouslybycoveringupnamesormarkingfromotherclasses.o Gradesomeassessmentsinsmallgroups.o Assessinverticalgradegroupingsorwithteachersinotherschools.

*adapted from Guskey & Brookhart, 2019

Principle 4: Triangulation of Evidence “No single source of information can accurately summarize a student’s achievement or progress” (http://assessment.tki.org.nz/Overall-teacher-judgment/Making-an-overall-teacher-judgment). Painting an accurate, vivid portrait of the learner that is true to life necessitates an ongoing variety of evidence and a range of approaches. Triangulation of assessment evidence increases reliability and validity. In order to effectively assess student understanding, it is important to use a variety of sources. Everything students write, say or do may have the potential to be used as evidence of learning because it provides rich information about student understanding and can be used to inform the instructional process. Triangulation is simply a process used to collect evidence of student understanding from these three sources: observations, conversations and different products. In order to check the validity and reliability of our professional judgements, we do not rely on one method such as quizzes and tests only. Similarly, students should be required to apply their knowledge and skills to a variety of situations. So, although tests and quizzes are a great way to assess knowledge and some skills, they are not comprehensive enough to assess the degree to which a student can transfer their knowledge and skills to new situations.

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By examining the level of cognition required, it is evident that one method of assessment is not enough.

© Alberta Assessment Consortium 2011 used with permission

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Principle 5: Professional Judgment According to the Teaching Quality Standards, teachers “support the use of reasoned judgment about the evidence used to determine and report the level of student learning” (p 5, 2018). Using professional judgment places trust into teachers’ decisions about student learning: using observations, conversations and a variety of classroom-based assessments rather than relying on averages, diagnostic, benchmark and/or standardized tests tell a more accurate picture of academic achievement. Practices that teachers use to support their professional judgment are:

• Insteadofaverages,considerusingmedianormode.• Usethemostrecentevidence.• Considerthemostconsistentlevelofachievement.• Notallscoresneedtobeincludedinagrade.• Useofzerosmisrepresentlevelofachievement.• Bethoughtfulofweightingofsummativeevidenceindeterminingacategoricalgradeor

percentage.• Understandthereisaprobableerrorofplusorminus5-6pointsinpercentages,

sometimesmore(Guskey&Brookhart,2019)andassuch,isnotasaccurateasbelieved.• Gradesandlevelsofachievementareindependentofgroupworkperformance.

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Grading Scale – Kindergarten to Grade 8 Grades are a merely a symbol used to describe a student’s understanding of the outcomes in the curriculum. In Kindergarten to Grade 8, Foothills School Division uses categorical grading to represent levels of achievement based on a four descriptors: Mastery level of achievement Students at the Mastery level of performance…

Ø demonstrate exemplary academic achievement. Ø show an in-depth understanding and insightful application of the learning in a variety of

situations. Proficient level of achievement Students at the Proficient level of performance…

Ø demonstrate strong academic achievement. Ø show a solid understanding and relevant application of the learning.

Acceptable level of achievement Students at the Acceptable level of performance…

Ø demonstrate basic academic achievement. Ø show an adequate understanding and simplistic application of the learning.

Beginning Students at the Beginning level of performance…

Ø demonstrate limited academic achievement. Ø show an incomplete understanding of the learning.

The K-8 Learner Profile will communicate the process of learning using a categorical grading system with four levels of academic achievement. Each level provides a summative statement of student achievement in relationship to the learner outcomes, based on assessment evidence demonstrated during the reporting period.

“To improve the usefulness and communicative value of standards-based report cards,….it is our responsibility to make sure that our message is clear and comprehensible for those for whom it is intended” (Guskey, 2004, p. 328). As a result, a collaborative and thoughtful process was used to develop categorical grading levels that were paired with meaningful learning criteria, and clear descriptive labels. The categories that are used in the Learner Profile indicate student performance in relation to the course and grade level learner outcomes in the Alberta Program of Studies at this point in the school year. Ultimately, of course, our hope is that every student reach Mastery. Mastery is not perfect recall of facts, however. Rather, it involves higher level skills such as analysis, evaluation, and interpretation—those essential abilities so vital for success today and tomorrow.

Students have mastered content when they demonstrate a thorough understanding as evidenced by doing something substantive with the content beyond merely echoing it. Anyone can repeat information; it is the masterful student who can break content into its component pieces, explain

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it, and alternative perspectives regarding it cogently to others, and use it purposefully in new situations. (Wormeli, p. 12)

Foothills School Division’s advisory group decided on four levels of achievement based on research. The smaller the grading scale, the more accurate the assessments will be.

Severalstudiesfoundthattheprobableerroronthe0to100scaleisplusorminusfivetosixpointsorevengreater.Thisoccurslargelybecausethe0to100scalelooksmoreprecisethanitreallyis.Anotherwayofexpressingthisrangeofprobableerroristosaythatteacherscan’tmakereliabledistinctionswithinabout10to12pointsonascalethatincludes101distinctlevelsofperformance.Therearetwotakeawaysfromthis finding. One,don’tover interpretpercentagegradesbecausethey lookmoreprecisethantheyinfactare.Two,it’sbettertousesimplerscaleswithfewercategories (likeA,B,C,Dorproficiencycategories likeadvanced,proficient,andbasic)thatdon’trequiresuchfinedistinctionsthatarelikelytobeinaccurate.

Guskey & Brookhart, 2019 p 28-29 Percentages are effective in identifying how many questions a student answered correctly which is an effective way to assess knowledge. As summative assessments move beyond just knowledge to reflect student understanding, it is difficult to represent understanding using a percentage grade. Consequently, descriptors are used instead that describe different levels of understanding.

Grading Scale – Grade 9 to Grade 12 In Grade 9 to 12, Foothills School Division uses a 5 point system that aligns with the scoring on Provincial Achievement Tests and Diploma Exams:

• 1–Poor• 2–Limited• 3–Satisfactory• 4–Proficient• 5–Excellent

Based on the 5 point scale, final grades are then converted and reported as percentages. It is important to note that although using percentages, students K-12 are expected to demonstrate their understanding of curricular outcomes – not just memorize content knowledge. Students will learn knowledge, develop skills relevant to the content area and transfer those knowledge and skills to a variety of tasks and situations. In this case, teachers use rubrics to indicate the different level of understanding and, again, convert them to percentages.

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Step 2: DEVELOP Often times, teachers have pre-existing assessments and do not need to develop assessments from scratch. We encourage teachers to share assessments and rubrics to lessen the workload; however, we do ask that we continue to review them to ensure they align to enduring understandings and outcomes as well as allow the opportunity for students to achieve Mastery. Modifications to our assessments and rubrics should be an ongoing process.

Assessing Reading Without triangulation, such judgments are invalid and unreliable. In the case of reading, a particularly complex skill to assess, it is important that students are assessed through grade-levels texts. That is, students demonstrate their understanding of the essential reading outcomes through grade level material read independently. Sometimes commercial standardized assessments are used as the sole indicator of reading achievement. Only when used in concert with other sources of evidence, can such assessments be a part of the complete learning portrait. Consequently, if and when the results of these assessments are reported to parents, it should be done with caution and alongside a variety of other assessment sources. Observations, such as reading skills and teacher reflections; conversations, such as student conferences and self assessments, as well as products such as reader response diaries, quizzes, reading progress logs, chronicles of books read, and common assessments are other feasible sources for triangulation (Davies, 2007). By drawing on this cavalcade of evidence, teachers are able to confidently determine and report a student’s level of achievement. Standardized assessments, like the Alberta Provincial Achievement Tests, for example, can be one additional source of valuable data when triangulated with other viable sources of data. Many commercial standardized assessments do have value for diagnostics, tracking, and intervention. That said, since they are not aligned to Alberta curricula, caution should be exercised in the interpretation and use of these tools for summative purposes.

Multiple Opportunities

Everyday life is full of second opportunities. In fact, very little of consequencedependsonasingleperformance.Manyindividualsdon’tpasstheirdriver’slicenseexaminationonthefirstattempt.Onthesecondorthirdtry,however,theyreachthesamehighlevelofperformanceasothersdidontheirfirst.Becausetheyeventuallymet the same high performance standards as those who passed on their initialattempt, they are granted the same privileges. The same should hold true forstudentswhoshowthatthey,too,havelearnedwell.(Guskey&Bailey,2001,p.99)

Students need time to process knowledge and skills and feel safe to make mistakes knowing it will not count. Usually, students will not perform to potential on their first attempt. It is important to measure quality, not the speed of the performance. In addition, mistakes give learners valuable feedback that can help them move their learning forward. Students should not be penalized throughout the learning process. Learning is an ongoing process; what matters is that learning occurs.

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All students should be provided with appropriate multiple and varied opportunities to demonstrate their learning of curricular outcomes throughout the assessment cycle. Second opportunities are part of the learning process, not a special privilege. Allowing a second chance to learn does not mean providing an endless set of opportunities for students, however. Re-assessment is an opportunity for students to learn responsibility, as well. That is, students need to provide some evidence that correctives have been completed before being provided a reassessment opportunity. One consideration would be to consider the use of formative assessment as multiple opportunities. If quizzes are counted for marks, students are not allowed to make mistakes and that mark is used to generate a final grade. However, a quiz can be used to determine what student know and have yet to learn. Through feedback and reflection, the student has time to learn before the summative assessment. Instead of waiting until a final unit summative, and realizing a student does not understand the content, it is important to use those checkpoints along the way as multiple opportunities. If a student does perform poorly on a summative, there should be some interventions in place to support the student before getting another opportunity. If we keep in mind that students should only need to demonstrate the outcomes they did not learn, we can then modify their next attempt to target those knowledges, skills and understanding they missed in their first attempt. It is also important to clearly communicate with parents as well as hold students accountable for their role in multiple opportunities.

Reporting Practices to Support Learning Communicating Student Learning Marks, scores, and letter grades alone do not provide detailed information about student achievement. They represent degrees of quality. “Grades are merely symbols; in order to provide real information, they should be seen, as only a part— probably a very small part of our communication system” (O’Connor, 2002, p. 212). Communicating student learning should be ongoing and timely and has a different purpose communicating curriculum newsletters, class activities, or school events. “Teachers must make thoughtful changes to their systems for reporting student learning and progress to parents and others. Just as assessment practices need to be authentic, so do reporting practices” (Bailey & Guskey, quoted in O’Connor, 2002, p. 211). Teachers can develop strategies to communicate student learning, beyond relying on Learner Profiles, in authentic ways such as:

Ø Send student learning home in backpacks or agendas. Ø Have students take photos of their learning or quizzes and text to parents. Ø Use electronic portfolios. Ø Phone home to celebrate student accomplishments or share concerns.

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Reporting Student Learning One method of reporting student achievement is the Learner Profile or report card. Its purpose is to communicate academic achievement, specifically what a child knows, understands, and is able to do. It is imperative that effective methods be used to measure and report the shift from the focus on teaching to that of learning. The following descriptors characterize the K-8 Learner Profile as developed by the Foothills School Division.

Ø Describes what a student understands and can do a particular point in time.

Ø Reports achievement of the learner outcomes from the Alberta Programs of Studies.

Ø Reports what a student is expected to learn and be able to do at their grade level.

Ø Uses a categorical grading system.

Ø Reports the quality of student understanding, rather than the quantity of marks accumulated.

Ø Discovers, explores and celebrates the learner.

“To provide high quality information about student learning to students and parents” (O’Connor, 2007, p. 8), the Learner Profiles are organized within the following frameworks:

Learner Profile K-8 Learner Profile 9-12

1. Levels of Academic Achievement

2. Growth as a Responsible Learner 3. Comments on Student Learning

1. Percentage representing Academic Achievement

2. Personal Growth & Well-Being (optional for High School)

3. Comments on Student Learning

Competencies for Successful Learners When teachers include attendance, behaviour and attitude in grades, no one will be able to ascertain exactly what the child has achieved academically. Similarly, rewarding a child with extra marks for attending regularly or behaving properly is not an accurate reflection of achievement. As a result, students’ social growth and work habits, an integral part of the learning process, are reported separately in the Personal Growth & Well-Being section of the Learner Profile (Grades 1-9) using the descriptors rarely, sometimes and consistently. These competencies are based on the Ministerial Order and the indicators come directly from the indicators from Alberta Education that do not directly relate to outcomes in the Program of Studies and support social emotional learning and work habits. Competencies are knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to be successful in school., life and work. The following indicators provide an overall snapshot of the development of students’ personal growth and well-being that results in an independent, confident, and responsible citizen.

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Concept Indicators

I am a LIFELONG LEARNER who…

• Sets goals, follows through, and reflects on learning • Plans and manages learning time, space, and materials • Takes responsibility for behaviour and choices • Is resilient, flexible, and optimistic • Focuses on strengths, while improving the areas needed to

achieve personal excellence

I am a COMMUNICATOR who…

• Demonstrates respect, empathy, and responsibility when communicating with others

• Considers audience, context, and intended message to communicate effectively in a variety of situations

• Uses both verbal and non-verbal communication effectively to send and receive ideas or information

I am a COLLABORATOR who…

• Respects and supports others in group settings Shares responsibilities, works towards common goals, and contributes positively to the group

• Nurtures effective working relationships: compromises by considering and integrating ideas of others to move the group forward, and acknowledges the contributions of others

• Seeks to build shared understanding and learns from others ideas and perspectives

I am a GLOBAL CITIZEN who…

• Makes choices and advocates for well-being of self and others in various contexts including digital spaces, community, school, and world

• Acknowledges and respects diversity and different perspectives

• Has the mindset, “I can make a difference”

I am an INNOVATIVE, PROBLEM SOLVER who…

• Values honesty, fairness, and open-mindedness • Analyzes situations, chunks problems into smaller parts, and

creates a plan of action • Takes initiative and perseveres when taking action • Evaluates and reflects on possible options and their

consequences • Uses independent and collaborative problem-solving

approaches to improve relationships

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Bibliography: Alberta Education. (2019). Alberta Teacher Quality Standards.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards Through Classroom Assessment.

Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139–144.

Cooper, D. (2006). Talk about Assessment: Strategies and Tools to Improve Learning. Nelson Education

Limited.

Guskey, T. R. (2004). Zero alternatives. Principal Leadership, 5(2), 49–53.

Guskey, T. R., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Developing Grading and Reporting Systems for Student Learning.

Corwin Press.

Guskey, T. R., & Brookhart, S. M. (2019). What We Know About Grading: What Works, What Doesn’t, and

What’s Next. ASCD.

O’Connor, K. (2002). How to Grade for Learning: Linking Grades to Standards. SAGE Publications.

O’Connor, K. (2007). A Repair Kit for Grading:15 Fixes for Broken Grades. Educational Testing Service.

Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair Isn’t Always Equal: Assessing & Grading in the Differentiated Classroom.

Stenhouse Publishers.