an examination of notation in selected repertoire for ... · this document is an examination of...

AN EXAMINATION OF NOTATION IN SELECTED REPERTOIRE FOR MULTIPLE PERCUSSION

D.M.A. DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical

Arts in the Graduate School at The Ohio State University

By

Alyssa Gretchen Smith, B.M., M.M.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University 2005

Document Committee: Approved by Professor Susan Powell, Adviser Dr. Jacqueline Henninger ______________________ Dr. Russel Mikkelson Adviser Graduate Program in Music Professor Christopher Weait

ii

ABSTRACT

This document is an examination of multiple percussion notation in selected

repertoire. A complete standardization for multiple percussion is unlikely, and this

project does not seek to standardize notation. Rather, it seeks to describe important

works and their notational systems, thus illustrating that a standardization is not

possible and would limit composers’ creativity.

The chosen repertoire represents a historical range of the genre, spanning from

the first multiple percussion composition in 1918 to contemporary works. The

compositions chosen for this project are presented in chronological order, and consist

of the following works: Igor Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat, Darius Milhaud’s La

Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra, Morton

Feldman’s The King of Denmark, William Kraft’s English Suite, Iannis Xenakis’

Psappha and Rebonds, and David Holliden’s Cold Pressed.

Each work was examined and then described in terms of instrumentation, set-

up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems. In addition, the study seeks to

identify connections between the composers’ chosen notational systems, the

composers’ backgrounds, and the works’ chronological placement in the development

of percussion music. This document’s purpose is to illustrate the compositional

devices used, and in some cases created, by the selected composers. Several

iii

problems in notation were concluded from the examination, including composers’

choice of and inconsistencies in note placement, unnecessary details, multiple staves,

and unfamiliar graphic notation. Further conclusions drawn from the examination

offer suggestions for assisting composers project a clear representation of their

intentions.

iv

Dedicated to my family and friends

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project could not have been completed without the help and support of

the faculty members at The Ohio State University, my family, and friends. Thank

you to my adviser, Susan Powell, for all I have learned from you during my stay at

The Ohio State University and for your guidance on this project. I am indebted to the

other members of my committee, who have supported me over the past four years:

Dr. Russel Mikkelson and Professor Christopher Weait, thank you for selflessly

giving your time to help me complete this document. And to Dr. Jacqueline

Henninger, I am grateful for the opportunity to learn from you and filter ideas through

you and for your input on the final draft.

I wish to thank my parents, James and Alberta; my sister Megan; my brother

Scott, my sister-in-law Dawn, and my niece and nephew Emily and Tyler, for your

support and for driving across state lines for recitals. Mom and Dad, thank you for

driving me to that first lesson, for encouraging me, and for helping make it possible to

continue in the music field. This document’s completion was aided by my cousin

Brian – thank you for the use of your Adobe software and for lending your computer

knowledge.

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I am grateful to the friends I have met over the years, for enriching me with

their unconditional support and encouragement. I especially thank Kay – my OSU

roommate and family. Thank you for your input, for believing in me, for pushing me,

and for inspiring me.

Thank you to Mike Green, for that first time you opened the filing cabinet

drawer and placed texts like Percussion Instruments and Their History into my hands,

and for guiding me for four years at DePaul.

Finally, I wish to thank the C.F. Peters Coportation, C. Alan Publications,

Universal Edition A.G., and the Percussive Arts Society for granting permission,

gratis, for the use of their publications The King of Denmark, Cold Pressed, Concerto

for Percussion and Small Orchestra, and Standardization of Percussion Notation. I

would also like to acknowledge Warner Brothers Publications U.S., Inc., G. Schirmer,

Inc., Editions Durand and Editions Salabert for granting permission for the use of

English Suite, L’Histoire du Soldat, La Création du Monde, Psappha, and Rebonds.

All rights for the world on behalf of Editions Durand (SACEM) and Editions Salabert

(SACEM) administered by BMG Music Publishing France (SACEM). All rights for

the U.S. on behalf of BMG Music Publishing France (SACEM) administered by

BMG Songs, Inc. (ASCAP).

vii

VITA

September 25, 1977………..……………Born – Flushing, Michigan

1999…..……………….………………....B.M. Music Performance, DePaul University

2000…………………...…………………M.M. Music Performance,

Northwestern University

2000-2001…………………………...…...Instructor, Flint School of Performing Arts Flint, Michigan 2001-2004……………………………….Graduate Teaching Associate The Ohio State University 2004-Present……………………….….…Instructor, Flint School of Performing Arts Flint, Michigan

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Music

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………..ii

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….iv

Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………..v

Vita………………………………………………………………………………..…vii

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………....x

Chapters:

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………1

2. Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat……………………………………………23

3. Milhaud’s La Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and Small

Orchestra…………………………………………………………………….39

4. Feldman’s The King of Denmark…………………………………………….50

5. Kraft’s English Suite…………………………………………………………59

6. Xenakis’ Psappha……………………………………………………………67

7. Xenakis’ Rebonds……………………………………………………………78

8. Hollinden’s Cold Pressed……………………………………………………82

9. Summary, Conclusions, Suggestions and Recommendations…...………..…89

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Appendices:

Appendix A: Selected Annotated Bibliography of Available Educational Multiple Percussion Collections.…………………………………………...…97

Appendix B: Selected Discography of Examined Works……….…...…..……….100

Bibliography……………………………………………………………..…………103

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Notated from lowest pitch (left) to highest pitch (right)…………………..…..3

1.2 Standardization of Percussion Notation. Reprinted by permission of the Percussive Arts Society, Inc………………………………..…………………8

2.1 Set-up diagram for Histoire du Soldat. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by

Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………..….26

2.2 Order of instruments on the staves, instrument labels added by author.

Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………...…27

2.3 Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades.

Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………..…27

2.4 Use of additional line, instrument labels added by author. Measures 16-17,

Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………………………………...28


Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………..…29

2.6 Stravinsky’s set-up (left) and a common timpani set-up…………………….30 2.7 Use of stem directions. Measures 1-13, Tango. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed)

by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………………………………...31

xi

2.8 Use of stem directions. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………...33

2.9 Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987,

1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………………...…33

2.10 Beaming according to rhythmic groupings…………………………………..33 2.11 Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 1-12, Royal March. Copyright

© 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………..34

2.12 Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the

Devil. Used by permission…………………………………………………..34

2.13 Additional line in Royal March. Measures 13-14. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission………………………...35

2.14 Additional line in Triumphal March of the Devil. Measures 16-17. Copyright

© 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……..………35

2.15 Measures 39-46, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester

Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved.…………………………………………………………..…………35

2.16 Use of staves. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright ©

1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………...…………36

2.17 Use of one staff. Measures 13-18, Royal March. Copyright © 1924

(Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………..…36

2.18 Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, instrument labels added by

author. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………………………………………………………37


Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………..37

xii

3.1 Use of Staves. Measures 468-473, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud.

© Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…...….………………...43

3.2 Measures 290-292, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…….…………….…….44

3.3 Measures 437-439, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud.

© Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission…...……………………44 3.4 Instrument Key to Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. © 1931 by

Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission……………...46 3.5 Measures 21-22, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition

A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. Instrument labels added by author.………………………………………………………………………..47

3.6 Measure 97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G.,

Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. Instrument labels added by author…………………………………………………………………….47

3.7 Measures 95-97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition

A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission…………………………………48 3.8 Measure 20, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G.,

Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission………………………………………..48 4.1 Opening staff, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters

Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………53 4.2 Figure 4.2. Performance Notes to The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965

by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…...54 4.3 Page 2, boxes 34-42, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.

Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…….………55 4.4 Page 2, boxes 72-81, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.

Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………….56 4.5 Conclusion, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters

Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission……………………57 4.6 Page 2, boxes 89-101, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.

Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission…………….57

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5.1 Key to Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission…………..………………………………………………60

5.2 Measures 23-26, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission………………..…………………………………………61

5.3 Use of stem directions. Measures 53-55, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission……………………………………...62

5.4 Use of pictograms. Measures 53-58, Sarabande. Copyright © 1975 by

Award Music Co. Used by permission………………………………………63 5.5 Measures 25-31, Bourrée II. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co.

Used by permission…………………………………………………………..65

6.1 Instrument Key to Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission…………………………………………………………..69 6.2 Boxes 1-51, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).

Used by permission…...………………………...……………………………71 6.3 Boxes 440-437, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).

Used by Permission…………………………………………………………..72 6.4 Boxes 1540-1567, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert

(SACEM). Used by Permission……………………………………………..73 6.5 Boxes 2310-2344, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert

(SACEM). Used by Permission…………………………………………….74 6.6 Boxes 2023-2029, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert

(SACEM). Used by Permission……………………………………………75 7.1 Measures 1-2, Rebonds a by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).

Used by permission…………..…………………………………...………….79 7.2 Measures 1-2, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).

Used by permission………..…………………………………………...…….80 7.3 Measures 75-76, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert

(SACEM). Used by permission……....……………………………………..80 7.4 Measures 3-4, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM).

Used by permission…………………………………………………………..81

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8.1 Piano keyboard. Photo by author…………………………………...……….83 8.2 Hypothetical instrument set-up. Illustration by author……………….……..83 8.3 Timbre-Staff notation accompanying hypothetical set-up.

Notation by author…………………………………………………….……..83 8.4 Notation key to Cold Pressed. Used by permission…………………..…….84 8.5 Set-up diagram from Cold Pressed. Used by permission……………...……85 8.6 Measures 91-94, Cold Pressed. Used by permission………………………..86

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The difficulties that lie in the preparation and performance of works written

for multiple percussion stem from two areas: instrument configuration and notation.

Multiple percussion requires one performer to play on one or more instruments, and

each composition is unique in its instrumentation. The performer must adapt to each

new work, and acquaint his body to the motions required to move around each

configuration. In addition, the performer must adjust to a new system of notation that

is unique to the instrumentation required by the piece. Not only does the designation

for a specific instrument vary from one piece to the next, a completely different staff

system may be created.

I have long been intrigued by the fact that multiple percussion notation is

different with each new piece that a percussionist encounters. This fact makes

multiple percussion performance unique and a constant challenge. This project has

grown from my experiences with various multiple percussion compositions, and the

resulting curiosity regarding the lack of standardized notation. A percussionist must

be extremely adaptive, and adjust her kinesthetic senses to each piece on an

2

individual basis. Even while working on a specific piece, the configuration (that is,

set-up) of instruments may vary slightly each time it is reconstructed or moved.

The ability and necessity of percussionists to adapt to each composer’s

notational system has inspired this project. Adaptability is an expected responsibility

of contemporary percussionists. This examination of relevant repertoire will

demonstrate that this responsibility will continue to be required of percussionists, as a

complete standardization of percussion notation is not possible. Twentieth century

Austrian composer Haubenstock-Ramati voiced the opinion that standardization

means “standard ideas, a stationary situation and a falling off of creative powers.”1

This implies that although some percussionists and researchers have pushed for a

standardization, such conventions have the potential to limit compositional creativity.

The repertoire chosen for this project represents composers who were able to use

their creativity without limitations of a standardization.

Modern percussionists are accustomed to reading multiple percussion notation

that utilizes the music staff in a similar manner to a pitched staff used for any melodic

instrument, such as piano. Pitched instruments use staves consisting of five lines,

with each line or space designating a specific pitch. The notation on the staff follows

the contour of the pitches played by the instrument. That is, as the performed pitch

rises, the notation is placed higher on the staff. For example, timpani follow this

notation, with drums written on a specific pitch. Due to the fact that most performers

1 John C. O'Neil, "Recent Trends in Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 52.

3

of multiple percussion are also proficient on timpani, marimba or other pitched

instruments, following a similar contour for multiple percussion notation is a natural

transference.

A hypothetical example of this matching contour is a set-up consisting of four

drums of varying pitches. Although the drums are not tuned to a specific pitch, each

instrument is assigned to a specific line or space on a staff. The staff could be a

traditional five-line staff, or it could be comprised of four lines with each line

indicating a drum. Figure 1.1 illustrates this concept, using a five-line staff. In order

to follow the familiar pitch contour, the lowest space is used to indicate the lowest-

pitched drum. The other three drums are represented by note-heads placed in

ascending order above the lowest notation, which corresponds to the ascending

pitches of the drums.

Figure 1.1. Notated from lowest pitch (left) to highest pitch (right).

Although this use of the conventional notational staff is a natural transference

for percussionists, this project will illustrate several effective methods of multiple

percussion notation that do not use this system. The chosen repertoire has remained

prominent throughout the short history of the genre, and represents frequently

performed works.

4

Brief History of Multiple Percussion

Prior to the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the role of percussion

in the orchestra was limited. Between approximately 1700 and 1850, the use of

percussion was confined mainly to timpani. When the tonal language of music began

to focus less on functional tonality, composers explored elements such as timbre and

rhythm. As the role of percussion took on more prominence, composers of the

Romantic Period, like Berlioz, prescribed specific instructions for how to strike the

instruments as well as what striking implement to be used. This type of detail

allowed percussion to break free of the limitations inherent in its traditional roles of

support, emphasis, and timekeeping.

Igor Stravinsky is credited with the first use of a multiple percussion set-up in

L’Histoire du Soldat, written in 1918. As the twentieth century progressed,

composers were attracted to the timbral possibilities of percussion, especially the fact

that many sounds could be produced by one player in a multiple percussion set-up.2

As Steven Schick, Professor of Percussion at the University of California at San

Diego, described this attraction, “Composers were fascinated with the ‘timbral

efficiency’ of percussion.”3

In the 1930s and 1940s, the concept of the multiple percussion set-up gained

more acceptance with the assistance of John Cage and Lou Harrison, who treated

2 Steven Schick, “Multiple Percussion,” in The Encyclopedia of Percussion, ed. John Beck (New York: Garland, 1995), 257. 3 Ibid.

5

multiple percussion as a standard rather than an unusual request.4 During this period,

solo repertoire for multiple percussion was rare, evident in an examination of Thomas

Siwe’s anthology Percussion Solo Literature. Today, in the twenty-first century,

multiple percussion has evolved into an important element of high school and

university percussion curricula. Students and professionals alike are now expected to

perform on a variety of set-ups in orchestras, bands, percussion ensembles, and solo

recitals.

Definition of Terms

Multiple Percussion – A term applied to music that requires more than one

instrument to be played by one percussionist.

Conventional (or Traditional) Staff – A staff is “a number of horizontal lines on

and between which musical notes are placed.”5 For the purposes of this project, the

terms “conventional” and “traditional staff” will refer to the five-line staff used with

melodic instruments, such as piano.

Notation – “Any means of writing down music.”6

Graphic Notation – “A system developed in the 1950s by which visual shapes or

patterns are used instead of, or together with, conventional musical notation.”7

4 Ibid. 5 “Staff,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 1203. 6 “Notation,” in The Harvard Dictionary of Music, ed. Don Michael, 4th ed. (Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 2003), 565. 7 Anthony Pryer, “Graphic Notation,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 537.

6

Set-up – A term commonly used in multiple percussion to refer to the configuration

of instruments on which a percussionist must perform.

Instrumentation – The instruments required to perform a composition.

Percussive Arts Society (P.A.S.) – P.A.S. is a non-profit music service organization

that is “considered the central source for information and networking for

percussionists…[and promotes] percussion education, research, performance and

appreciation throughout the world.”8 Prior to the current publication Percussive

Notes, P.A.S. published the journals Percussionist, Percussive Notes: Research

Edition Percussionist, and Percussive Notes: Research Edition.

Line-Score System – A system used to notate indefinite-pitched instruments.

Instruments may be indicated by notes placed directly on or in-between the lines, and

the number of lines vary.

Timbre-Staff System – A conventional five-line staff, coupled with an instrument

set-up arranged in the configuration of a keyboard.9

Pictogram – A symbol designed to represent a specific percussion instrument or

beater. A pictogram eliminates the use of descriptive words in the score, and their

meanings are meant to be “instantaneous to any trained percussionist.”10

8 Percussive Arts Society’s official Web site, “About,” http:www.pas.org/About. 9 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 88. 10 Frank McCarty, "Percussion Notation," Percussionist 15, no.2 (1978): 8.

7

Review of Literature

There have been several articles and publications regarding percussion

notation, but there has not been an extensive examination of various notational

techniques used specifically for multiple percussion. An assessment of important

reference literature on orchestration, such as Gardner Read’s Thesaurus of Orchestral

Devices, Read’s Contemporary Instrumental Techniques, and Samuel Adler’s The

Study of Orchestration did not reveal applicable information to this topic. Notation

manuals, such as Read’s Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice, were also

reviewed. These manuals offer information regarding general percussion notation but

do not contribute relevant information regarding multiple percussion.

In all of my previous research regarding percussion history, or in any search

for information on percussion instruments, James Blades’ Percussion Instruments

and Their History served as a starting point. This book is an essential resource for

percussionists, and contains a wealth of information ranging from descriptions and

histories of instruments from around the world, to the development of percussion in

western orchestral music. Percussion Instruments and Their History was first

published in 1970, and has since been published in a revised edition dating 1992.

Regardless of its extensive contents, Percussion Instruments and Their History does

not discuss multiple percussion, except for briefly mentioning, “percussionists are

unanimous in that there is need for improvement in notating their instruments,

particularly where multiple percussion is concerned.”11

11 James Blades, Percussion Instruments and Their History, rev. ed. (Westport: Bold Strummer, 1992), 439.

8

In 1973, The Percussive Arts Society published Standardization of Percussion

Notation. This report is geared toward composers of band and orchestra music, and

offers solutions to problems and questions pertaining to the notation of percussion

music. The concise booklet is presented in outline form, and the main headings cover

general considerations, stick and mallet suggestions, specific considerations of

selected instruments, and standard ranges of timpani and keyboard percussion

instruments. The following two rules, found under the sub-heading of “Preparing

Percussion Music Manuscript,” apply to multiple percussion music:

Figure 1.2. Standardization of Percussion Notation. Reprinted by permission of the Percussive Arts Society, Inc.

While these guidelines offer solutions to a composer writing for a small set-

up, the report does not supply information for instances of larger instrumentations,

nor does the standardization apply to all multiple percussion compositions. For

example, the guidelines do not address situations where the instrumentation calls for

more than the number of lines and spaces available within one five-line staff. A

composer following these guidelines must still solve the problem of clearly notating

9

for his specific instrumentation. The most logical “standardization” that can be

drawn from the P.A.S. guidelines is that the composer should be consistent within

each composition.

Composer H. Owen Reed and percussionist Joel T. Leach provided another

important resource for composers with their 1969 publication of Scoring for

Percussion: and the Instruments of the Percussion Section. In their introduction, the

authors state the following regarding their book:

Although each of the traditional orchestration books contains one or more chapters on percussion, obvious discrepancies and some inaccuracies occur. The improvements in percussion instruments, some recent attempts at their standardization, and the popularity of new and imported instruments have created the need for a new look at these problems. Scoring for Percussion attempts to do this.12

Scoring for Percussion is arranged in two parts. Part I specifically describes

each of the percussion instruments and their features, such as range, distinctions,

beaters, and transposition. Part II concentrates on the notation and scoring of

percussion, and stresses the need for standardization, even if only on a basic level.

The book is geared toward composers, and seeks to provide information that will

prevent composers from scoring percussion in a manner frustrating to the performer.

Part II is further divided into sections dealing with full scores, percussion

parts, the characteristics of percussion notation, and suggestions for integrating

percussion into the full composition. The chapter most relevant to this project is the

12 H. Owen Reed and Joel T. Leach, Scoring for Percussion: and the Instruments of the Percussion Section (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969), 4.

10

section entitled “Special Characteristics of Percussion Notation,” beginning on page

99. Of particular importance are the sections dealing with the staff, clef, or note

heads.

For example, the subsection “The Staff,” describes the use of line notation and

staff notation. The authors also address the impractical nature of attempting to

standardize percussion notation, but state their belief in the necessity of at least a

partial standardization:

Much as one might wish to assign a line or space permanently to one instrument, it is not practical. Instrument assignment must often vary both from one score to another, and from one percussion part to another. (Far more percussion instruments are available than there are lines and spaces!) Nevertheless, it is possible to be reasonably consistent so far as the Snare Drum and Bass Drum are concerned.13

The authors follow this statement with a list of flexible guidelines intended to act as a

tool in partial standardization. These guidelines include:

1. As nearly as possible, assign the higher-pitched instruments to the higher lines and spaces and the lower-pitched instruments to the lower lines and spaces. 2. Once an assignment is made, adhere to this plan throughout the composition. 3. For clarity and further reinforcement, where necessary, write the name of the instrument (or its abbreviation) at each entrance. 4. Ledger lines may be used to accommodate more instruments or for better

spacing to facilitate reading.14

This book is a beneficial source of information on individual percussion

instruments and the issues faced by the percussion section of an orchestra. The

13 Ibid., 100. 14 Ibid.

11

information regarding notation also refers mostly to percussion parts intended for an

orchestral percussion section. As a result, material relevant solely to multiple

percussion notation is limited.

Percussionist and composer Sigfried Fink wrote Tabulatur 72 in 1972. He

collected and suggested pictograms intended to clarify notation. Erhard

Karkoschka’s Notation in New Music, compiled as a survey and guide for all

instruments, includes sections devoted to similar pictograms. These books are ideal

guidelines for a composer wishing to use these pictograms, but are not helpful to the

purpose of this paper.

The remaining sources in this section are reviewed in chronological order.

Full bibliographic information is located in the Bibliography.

George A. O’Connor. Prevailing Trends in Contemporary Percussion Notation. This article is found in the Percussive Arts Society’s journal Percussionist.

The article was published in 1966 and is mainly concerned with the problems and

limitations of notating rhythmic values. In researching his article, O’Connor

consulted percussion performers, clinicians, and teachers regarding “what an ideal

system of percussion notation should consist of.”15 O’Connor describes three main

trends in the development of percussion notation: the expansion of the conventional

notational system, metrical modulation, and aleatoric occurrence. The article focuses

on the notation of note values and rhythms, and does not incorporate information

regarding multiple percussion.

15 George A. O'Connor, "Prevailing Trends in Contemporary Percussion Notation," Percussionist 3, no. 4 (1966): 61.

12

Lee A. DeFelice. Problems in Percussion Notation.

“Problems in Percussion Notation” appeared in the 1969 volume of

Percussionist. DeFelice saw “a need to foster more accurate and clear conventional

percussion notation,”16 and chose to focus on college band repertoire in his article.

Through the repertoire, DeFelice illustrates the “poor notational practices” common

in percussion writing, such as “crowding” too many instruments into a small space on

the score, parts that “jump” from line to line, and confusing terminology.17 These

illustrations demonstrate the need for clear percussion parts. Although this article

focuses on percussion parts in band repertoire, the problems DeFelice discusses are

similar to issues found during the course of the current project.

Christoph Caskel. Notation for Percussion Instruments.

Caskel’s article appeared in the 1971 volume of Percussionist, and was

translated from the original “Notation Neuer Musik” by Vernon Martin. The original

article was printed in 1964. “Notation for Percussion Instruments” discusses

problems of percussion notation. The article concentrates on multiple percussion,

and focuses on a symbol (pictogram) system as an attempt to standardize notation.

Caskel discusses the difficulties in specific compositions—such as Karheinz

Stockhausen’s Zyklus and Darius Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small

Orchestra—and makes a case for the simplification of notation through the use of

16 Lee A. DeFelice, "Problems in Percussion Notation," Percussionist 6, no.4 (1969): 108. 17 Ibid., 109.

13

symbols. Although this article discusses multiple percussion notation, Caskel’s case

for standardization through pictograms is beyond the scope of this project.

Frank McCarty. Percussion Notation.

In 1978, when this article was published in Percussionist, Frank McCarty was

the chairman of the Notation and Terminology Committee of the Percussive Arts

Society. The committee strove towards an “organizational goal through the

publication of reports in Percussionist, holding regional meetings and workshops, and

in the preparation of the seven-page document, Standardization of Percussion

Notation.”18 The committee had “addressed itself to the problem of the ever-widening

gap between the modern, diversely-skilled percussionist and the notational

inconsistencies of the music he plays.”19

McCarty’s article was intended as a continuation of Standardization of

Percussion Notation, and sought to “strengthen the notational language between

composers and performers by simplifying and clarifying its content and standardizing

its applicability without, however, limiting its potential for expansion.”20 After

stating these goals, McCarty then described and reported the results of a survey that

he distributed to American percussionists. One section of the survey related to the

current project is “Staves and Clefs.” In this section, McCarty lists short guidelines

18 Frank McCarty, "Symbols for Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 49. 19 Ibid., 50. 20 Ibid.

14

that were approved by the majority of the survey respondents, which provides an

indication of the types of notation percussionists prefer.

For example, the guidelines and ideas approved through the survey suggest

appropriate situations for the use of the five-line staff versus the line-score system, an

ideal score order for percussion instruments, and a system of grouping instruments in

multiple percussion parts. The article is intended to provide information for all types

of percussion notation, whether solo percussion or parts within an ensemble.

John C. O’Neill. Recent Trends in Percussion Notation.

“Recent Trends in Percussion Notation” was published in the 1980 volume of

Percussive Notes: Research Edition, and was intended to “clarify some of the

approaches to percussion with which a composer must deal and expose some avenues

for the interested person to pursue.”21 The body of the article is broken down into

four sections discussing staff systems, line-score systems, determinate systems, and

intermediate systems. O’Neill does not make a case for standardization and states,

“the primary contention of this article is that the individual strengths and weaknesses

of a notation are knowable.”22 Further, he asserts “It is the intent of this article to

provide the reader with enough information about the possible systems so that he may

choose a notation aptly suited to the expressions of his ideas.”23

21 John C. O'Neil, "Recent Trends in Percussion Notation," Percussive Notes: Research Edition; Percussionist 18, no.1 (1980): 22. 22 Ibid., 52. 23 Ibid., 22.

15

By breaking up systems of notation into these four categories, and by using

specific musical examples including Edgard Varese’s Ionisation, Stockhausen’s

Zyklus, and Morton Feldman’s The King of Denmark, O’Neill thoroughly discusses

the advantages and disadvantages inherent in each notational system. O’Neill’s

inclusion of Feldman’s solo, which will be examined in the current project, is brief

and is used mainly as a contrast to Zyklus.

Kurt Stone. Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook

Published in 1980, Kurt Stone’s Music Notation in the Twentieth Century

offers a comprehensive guidebook for notation of all musical instruments. The book

covers “General Conventions,” such as beams, articulation, and barlines. It also

covers topics including pitch, duration, rhythm, scores, parts, and specific notation

guidelines for each instrument family. The specific guidelines include a chapter on

percussion. Although Stone incorporates extensive information regarding the various

types of percussion instruments, multiple percussion is limited to one page. On page

215, Stone creates examples of “families” of instruments, such as three tom toms, and

illustrates various ways that the drums may be notated. Stone offers clear solutions,

but a composer aspiring to notate for more than three drums would need to search for

another resource.

Michael W. Udow. Visual Correspondence Between Notation Systems and Instrument Configurations

Appearing in Percussionist in 1981, Udow’s article explores the relationship

between notation and instrument set-ups. This is an ideal source of information

16

regarding the timbre-staff system, which coordinates the keyboard-like configuration

of a percussion set-up to the universal five-line staff notational system.

In order to explain the timbre-staff concept, Udow illustrates several ways of

setting up an instrumentation consisting of twelve tom toms, ranging from a straight

line to a keyboard-like configuration. He discusses the subsequent coordination of

the keyboard configuration to the notation. Udow also includes examples from

specific compositions. For example, Charles Wuorinen’s Janissary Music is

discussed as a composition in which the timbre staff could have been utilized and

Herbert Brun’s …In and Out…is described as a chamber work that presents the

percussionist with a timbre-staff notation and keyboard-like instrument set-up.

David Early. Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat.

David Early’s article ideally prepares a percussionist to perform Stravinsky’s

L’ Histoire du Soldat. It provides insight into the percussion part of Stravinsky’s

work, such as instrumentation and problems with notation, and includes important

information gained from an interview with performer William Kraft. Early also

included relevant material referring to the revised editions of the percussion part by

comparing James Blades’ and William Kraft’s contrasting versions of notation. This

information will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.

17

Gary Cook. Teaching Percussion

Gary Cook’s Teaching Percussion is an excellent resource for comprehensive

percussion education. This textbook is geared toward music educators, and is

appropriate for university percussion methods courses. Cook provides insight into

backgrounds and techniques for various instruments.

In Chapter 1, general considerations of the percussion section and instruments

are discussed. Under the heading “Percussion Performance and Education,” the

notational systems for percussion are explained. Here, Cook states:

Having classified the many percussion instruments, the percussionist must next understand the various systems for percussion notation and become aware of their advantages and disadvantages…Notation for tuned percussion instruments presents few problems, since a standard five-line staff is used with appropriate clefs and key signatures. However, the lack of standardization and discrepancies in notational practices for untuned percussion result in serious notational problems for the percussionist as well as the conductor and composer.24

Cook also lists five possible systems of notation—staff, line-score, symbol notation,

combined line-score and symbol notation, and adapted keyboard or timbre-staff

notation—and states that the five-line staff is the most common.25

Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to multiple percussion, and is the portion of the

text most relevant to this project. In dealing with the topic of multiple percussion,

Cook covers a brief history of the genre and discusses the notational systems

previously mentioned in Chapter 1. This text is an ideal resource for a percussionist

24 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 6. 25 Ibid.

18

desiring assistance in the interpretation of notation, and is especially helpful for a

non-percussionist music educator who is unfamiliar with reading percussion notation.

Cook describes and explains each system of notation, and the syntax is geared toward

helping non-percussionist music educators understand the systems and guide students

through the interpretation of multiple-percussion notation.

Need for Study

The Review of Literature indicates that there is a need for further examination

into the area of multiple percussion notation, as the current available information is

limited and outdated. Compared to other instruments, percussion repertoire is in its

infancy; the available material has quickly become outdated as new important

repertoire and compositional devices have been created. In addition, the majority of

the existing literature seeks to find a solution for standardization, makes a case for the

use of a symbol system, or focuses on literature for band or orchestra. The gap

created by the lack of detailed coverage specific to multiple percussion notation

illustrates a need to examine important multiple percussion solo or chamber

repertoire and expose how each composer created or used a system that enabled him

to express his ideas.

This examination is intended to fill the gap in previous multiple percussion

notation literature, offering information relevant for percussionists interested in

performing the selected or similar works, conductors wishing to obtain further

information regarding percussion notation, and composers desiring to write for the

medium of multiple percussion.

19

Procedures

The research for this document centered mainly on the selected repertoire

examples, chosen for their significance, performance frequency, and relative

importance in the evolution of multiple percussion notation. Further, each work is

widely considered to hold an influential place in multiple percussion repertoire. For

example, Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat was the first work for multiple percussion

and Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra was the first percussion

concerto. Research into each composer’s background and compositional style was

also conducted. The scores were thoroughly examined and described in terms of

elements commonly essential to a performer’s study and execution of a composition:

instrumentation, set-up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems. In order to

gain insight into the composers’ choice of notation, the process also included

identifying and describing connections between the chosen notational systems, the

composers’ backgrounds, music of the composers’ contemporaries, and the

development of percussion music.

The main sources for this project were the complete scores of each repertoire

example. Background research was conducted through additional sources. The

majority of research material was obtained from The Ohio State University Music

and Dance Library in Columbus, Ohio. Supplementary materials were found and

research was conducted at the Flint Public Library in Flint, Michigan; the Perkins

Branch of the Genesee District Library in Swartz Creek, Michigan; the University of

20

Michigan Music Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan; Borders Books and Music store in

Flint, Michigan; the Percussive Arts Society website; and the World Wide Web.

Scope, Limitations, and Purpose

This study is limited to the notation and set-ups associated with multiple

percussion. While drum set and timpani could technically be included in this

category, they are considered to be beyond the scope of this document. The practice

of using symbols, or “pictograms,” will be discussed only in terms of their

relationship to the main notational system of the applicable repertoire; the use of

pictograms as a standardization of notation is beyond the scope of this study.

The compositions chosen for this project are presented in chronological order

and are representative of significant works for multiple percussion. These works are:

Igor Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat (1918), Darius Milhaud’s La Création du

Monde (1923) and Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra (1929), Morton

Feldman’s The King of Denmark (1964), William Kraft’s English Suite (1974), Iannis

Xenakis’ Psappha (1976) and Rebonds (1989), and David Holliden’s Cold Pressed

(1994). A selected discography of these works, except for Kraft’s English Suite, of

which there is no known recording, is located in Appendix B. These composers and

works are significant as described below, and the importance of each will be

discussed further throughout this document.

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) were both

significant twentieth century figures, with a prolific volume of work in various

mediums. In addition to playing important roles in twentieth century music by

21

contributing ballets, orchestral works and chamber works to the repertoire, their

compositional ideas have been influential in the development of percussion, helping

to expand its role from timekeeper to integral part of the musical ensemble.

Like Milhaud and Stravinsky, Morton Feldman (1926-1977) was an

influential twentieth century composer, writing over eighty works and contributing to

the development of indeterminacy and graphic notation.26 The solo The King of

Denmark is representative of the compositional movement of the time, as Feldman

was interested in experimental composition and often associated with the composer

John Cage. The King of Denmark also represents Feldman’s development of a unique

graphic notation using a grid to represent points of time. The work is a staple in the

percussion repertoire, demonstrated by the fact that it is still frequently performed in

international venues and in university recitals.27

William Kraft (b. 1923) has distinguished himself with a substantial

compositional output, especially for percussion. His works, such as English Suite,

French Suite, and Morris Dance are significant particularly in the educational realm

of percussion. They are often used by the novice percussionist as starting points and

learning tools.

Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001) was a prolific composer of many mediums. His

name is associated with computer music and the use of mathematical and

architectural devices in his compositions. His two works for solo percussion,

26 “Morton Feldman,” in The Oxford Dictionary of Music, ed. Michael Kennedy, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University, 1994), 292. 27 Chris Villars’ Feldman Page, “Performances,”http://www.cnvill.demon.co.uk/mfperfs.htm.

22

Psappha and Rebonds, starkly contrast each other in their notational style. Both

works have become prominent in percussion repertoire and have been recorded by

percussion artists like Steven Schick, Professor of Percussion at University of

California at San Diego, and Gert Mortensen, member of the Royal Danish Orchestra

from 1977 to 2000.28

David Hollinden (b. 1958) is a prominent composer in the modern percussion

world whose works are frequently performed at universities including Indiana

University, Temple University, Seoul Fine Arts Center, Northwestern University,

University of California – Los Angeles, The Julliard School, and Eastman School of

Music.29 Cold Pressed is a work for solo multiple percussion, using timbre-staff

notation. Hollinden devised a specific set-up, configured in the manner of a keyboard

instrument, and coordinated the notation to the set-up.

The repertoire examined for this project represents a wide range of

compositional techniques and ideas. Each composer used his creativity, knowledge,

and devices to notate their work. The purpose of this document is to illustrate

compositional methods, whether hindering or clear, that have been used to notate

multiple percussion works.

28 Red Classical Catalogue: 2004, (London: RED, 2004), 1279. 29 David Hollindon’s Web site, http://www.speakeasy.org/~daveh/performances.html.

23

CHAPTER 2

STRAVINSKY’S L’HISTOIRE DU SOLDAT

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) is considered by many to be one of the most

significant composers of the twentieth century. His work encompassed the important

musical tendencies of the period, including experimental, nationalism, neo-

classicism, and serialism.1 He was influential in developing the role of percussion

and notated specific details in his percussion parts that were rarely seen in works of

prior composers. Prominent works like The Firebird ballet (1910), Pétrouchka

(1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913) required the percussion section to perform a

more significant role in the overall texture of the ensemble. While other composers

had successfully utilized percussion instruments, Stravinsky increased the color

palette of the genre, bringing newfound attention to the contribution of percussion

instruments to the orchestral score.

The 1918 work L’Histoire du Soldat is particularly significant to the genre of

multiple percussion. This is due to the fact that it is the first percussion part utilizing

a multiple percussion set-up. L’Histoire du Soldat is a fifteen-movement chamber

work for clarinet, bassoon, cornet, trombone, violin, contra bass, percussion, narrator,

1 Stephen Walsh, “Stravinsky, Igor,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (New York: Grove’s Dictionaries, 2001), 528.

24

two speakers, and a dancer. It was composed as a theatre piece that would be

inexpensive to perform and could be taken on tour.2 This economic motive,

important especially due to World War I, may have been what inspired Stravinsky to

compose for a multiple percussion setup; it would have been more convenient and

less expensive to use only one percussionist.3 In effect, the sole percussionist was

required to take on the role of an entire percussion section.

Another influence on Stravinsky’s decision to use only one percussionist was

jazz. The percussion set-up was Stravinsky’s creation, but the sound he was

attempting to emulate was affected by the jazz drum set. Regarding the

instrumentation of L’Histoire, Stravinsky wrote:

“My choice of instruments was influenced by a very important event in my life at that time, the discovery of American jazz…The Histoire ensemble resembles the jazz band...The percussion part must also be considered as a manifestation of my enthusiasm for jazz.”4 The original manuscript of L’Histoire is dated 1918. A copyist’s manuscript

with annotations by Stravinsky was created in 1920, and J. & W. Chester’s 1924

printing of the score is based on the copyist’s manuscript.5 Changes occurred between

each of the scores, but Stravinsky conducted from the 1924 version and it has been

2 Ibid., 259. 3 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 69. 4 Igor Stravinsky and Robert Kraft, Expositions and Developments (Garden City: Doubleday, 1962), 103. 5 John Carewe, editor’s notes in Histoire du Soldat, ed. John Carewe, text by C. F. Ramuz (London: J. & W. Chester, 1987), iii.

25

accepted to represent his final thoughts in the revision process.6 However, the 1924

engraving is commonly known to contain errors in the percussion part and as a result,

two revised editions have been created. The 1985 version edited by William Kraft

and the 1987 edition by James Blades will be discussed later in this chapter. The

1924 printing serves as the basis for this study, because it is the version containing

Stravinsky’s revisions and was the only version available to performers for sixty-one

years.

The percussion instrumentation of L’Histoire du Soldat consists of two snare

drums without snares, a bass drum, a field drum with and without snares, suspended

cymbal, tambourine, and triangle. The cymbal part, although listed as cymbals at

times, is interpreted as one cymbal, based on the fact that Stravinsky gave specific

instructions regarding the striking implements to be used on the cymbal. The score

contains Stravinsky’s suggestions to the percussionist, including a set-up diagram.

The recommended set-up (Figure 2.1) is in the shape of a diamond, allowing the

drums to be as close together as possible. A compact set-up was essential in allowing

the performer to accurately maneuver around the instruments.

6 Ibid.

26

Figure 2.1. Set-up diagram for Histoire du Soldat. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.

All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

According to Stravinsky’s diagram, the bass drum (grosse caisse) should be

on the performer’s left, the field drum without snares (tambour) on the right, and the

two snare drums (caisse claire) in the middle, with the lower-pitched of the two

(grande taille) furthest from the performer. Stravinsky devised this set-up after he

acquired the necessary equipment and experimented with playing on the

configuration as he composed the part.7

Because Stravinsky was the first composer to write specifically for multiple

percussion, he did not have any previous examples to follow. The result is a score

that allowed Stravinsky to notate his musical ideas, but is often confusing and

inconsistent for the performer. The note placements, stem directions and beaming,

and discrepancies in notation contribute to the difficulties of executing the percussion

part.

An example of Stravinsky’s placement of notes on the staff system is found

in Figure 2.2. The staves of the system indicate the following instruments, from top

to bottom: field drum, low snare drum, high snare drum, bass drum, and cymbals.

7 David Early, “Percussion Performance Issues in Stravinsky’s Histoire Du Soldat,” Percussive Notes 31, no. 5 (1993): 69.

27

This placement of notation is the opposite of a traditional melodic contour.

Stravinsky placed the lowest of the snare drums (field drum) on the highest staff, and

as the staves descend, the pitches of the drums ascend, with the exception of the bass

drum. In addition, Stravinsky placed each instrument in a separate staff. The notes

for all instruments could easily be condensed into one staff, providing clarity to the

performer. In 1987, J. & W. Chester released a revised edition of L’Histoire du

Soldat, containing a new version of the percussion part edited by percussionist James

Blades. Figure 2.3 illustrates how Stravinsky’s notation could be condensed into one

staff.

Figure 2.2. Order of instruments on the staves, instrument labels added by author. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by

Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Figure 2.3. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright

Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Tambour

Grande taille

Petite taille

Gr. C

Cymbals

28

An excerpt from the final movement, Marche Triomphale du Diable

(Triumphal March of the Devil), found in Figure 2.4, is another example of note

placement. In the first measure, Stravinsky notated the cymbal (cymbals) in the

bottom staff, and the bass drum (Gr. C.) in the staff above. Modern percussionists

would reasonably expect the cymbal notes to be placed on the higher staff, due to the

fact that cymbals sound higher in pitch than a bass drum. Another device illustrated

by Figure 2.4 is the addition of an extra line. The term Au milleu below the bass

drum staff instructs the performer to play these notes on the middle of the drumhead

while Au bord, which is indicated next to an additional line above the staff, dictates

that the performer play on the edge of the drumhead. The purpose of this additional

line is to differentiate the notes played on the edge from those played in the center.

These instructions allow the performer to obtain two different sounds from one drum,

yet the same idea could be notated more logically in one staff to save space as Blades

did in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.4. Use of additional line, instrument labels added by author. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by

Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Gr. C

Cymbals

29



The placement of the field drum (tambour), which is pitched lower than the

two snare drums, causes confusion in the interpretation of the notation. Three

problems contribute to this confusion: the term tambour, the placement of the

notation, and the set-up.

1. The term tambour was not present in the original manuscript, which called

for three snare drums: high, medium, and low.8 Tambour replaced one of the snare

drums from the original manuscript, causing uncertainty because it is the generic

French term for drum. It is not clear to the performer that tambour designates a field

drum.

2. Performers sometimes misinterpret the notation by assuming the drum

notated in the top staff is the highest-pitched snare drum. This confusion is further

compounded by a mistake in the printed part: the opening of the Triumphal March of

the Devil labels the top staff as the petite (smallest) snare drum. The performer can

deduce this is a mistake by referring to the full score, which places the tambour in the

top staff. In addition, the label petite appears below the middle staff in the second

measure of the excerpt in Figure 2.2, indicating that the original label at the beginning

of the movement was an editing error.

8 Morris Lang, “A Journey to the Source on L’Histoire du Soldat,” Percussionist 12, no. 2 (1975): 52.

30

3. Stravinsky’s set-up diagram places the tambour (field drum) on the

performer’s right, mimicking the traditional configuration of the drum set. Figure 2.6

contains a re-drawn version of Stravinsky’s diagram. If the player disregards this

diagram in favor of a set-up similar to a common timpani configuration also shown in

figure 2.6, he would place the highest drum (instead of the tambour) on the right. A

familiarity with this common timpani set-up, in addition to experience with

traditional melodic notation which places the highest pitches higher in the staff, could

lead a performer to play the highest snare drum for the notation in the top staff.

Figure 2.6. Stravinsky’s set-up (left) and a common timpani set-up.

These three factors contribute to the common misinterpretation of the term

tambour. Percussionist and composer William Kraft, who recorded L’Histoire du

Soldat under Stravinsky, was able to clarify the uncertainty surrounding this issue. In

an interview conducted in 1989, Kraft stated that Stravinsky intended tambour to

designate a field drum.9 Kraft also revealed that in response to the question of why


bass drum

low snare drum

high snare drum

field drum lowest

highest

Common Timpani Set-up. Stravinsky’s Set-up.

31

the tambour was notated on the top line, Stravinsky replied, “Because it is on the

right.”10 This indicates that Stravinsky’s notation was influenced by the physical

placement of the instruments in his set-up (the field drum is on the right, therefore he

placed it in the top staff) rather than the pitch relationship between the drums.

Throughout the percussion part, Stravinsky provided specific instructions

including how and where to strike the instruments, the type of mallets to be used, as

well as sticking indications. Sticking indications give information to the performer

regarding which hand should be used. The opening of Tango (Figure 2.7)

exemplifies his technique of conveying stickings through stem directions.

Figure 2.7. Use of stem directions. Measures 1-13, Tango. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.


The direction of the stems, in combination with the performance notes at the

bottom of the score page, indicate which hand should play each note. Stravinsky

specifies that the notes with stems pointing upwards be played with the right hand,

and the notes with stems facing downwards be played with the left. The performance

notes also stipulate the type of mallet to be used in each hand. The left hand should

10 Ibid.

32

use a leather-covered bass drum mallet, and the right hand uses a cane stick with a

fiber head.11 The two types of mallets, along with the sticking indications, allow for

two timbres on each drum. These instructions are an important illustration of the

meticulous attention Stravinsky gave to the use of percussion instruments.

While the use of stem directions in Tango gives pertinent information for

performance, there is little reason for the use of the same technique in Danse du

Diable (Devil’s Dance). Figure 2.8 illustrates contrasting stem directions in a

passage for bass drum and two snare drums. In this example, Stravinsky specifies

one type of mallet, so the stem directions are present solely to aid the performer in the

execution of the passage. An experienced percussionist is able to determine a

suitable sticking without the aid of such notational devices. The stem directions in

this passage affect the way the eighth notes are beamed together, hindering the

rhythmic clarity. If Stravinsky had beamed the notes together according to rhythmic

groupings, the notation would not obstruct the performer. Figure 2.9 illustrates

Blades’ version of this excerpt. He notated the stems in one direction, allowing

adjacent notes to be beamed together. However, he grouped them according to the

use of the bass drum,

starting a new group with each bass drum note. Figure 2.10 illustrates another

possible notation of this passage, beaming the notes together according to rhythmic

groupings.

11 Igor Strawinsky, Histoire du Soldat, text by C. F. Ramuz (London: J. & W. Chester, 1924), 39.

33

Figure 2.8 Use of stem directions. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright


Figure 2.9. Measures 30-33, Devil’s Dance, edited by James Blades. Copyright © 1987, 1992 by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.


Figure 2.10. Beaming according to rhythmic groupings. Illustration by author.

There are several discrepancies in the percussion notation of L’Histoire du

Soldat, including inconsistent note placement, inconsistent line placement, and an

inconsistent use of staves. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 compare the note placements in an

excerpt from Marche Royale (Royal March) to an excerpt from Triumphal March of

the Devil. In Royal March, the top line designates the cymbal. This placement does

not remain consistent, as illustrated by the reversal of the two instruments in

Triumphal March.

34

Figure 2.11. Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 1-12, Royal March. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International

Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Figure 2.12. Bass drum and cymbal placement. Measures 16-17, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited,

London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Line placements are another source of inconsistency. A comparison of

Figures 2.13 and 2.14 illustrates a difference in the notation of the two striking areas

of the bass drum. In Royal March, the additional line is placed below the staff. In

Triumphal March, the additional line is located above the staff.

Gr. C

Cymbals

35

Figure 2.13. Additional line in Royal March. Measures 13-14. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright


Figure 2.14. Additional line in Triumphal March of the Devil. Measures 16-17. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London.

International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission. In other instances, as in Figure 2.15, Stravinsky placed the striking area indications of

au milleu and au bord within the limits of one five-line staff.

Figure 2.15. Measures 39-46, Devil’s Dance. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights

Reserved. Used by permission.

There are discrepancies in Stravinsky’s use of staves. An excerpt from

Triumphal March of the Devil (Figure 2.16) illustrates how he used separate staves

for each drum. By contrast, in Royal March (2.17), Stravinsky placed the bass drum

on the bottom line of the staff belonging to the large snare drum. This example of the

use of one staff is more concise and clear than the multiple-staff excerpt. Regardless

of adding clarity, the overall inconsistency in notation complicates the score.

36

Figure 2.16. Use of staves. Measures 19-24, Triumphal March of the Devil. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International

Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

Figure 2.17. Use of one staff. Measures 13-18, Royal March. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured.


As a result of the discrepancies and confusing notation in the 1924 printing of

L’Histoire’s percussion part, two additional editions have been created. William

Kraft’s edition (1985), including performance notes, is the result of his work with

Stravinsky during the 1960 recording of L’ Histoire du Soldat. James Blades’ edition

was created and released with a new critical edition of the full score by J. & W.

Chester of London in 1987.

Kraft’s version, while reducing the multiple staves into one, retains a similar

notational relationship to the original. That is, the pitches of the drums descend as

the notation ascends the staff. Blades’ edition is interesting to compare to the original

due to the drastic change in the notation. In a comparison of an excerpt from Blades’

edition of the Triumphal March to the same passage in the 1924 engraving (2.18), the

37

differences are immediately obvious. Figure 2.19 illustrates how Blades reversed the

notation to utilize the familiar pitch-ascending configuration of notation.

Figure 2.18. Measures 19-23, Triumphal March of the Devil, instrument labels added

by author. Copyright © 1924 (Renewed) by Chester Music Limited, London. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.



Blades simplified Stravinsky’s notation into a single staff, and reversed the

order of the drums so that the highest drum is placed on the highest line. The

rhythms are more cohesive because of Blades’ beaming. It is intriguing that the

notation of this edition can be so contradictory to the original, and it provides tangible

evidence that musical material can be notated by a variety of methods. A composer,

therefore, must use a system that he feels is the best option for recording his musical

ideas.

Stravinsky was the pioneer of multiple percussion writing. His notational

system may seem clumsy to percussionists in the twenty-first century, but his ideas

were fundamental in the creation of a new genre. Stravinsky, without the benefit of

Tambour

Grande taille

Petite taille Gr. C

Cymbals

38

any previous examples, had to create a method to record his musical ideas. Because

the genre was new, Stravinsky was open to improvements to the percussion part.

After his collaboration with Kraft on the 1960 recording, he even requested that

Kraft’s edition be sent to the publisher.12 A logical conclusion from this information

is that Stravinsky devised a notational system to the best of his ability, based on his

own ideas and experience. Yet, he was willing to admit its faults and to expand his

knowledge in order to more clearly record his intentions.


39

CHAPTER 3

MILHAUD’S LA CRÉATION DU MONDE AND CONCERTO FOR

PERCUSSION

Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) was a French composer and a member of “Les

Six,” a group of composers consisting of Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Arthur Honegger,

Louis Durey, Georges Auric, and Germaine Tailleferre. All six composers appeared

on the same program in 1917, and many of its members had been giving concerts as

“Les nouveaux jeunes,” literally “the new young.”1 The group, taking its name from a

1920 article, was formed under the mentorship of Erik Satie and promoted by Jean

Cocteau.2 Regarding the aesthetic of the group, Poulenc wrote, “We were tired of

Debussyism, of Florent Schmitt, of Ravel. I wanted music to be clear, healthy and

robust—music as frankly French in spririt as Stravinsky’s Petrushka is Russian.”3 In

order to distance themselves from what they believed to be the sterile music of

composers like Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, it was ideal to incorporate jazz,

1 Paul Griffiths, “Six, Les,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 2nd ed. (New York: Grove’s Dictionary, 2001), 460. 2 Ibid. 3 Harold Schonberg, The Lives of the Great Composers, 3rd ed. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 474.

40

popular, circus, and commercial music into their writing.4 “Les Six” pulled apart after

1921, and Milhaud was the first member to attain international attention when his

music began to emerge in the 1920s.5

Milhaud made substantial contributions to the evolving role of percussion; he

was making extensive use of it as early as 1915 in Les Choéfores and L’Homme et

son Desir (1918). The significance he placed on percussion is also evident in 1923’s

La Création du Monde (The Creation of the World). In 1929, with the first concerto

for the genre, Concerto pour batterie et petit orchestre (Concerto for Percussion and

Small Orchestra), the prominence of percussion reached a new level. Both La

Création and Concerto use a part designed for one player, representing significant

contributions to the early works of the multiple percussion genre.

In 1922, Milhaud visited the United States and was exposed to jazz. He was

particularly drawn to Harlem, about which he stated, “The music I heard was

absolutely different from anything I had ever heard before, and was a revelation to

me.”6 The effect was so overwhelming that Milhaud resolved to use jazz for a

chamber-music work.7

Milhaud’s fascination with jazz influenced the conception of the ballet La

Création du Monde. Written after his return from the United States, the work was a

4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 Darius Milhaud, My Happy Life: An Autobiography, trans. Donald Evans, George Hall and Christopher Palmer (London: Marion Boyars, 1995), 110. 7 Ibid.

41

collaboration between Milhaud, Fernand Léger, and Blaise Cendrars for Swedish

ballet-producer Rolf de Maré.8 The African story of the creation of the world was the

subject chosen by Cendrars, who had just published an anthology of African folklore.

Milhaud seized his chance to use the inspiration of jazz, saying “At last in La

Création du Monde, I had the opportunity I had been waiting for to use those

elements of jazz to which I had devoted so much study...I made wholesale use of the

jazz style to convey a purely classical feeling.”9

La Création du Monde was not initially well-received. However, the

perception of the work has evolved since its premiere. Leonard Bernstein reflected

on the significance of La Création du Monde in his book The Infinite Variety of

Music:

All these changes are reflected in the music of those European composers who were still avidly drinking at this exotic American well. Only now instead of a ragtime by Satie you got a Charleston by Martin...Out of all this has come one real masterpiece, one full-length, fully developed jazz work that had such character and originality that even today it sounds as fresh as it did when it was written in 1923. It is a ballet called The Creation of the World, by the brilliant French composer Darius Milhaud. I take the liberty of calling this work a masterpiece because it has the one real requisite of a masterpiece – durability. Among all those experiments with jazz that Europe flirted with in this period, only The Creation of the World emerges complete, not as a flirtation but as a real love affair with jazz.10

La Création is scored for seventeen instruments, resembling a band Milhaud

saw in Harlem, which he said included “a complicated percussion section played by

8 Ibid., 117. 9 Ibid., 118. 10 Desmoines Community Orchestra’s Page, “Program Notes,” http://www.desmoinescommunityorchestra.org/notes_winter.htm.

42

one man.”11 The percussion part for La Création calls for one percussionist, and

requires the following instruments: tambourine, non-pitched metal instruments, wood

block, snare drum, tenor drum, tambourin (a long drum), bass drum, and cymbal with

striker. The cymbal is played by a striker that is attached to the pedal mechanism of

the bass drum, which results in the simultaneous striking of both the drum and

cymbal (hi-hat cymbals are frequently substituted for this device).

Milhaud placed the notation in a logical order, ascending the staff as the

pitches of the instruments rise. However, there are several devices in this percussion

part that could complicate the interpretation of the notation. These issues include a

multiple-staff system and inconsistent placement of notation.

One of these potential problems is the use of multiple five-line staves.

Although Milhaud placed the instruments in a logical order, he placed each

instrument in its own five-line staff, similar to the manner in which Stravinsky used

staves. Figure 3.1 illustrates Milhaud’s use of staves. In instances where four or five

instruments are playing simultaneously, the notation becomes cluttered. Milhaud

occasionally placed a maximum of two instruments in one staff, as illustrated by the

long drum (tambourin) and bass drum (G. C.) in Figure 3.1.

11 Ibid., 110.

43

Figure 3.1. Use of staves. Measures 468-473, La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Used by Permission.

Another reason that the percussion part in La Création is confusing is that

Milhaud changed the placement of notation based on the combination of instruments

being used. Instead of designating a specific line, space, or staff to one instrument, he

notated the instruments based on a relative relationship. As a result, the performer

must pay careful attention to the labels accompanying the notation. Reducing the

number of staves helps achieve an efficient reading of a more compact score. For

example, Milhaud generally notated the cymbal in one of the highest staves when

many instruments are simultaneously engaged. When he employs only the cymbals

and the bass drum, which is notated in the bottom staff, the inner staves are removed

to save space; the cymbal is notated in a staff directly above the bass drum’s staff.

Consequently, the staff system is reduced into two staves.

Although varying the notation within a work can be confusing, the efficiency

previously mentioned provides logical reasoning for altering the placement of the

notation. There are times, however, when Milhaud made use of notation shifts where

little logic can be found. For example, Figure 3.2 illustrates the notation of four

44

instruments: the snare drum (C.Claire), the tenor drum (C.Roulante), the tambourin,

and the bass drum (G.C.). At this point in the score the snare drum and the tenor

drum share the top staff (although each are assigned to a particular line), while the

tambourin and the bass drum each have their own staff. These same instruments,

however, are notated differently in Figure 3.3. In this example, the snare drum and

tenor drum each have their own staves, and the tambourin and bass drum share the

bottom staff.

Figure 3.2. Measures 290-292, Figure 3.3. Measures 437-439, La Création du Monde by Darius La Création du Monde by Darius Milhaud. © Editions Durand (SACEM). Milhaud. © Editions Durand Used by permission. (SACEM). Used by permission.

Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra is another example

of the generous use of percussion in his compositions. Concerto for Percussion

represents a new multiple percussion sound, free from the influence of jazz.

Regarding the process and influences of this work, Milhaud wrote:

An excellent kettle-drummer, Theo Coutelier…asked me if I would like to write a concerto for only one percussion performer…The idea appealed to me…In view of the fact that when I composed it (between 1929 and 1930 in Paris) jazz was enjoying a decisive influence on musical composition, I wanted to avoid at any cost the thought that anyone might think it that kind of work, so I therefore stressed the rough and dramatic part of the piece…I had

45

already paid my tribute to jazz, since in La Création du Monde, except for a part written for a kettle-drummer, there is only one performer designated for the percussion part. 12 The instrumentation consists of four timpani, a triangle, a suspended cymbal,

a non-pitched metal instrument, a woodblock, a pair of cymbals, castanets, whip,

ratchet, tambourine, snare drum, tenor drum, tambourin provencal, tam-tam, and a

bass drum with a pedal and detachable cymbal. Hi-hat cymbals are frequently used in

replacement of the detachable cymbal and the timpani are included within the overall

multiple percussion set-up.

The notational technique in the percussion part to Concerto for Percussion

maintains similarities to La Création, but differs in the organization of instruments

and use of staves. As previously mentioned, five-line staves were used in La

Création, with a rare maximum of two instruments per staff. In the Concerto,

Milhaud sorted the instruments into groups before assigning them to a staff. The

number of lines in each staff was modified to match the number of instruments

engaged at any moment in the score. The first measure of the work (Figure 3.4)

functions as a key listing the instrument groupings next to six empty staves.

12 Darius Milhaud, Program notes for Darius Milhaud, Orch of Luxemburg, LP, 1970 Candide.

46

Figure 3.4. Instrument key to Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission

According to the first measure of Concerto for Percussion, instruments are

divided as follows: the top staff contains the “fixed accessories,”—which are

mounted or played on a table—consisting of a triangle, suspended cymbal, metal

piece, and woodblock; the second staff contains the “free accessories,”—which the

performer picks up to play—consisting of crash cymbals, castanets, whip, ratchet, and

tambourine; the third staff contains the snare drum, tenor drum, and tambourin

provencal; the fourth staff contains the tam-tam; the fifth staff contains the timpani;

and the bass drum and detachable cymbal are assigned to the bottom staff.

Throughout the score, Milhaud used only the staves belonging to the instruments

being used at a given point in the composition, similar to the condensation of the

staves he used in La Création. For example, the first entrance of percussion is

executed on the timpani alone, so only the timpani staff is used. This technique saves

space and eliminates visual distractions. If two or more of the instrument groups in

the key are needed, Milhaud retains the relative position laid out at the beginning of

the score.

47

Unlike the notation in La Création, the number of staves, and of lines within

each staff, is modified according to instrumentation. Whereas La Création retains

five lines for each staff throughout the entire composition, Concerto for Percussion

utilizes only the quantity of lines required to adequately notate the necessary

instruments. The result is a line-score system that does not rely solely on the

traditional five-line staff. For example, the top staff of Figure 3.5 indicates the use of

four instruments from the “fixed accessory category.” The top line is assigned to the

triangle, the second to the suspended cymbal, the next to the metal piece, and the

bottom line is assigned to the woodblock. In comparison, Figure 3.6 shows the

“fixed accessory” top staff using only the suspended cymbal, metal piece, and the

woodblock, in descending order. To accommodate the use of only three instruments

the staff was condensed into three lines, allowing the score to be more compact and

concise. However, with the removal of the triangle, the cymbal is now notated on

the top line (as opposed to the second) and such changes to notational positions could

confuse the performer.

Figure 3.5. Measures 21-22, Concerto for Figure 3.6. Measure 97, Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission. by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ Instrument labels added by author. UE 6453. Used by permission.

Triangle Cymbal Metal W. B.

Cymbal Metal W. Block

48

A similarity to La Création is the treatment of stems and beaming of notes. In

both works, note heads are connected across staves. This technique allows for visual

clarity of rhythmic placement, but it also tends to clutter the score. Beams across

staves are not as prevalent in Concerto for Percussion as in La Création, and pose

less of a problem due to the work’s smaller staves as well as the limited use. Figure

3.7 illustrates the one example of this beaming technique found in Concerto for

Percussion. A contrasting technique used in the majority of the score is illustrated in

Figure 3.8. In this example, rests are used instead of beaming. Each technique has an

advantage and a disadvantage: while Figure 3.8 clears the visual clutter of the beams

present in Figure 3.7, Figure 3.7 provides a more unified sense of rhythm.

Figure 3.7. Measures 95-97, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission.

Figure 3.8. Measure 20, Concerto for Percussion. © 1931 by Universal Edition A.G., Wien/ UE 6453. Used by permission.

49

An interesting observation can be made regarding Milhaud’s use of note heads

in the Concerto: every instrument, with the exception of the timpani, is represented

by “x” note heads. This technique is obvious in the previous excerpts found in

Figures 3.7 and 3.8. The “x” note heads may initially prove to be disconcerting to a

modern percussionist who is accustomed to interpreting “x” as a representation of

cymbals, triangles, stick clicks, rim shots, or rim clicks. A conclusion regarding this

technique is that the note heads indicate Milhaud’s attempts to visually clarify the

score. By notating only timpani with standard note heads Milhaud provided a clear

differentiation between the pitched and non-pitched instruments.

Milhaud’s contributions of La Création du Monde and Concerto for

Percussion to the multiple percussion repertoire were made within a decade of

Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat. Due to the similar significance of the percussion

part of both La Création du Monde and L’Histoire du Soldat, I have searched for but

have been unable to find any sources verifying if Milhaud had ever heard or studied

the score to Stravinsky’s work. For both composers, the development of multiple

percussion was still in its infancy; Milhaud, like Stravinsky, did not have the option

of basing his notation on ideas from predecessors. As a result, his system of notation

is awkward for modern performers. A simplification of his notation would make the

rendering of La Création and Concerto for Percussion more accessible to performers

in the same way that Blades’ edition did for Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du Soldat.

50

CHAPTER 4

FELDMAN’S THE KING OF DENMARK

In early 1950s New York, American composer Morton Feldman (1926-1987)

became associated with John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff and David Tudor.1

The group of composers was interested in discovering how, as John Cage said, to “let

sounds be themselves rather than vehicles for man-made theories, or expression of

human sentiments.”2 A common phrase for this idea is “sound for sound’s sake.”

These composers focused on finding methods to allow sound to be free from

constraints. Feldman made the following statement, reflecting their perception of

composition:

It appears to me that the subject of music, from Machaut to Boulez, has always been its construction. Melodies of 12-tone rows just don’t happen. They must be constructed...To demonstrate any formal idea in music, whether structure or stricture, is a matter of construction, in which the methodology is the controlling metaphor of the composition...Only by ‘unfixing’ the elements traditionally used to construct a piece of music could the sounds exist in themselves—not as symbols, or memories which were memories of other music to begin with.3

1 Steven Johnson, “Feldman, Morton,” in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, http://www.grovemusic.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/ (accessed September 11, 2004). 2 Michael Nyman, Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1999), 51. 3Ibid., 50.

51

In their search for new approaches, the composers drew inspiration from their

surroundings, especially the expressionist painters in New York. Feldman once

wrote the following about the painters:

Anybody who was around in the early fifties with the painters saw that these men had started to explore their own sensibilities, their own plastic language...with that complete independence from other art, that complete inner security to work with what was unknown to them...I feel that John Cage, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff and I were very much in that particular spirit.4

Feldman, therefore, was looking for new ways to conceive music that was

independent from conventional ideas. This spirit of independence led to his

development of a graphic system of notation that allowed him to create music, which

as Cage described, “is indeterminate with respect to its performance.”5 The solo The

King of Denmark, written in 1964 and published in 1965, is an example of his use of

graphic notation. In a 1983 interview with percussionist Jan Williams, Feldman

described the method’s conception and evolution:

I still use a grid. But now the grid encompasses conventional notation. But the initial concept of the grid – Oh, it’s like one of those things that you don’t know is going to have significance afterwards. I have no idea how it came about. Actually, I was living in the same building as John Cage and he invited me to dinner…so we were waiting a long time for the wild rice to be ready. It was while waiting for the wild rice that I just sat down at his desk and picked up a piece of note paper and started to doodle. And what I doodled was a freely drawn page of graph paper – and what emerged were high, middle, and low categories. It was just automatic – I never had any conversation about it heretofore, you know – never discussed it…Actually, I didn’t have any kind of theory and I had no idea what was going to emerge, but if I wasn’t waiting for that wild rice, I wouldn’t have had those wild ideas.6

4 Ibid., 51. 5 Ibid., 53. 6 Jan Williams, “An Interview with Morton Feldman,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 21, no. 6 (1983): 6-7.

52

Feldman saw problems in his early grid, like the ability to make “wonderful

designs” allowing the grid to become too design-oriented.7 However, he felt it was

ideal for percussion writing, saying “The percussion just made the balance between

being specific and, at the same time, to some degree, general.”8 Feldman, through the

use of such notational devices, was able to maintain control over the composition

while giving some freedom to the interpretation.

According to Feldman, his first use of percussion—in the 1951 orchestral

piece Marginal Intersection—was modeled after Cage’s early 1940s pieces, the

Gamelan Orchestra, and the works of Edgard Varese.9 In Marginal Intersection,

Feldman utilized the “en masse” use of instruments from these models, while also

“wanting the percussion to sound more like noise.”10 The percussion solo The King of

Denmark is a contrast to his earlier use of percussion, as it strives for the opposite

effect. Percussionist Steven Schick described the work in a program note

accompanying the concert series “Three Nights of Percussion” given in New York in

1998:

In many ways, The King of Denmark is an anti-percussion piece. It is to be played very softly using only the hand and fingers – no sticks or mallets...Even though a tempo runs throughout, no rhythmic coherence emerges. Sounds simply float out, detached and weightless. One instrument has no more sonic gravity than another does...They are sounds in many different loudnesses, but they are being heard from different distances. The gong is really forte but is heard from the distance of fifty yards. It sounds as

7 Ibid., 7. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid., 5. 10 Ibid.

53

soft as the little bell six inches from your ear. Mirages of distance appear and evaporate again into music. It is like rain or the sound of rain. These illusions come from Feldman’s love of the pulsating but rhythmically directionless canvases of Mark Rothko and other American Abstract Expressionists. Directionlessness is key here.11 Feldman achieved the directionless sense by removing the constraints of

conventional notation. The King of Denmark uses a form of the grid Feldman

originally created in Cage’s apartment and premiered in the 1950 work Projections I

for Solo Cello. An example of The King of Denmark’s grid is illustrated in Figure

4.1. The score presents multiple problems to the performer: he must interpret the grid

and its consequences on rhythm and time, translate the symbols contained in the grid,

and devise an appropriate set-up. In order to interpret the notation illustrated in

Figure 4.1, the performer must refer to the performance notes provided at the

beginning of the score. The performance notes are listed in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.1. Opening staff, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

11 Chris Villars’ Feldman Page, “A Note on The King of Denmark by Steven Schick,” http://www.cnvill.demon.co.uk/mfschick.htm.

54

1. Graphed High, Middle and Low, with each box equal to MM 66-92. The top line or slightly above the top line, very high. The bottom line or slightly beneath, very low.

2. Numbers represent the amount of sounds to played in each box 3. All instruments to be played without sticks or mallets. The performer may

use fingers, hand, or any part of his arm. 4. Dynamics are extremely low, and as equal as possible. 5. The thick horizontal line designates clusters. (Instruments should be varied

when possible). 6. Roman numerals represent simultaneous sounds. 7. Large numbers (encompassing High, Middle and Low) indicate single sounds

to be played in all registers and in any time sequence. 8. Broken lines indicate sustained sounds. 9. Vibraphone is played without motor.

SYMBOLS USED:

B - Bell-like sounds; S – Skin instruments; C – Cymbal; G – Gong; R – Roll; T.R. – Tympani roll; ∆ – Triangle; G.R. – Gong Roll.

Figure 4.2. Performance Notes to The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

The first problem the performer must solve is the interpretation of the grid.

Although the tempo of the piece is strictly structured through the grid, the actual

rhythms to be played are determined by the performer. Each box in the score

represents a metronome beat at a marking between 66 and 92. The second instruction

in the performance notes indicates that within the boundaries of each box the

performer has freedom to determine the sequence of sounds and rhythm.

For example, Figure 4.3 illustrates various symbols used in the score. The

performance notes allow the performer to determine the meaning of the symbols

following the large number “5.” The sound events are interpreted as follows: two

55

high-registered sounds, seven middle-registered sounds, and three low-registered

sounds are all performed within the time parameters of one box. While the duration

of the box is controlled, the performer determines the actual rhythms or placement of

sounds within that time limit.

Figure 4.3. Page 2, boxes 34-42, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F.

Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

A dashed line follows the remaining symbol (the “R” in the upper box). This

indicates that the performer plays a roll on a high-registered instrument for the extent

of the boxes containing the “R” and dashed line.

A problem presented to the performer in this example is the duration of the

wide box with the large number “5,” because it is not described in the performance

notes. Percussionist Daryl Pratt answered this question in his performance analysis

of The King of Denmark. Through examining a pre-publication version of the score

he discovered that “the work was initially composed on grid coordinate paper. The

longer boxes were, therefore, precisely equal to two or more small boxes.”12 As a

result, the performer will need to determine how many small boxes fit inside the

wider box, which will give the correct duration. The performer must examine each

occurrence, as the lengths are not immediately obvious during the reading of the

12 Daryl L. Pratt, “Performance Analysis: Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 25, no. 3 (1987): 73.

56

score. In this case, the large box is the equivalent of four smaller boxes. The entire

box is interpreted as five individual sounds occurring in all registers in any sequence

within the time limit of four boxes.

Feldman did not include an instrumentation list or a suggested set-up in the

performance notes, so it is up to the discretion of the performer to choose the

instruments that will provide the registers of sounds. Throughout the score the

performer will find instances of specifically notated instrument groups, which will

help her in the determination of the complete set-up. Figure 4.4 illustrates an

example. Here, Feldman clearly indicated that the particular sounds within the

bracket must be played on skin instruments. In order to execute this passage, the set-

up must include a minimum of three drums of three different registers.

Figure 4.4. Page 2, boxes 72-81, The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.

The conclusion of the piece, as illustrated in Figure 4.5, specifically dictates

that the notes be played on vibraphone, glockenspiel and antique cymbal. Figure 4.6

illustrates another device used by Feldman to indicate instrumentation. In this

example, it is necessary for the performer to refer to the “SYMBOLS USED” section

of the performance notes to determine the type of instruments to strike within each

57

box. For example, the first box of Figure 4.6 is a bell-like sound, followed by a

middle-registered skin instrument, a high-registered cymbal, and low-registered gong.

The remaining boxes of the excerpt are interpreted by the same system.

Figure 4.5. Conclusion, Figure 4.6. Page 2, boxes 89-101, The King of Denmark. The King of Denmark. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters. Copyright © 1965 by C. F. Peters. All Rights Reserved. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission. Used by permission.

An examination of the “SYMBOLS USED” section of the performance notes,

and the previously mentioned specific instrument indications, give the performer

guidelines for choosing the makeup of the configuration. The performer can deduce

that the set-up must represent all of the following timbres or instruments: bell-like

sounds, skin instruments, cymbals, gongs, tympani, triangle, vibraphone,

glockenspiel, and antique cymbal. Through closely studying the score, the performer

can determine the number of registers required for each timbre and can thus choose

specific instruments to fulfill that number. Common performance practice is to

perform The King of Denmark with a large set-up, although some performers have

chosen to condense the configuration into what Feldman called a “capsule version.”13

13 Jan Williams, “An Interview with Morton Feldman,” Percussive Notes: Research Edition 21, no. 6 (1983): 6.

58

These smaller set-ups disregard some of Feldman’s wishes indicated by the score.

For example, a literal interpretation of Feldman’s design would require three triangles

of different pitches while a condensed set-up might use only one triangle to represent

all three timbres.

The King of Denmark requires a significant amount of time and effort from

the performer. Not only must the grid be understood and the symbols interpreted, but

the performer must also closely examine the score to determine an appropriate

instrumentation. Once an instrumentation is chosen to represent all the requested

sounds, she must also devise a logical set-up. By breaking away from conventional

notation, Feldman placed more responsibility on the performer.

Although the responsibility and inconvenience placed on the performer may

discourage percussionists from performing The King of Denmark, Feldman chose this

system for a reason: to allow him to control some aspects of the composition while

leaving the performer free to devise the other elements. By removing a strong sense

of rhythm and the percussive attack of mallets and sticks, he used the instruments in a

way that he felt “would have been considered the least area for ‘success’.”14 He was

thus able to break away from the traditional concept of percussion, and his ability to

do so would have been limited through the use of conventional notation.

14 Ibid., 14.

59

CHAPTER 5

KRAFT’S ENGLISH SUITE

William Kraft is an American composer and percussionist born in 1923. He

performed as a percussionist and timpanist with the Los Angeles Philharmonic from

1955 to 1981, and was appointed to the Dorothy and Sherrill C. Corwin Chair in

Music Composition at the University of California at Santa Barbara in 1992.1 He also

was the Composer-in-Residence for the Los Angeles Philharmonic from 1981 to

1985. Among Kraft’s numerous compositions are works for percussion that include

timpani and percussion concertos, percussion ensemble pieces of various sizes and

styles, and several multiple percussion solos such as Morris Dance, French Suite, and

English Suite. These three multiple percussion solos are important additions to the

standard percussion repertoire, as the novice percussionist frequently uses Kraft’s

works as learning tools for multiple percussion technique and performance.

English Suite was written in 1974 and is a historical reference to the Baroque

instrumental suite from which it acquired its title. J.J. Froberger (1616-67) is credited

with standardizing the movements contained within the suite form, which contains

1 Laurie Shulman, “Kraft, William,” Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, http//www.grovemusic.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu (accessed February 10, 2004).

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combinations of slow and fast dance styles.2 Kraft’s English Suite consists of seven

movements, each bearing the title of a dance. Kraft designated the movements as

“Parts” and the titles are as follows: Prelude, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande,

Bourrée I, Bourée II, and Gigue. Each dance includes a notation key under the title,

and performance notes at the end of the movement. The key to Prelude, found in

Figure 5.1, tells the performer which instruments are needed and designates the

appropriate location on the five-line staff for the corresponding notation. The

performance notes explain other markings in the score, such as explanations for

symbols, or pictograms, that refer to various striking techniques on the cymbal.

Figure 5.1. Key to Prelude.

Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.

As Figure 5.1 illustrates, Kraft used a traditional five-line staff to notate

English Suite. The ascending order of the notated “pitches” on the staff matches the

contour of the instruments they represent. While the instrumentation varies between

movements, Kraft was consistent in maintaining specific spaces or lines as the

representation of certain instruments. For example, in every movement the bass

drum, tenor drum, field drum, and snare drum are notated in the lowest four spaces.

As the instrumentation is changed between movements, the spaces of these drums are

2 Judith Nagley, “Suite,” in The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

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not affected. Each new instrument is assigned to a new space or line as needed. This

eliminates confusion that would certainly arise from varying the specific notation

across the movements.

The instrumentation of Prelude consists of a bass drum, tenor drum, field

drum, snare drum, and bongos. The key also notes that the snares on all drums

remain in the off position throughout this movement. Figure 5.2 illustrates several

techniques used by Kraft in this composition. First, there are abbreviations used in

this excerpt: R, L, E, and C. “R” designates the right hand, and “L” designates the

left hand. These sticking indications assist the performer in the execution of the

passage. “E” refers to the edge of the drumhead, and “C” refers to the center of the

drumhead. In this case, Kraft called for the performer to play in both the edge and

center of the bass drum. This allows for more available timbres from the instrument.

Figure 5.2. Measures 23-26, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.

An interesting technique present in the first three movements is the use of

different-sized note heads. According to the performance notes, the large note heads

instruct the performer to play forte (loud) and the small note heads piano (soft).

Whereas another composer may have kept the standard-sized note head and simply

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used accents, Kraft chose this method in order to clearly differentiate between volume

levels. The notation serves as a constant reminder to the performer by creating a

clear visual contrast.

In general, Kraft’s stem directions follow the standard of music notation: the

direction of the stems depends on how high or low in the staff the note is placed.

This allows (except in instances where Kraft provides “R” or “L” suggestions) the

performer to decide his own sticking. As Stravinsky did in L’Histoire du Soldat,

Kraft occasionally used stem directions to specify which hand should be used. Kraft

only used this method when he desired one hand to execute material independent of

the other. Figure 5.3 provides an example of this technique as used by Kraft.

Figure 5.3. Use of stem directions. Measures 53-55, Prelude. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.

The last measure of Figure 5.3 shows the left hand playing an eighth-note

accompaniment, while the right hand plays a melodic idea. The stem directions,

combined with the size of the note heads, help visually clarify the concept of

accompaniment versus melody.

The use of opposite stem directions while two hands are playing simultaneous

contrasting ideas is necessary for clarity. If the stems were all facing upwards, the

stacked notation would be confusing to the performer. Kraft also used the technique

for more than necessity. In the first two measures of Figure 5.3, the stems move from

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an “up” position to a “down” position. Although this technique is not described in

the performance notes at the end of the movement, the performer may assume that the

change in stem direction dictates a switch to the left hand for the entire second

measure. If the stem directions are interpreted in this way, the notation clearly

prepares the performer for the following section. Playing the second measure with

only the left hand sets up the accompaniment, allows the right hand to be free to enter

with the melodic line, and creates a smooth transition.

One of the obstacles that composers must face is how to notate the variety of

sounds that are available from each percussion instrument. The type of stick, the area

of stick used, the striking technique, and the area of the playing surface all affect the

sound of the instrument. Kraft answered this challenge by using pictograms for

specific playing techniques, and then defining the symbols in the performance notes.

Figure 5.4, from Sarabande, illustrates an example of Kraft’s use of pictograms.

Figure 5.4. Use of pictograms. Measures 53-58, Sarabande. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.

According to the performance notes, the notation in the last measure calls for

the following manners of striking, in order: tip of stick on cymbal dome, shaft of stick

on cymbal dome, tip of stick on cymbal dome (twice), shaft of stick on cymbal dome,

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and tip of stick on cymbal dome (twice).3 Upon study of this measure, the performer

can realize that this notation calls simply for her to play the accented notes

with the shaft of the stick for a heavier sound, and the unaccented notes with the tip

for a lighter sound. Kraft’s use of symbols for these details obscure the visual clarity

of the notation, and it may initially hinder the performer. Until the performer adapts

to the symbols, and possibly memorizes how to strike the instruments, the score may

appear to be overloaded with too much information. Simply using accents and an

accompanying performance note explaining the necessary techniques could have

conveyed the same information.

Kraft did not attempt to minutely control the performer’s choice of stickings.

In general, his sticking indications are meant to aid the performer through more

difficult passages. “R” and “L” were used in a situation that is illustrated in Figure

5.5. Similar to Stravinsky, Kraft used the stickings to control the performer’s use of

contrasting mallets. For example, in Bourrée II (Figure 5.5), the middle section of

the movement requires the performer to put down the stick from the left hand and

replace it with a brush. The result is that the performer is holding a brush in the left

hand and a stick in the right hand.

3 William Kraft, English Suite: Multiple Percussion Solo in Seven Parts, ed. Joel Leach (New York: Award Music, 1975), 13.

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Figure 5.5. Measures 25-31, Bourrée II. Copyright © 1975 by Award Music Co. Used by permission.

At the beginning of Bourrée II, the performer is using a snare drum stick in

both hands. Here, about halfway though the piece, Kraft used a pictogram defined as

a brush, and the abbreviation “L.H.” This instructs the performer to pick up the brush

with the left hand while the right hand continues to play the snare drum. The

pictograms above the staff in the first four measures instruct the player to play a

“chop,” which the performance notes describe being executed “by placing palm of

hand on [the drum] head, holding stick tip against center of head. Bring shank down

on far rim.”4

Once the performer has the stick in one hand and brush in the other, Kraft

designated the desired sounds by specifying which hand should play each note. Kraft

also continues to use the symbols for “brush” and “chop.” The pictograms would be

unnecessary because of the “R” and “L” specifications, except for one reason: Kraft

also uses the symbol “ord.,” which instructs the player to strike “ordinarily” in

between the center and edge of the instrument. This label appears in the last measure

of Figure 5.5. An alternative method for this section would be a performance note

stating that all the left hand strikes are to be with the brush and the right hand notes

are to be chops. The “R” and “L” markings could then give the necessary

4 Ibid., 17.

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information. Therefore, only the “ordinary” notes would need to be additionally

marked, which would eliminate the clutter created by excessive symbols.

In this work, Kraft was very specific in how he wanted each note to be

executed, but the choice of instructions could be more concise; while the pictograms

supply necessary information, they also complicate the rendering of the score.

However, the use of the five-line staff and specific placement of notation eliminates

much of the confusion present in earlier multiple percussion works like L’Histoire du

Soldat and La Création du Monde. As multiple percussion notation has evolved,

Kraft’s English Suite is an example of an overall consistent and logical score.

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CHAPTER 6

XENAKIS’ PSAPPHA

Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001) was born in Romania to Greek parents, and lived

most of his life in France. He was an architect, engineer, and composer. Xenakis once

said, “I wanted to do everything at the same time. Earn my living, learn math and

physics: the only really serious place was the Polytechnic University in Athens…But at

the same time, I was doing music, archaeology, and law.”1 Even with his many

interests, Xenakis considered music to be particularly significant in his life, saying

“The power of music is such that it transports you from one state to another…If I

wanted to learn how to compose music, maybe it was to acquire this power.”2

Xenakis was among the age of composers who revolutionized twentieth

century music after World War II.3 His name is associated with stochastic4 music,

computer music, and using mathematical or architectural methods to control music

1 Iannis Xenakis, "Xenakis on Xenakis," trans. Roberta Brown and John Rahn, Perspectives of New Music 25, no.1 (1987): 18. 2 Ibid. 3 Peter Hoffman, "Xenakis, Iannis," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed, ed. Stanley Sadie (New York: Grove's Dictionaries, 2001), 27: 605. 4 A term implying the controlled use of a very large number of elements, giving a false impression of aleatory or chance procedures. Glenn Watkins, Soundings: Music in the Twentieth Century (New York: Schirmer, 1995), 587.

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composition. Xenakis was interested in the relationship of time and space and

developed the Sieve Theory, a mathematical sifting process that will be discussed

later in this chapter.

Psappha is a composition for solo percussion, written for performance by

Sylvio Gualda at the English Bach Festival on May 2, 1976. The notation is placed

on a grid, although it differs from Feldman’s system in The King of Denmark by

maintaining control over rhythm. The unconventional score to Psappha presents

several challenges, including instrumentation choices and interpretation of the

notation.

The only specification that Xenakis assigned to the instrumentation is a

division into categories of membrane (peaux), wood (bois), and metal (metaux).

These specifications are further divided into registers of high, medium, and low. The

performer, therefore, determines the choice of exact instruments. In 1976, previous

to Psappha’s premiere, Simon Emmerson interviewed Xenakis for the journal Music

and Musicians. When Emmerson asked Xenakis if he had particular sound-qualities

in mind for the instrumentation of Psappha, Xenakis replied, “Yes, I wanted

something which is not musical in the traditional sense; something which does not

remind one of some other instrument or which even has other associations; just a

category of timbre.”5 Rather than trying to use instruments that might have contextual

or cultural connotations, he was seeking the sounds of general, non-specific timbres.

5 Simon Emmerson, “Xenakis Talks to Simon Emmerson,” Music and Musicians 25 (1976): 24.

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Figure 6.1 illustrates the instrument key found in the score. The left column

in each half of the box, labeled “Registre de hauteurs,” indicates the register of

instruments (high/medium/low) and each register is assigned a letter (A-F). The

middle column in each half is labeled “Gradations dans les registres,” designating the

graduation in the registers. These graduations are subdivisions within each register

and are labeled numerically. The third column, labeled “Catégorie de timbre ou de

matériaux,” indicates the timbres or instrument suggestions that are assigned to each

group. The key demonstrates that Xenakis divided the instrumentation, and thus the

score, into six main groups, labeled A-F.

Figure 6.1. Instrument Key to Psappha by Iannis Xenakis.

© Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.

According to Figure 6.1, Group A consists of three high wooden or membrane

instruments, such as bongos or tom toms. Group B consists of three medium

membrane or wooden instruments. Group C requires three low membrane

instruments, such as bass drums or African congas. The bottom instrument in Group

C, labeled “3”, could be a bass drum played with a foot pedal in order to alleviate

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technical difficulties in the latter half of the piece. Group D indicates three medium

metallic instruments. Group E consists of one neutral metallic instrument, and

Group F indicates three very high or acute metallic instruments. Xenakis described

the metallic sounds he desired as “not tam-tams, but rough metal such as railway lines

and pieces of iron or steel.”6

As the key reveals, Xenakis mixed the wooden and membrane instruments

into one category, resulting in a distinct contrast of timbre between wood/membrane

and metal. He described these categories as “skins with clear harmonics, and metal

with complex harmonic colours, though without definite pitch.”7 Xenakis’ creation of

these timbral groups corresponds to the intent of Psappha, which he described as a

“purely rhythmical composition, which means that colour is used only to render more

clearly the polyrhythmic construction.”8

Once the performer has chosen the instruments and has assigned each to a

label, such as A-1 or A-2, she can begin to interpret the notation. The notation of

Psappha relies on the registers of instruments (A-F) that Xenakis created. Within the

registers, he used a separate horizontal line to indicate each instrument. For example,

Group A has a potential total of three horizontal lines. Throughout the piece, Xenakis

uses only the lines that designate the instruments being used, eliminating non-

functional empty lines that would complicate the clarity of the score. For example,

6 Ibid. 7 Ibid., 25. 8 Ibid., 24.

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Figure 6.2 is an excerpt from the opening of the piece. Instead of utilizing sixteen

horizontal lines, Xenakis chose to use only those that were needed.

Figure 6.2. Boxes 1-51, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.

As illustrated in Figure 6.2, the rhythmic notation is unconventional.

Consequently, even if the use of single horizontal lines (instead of a traditional staff)

is familiar to the performer, the method in which Xenakis notated the rhythms will

not be. The rhythms are indicated by dots, similar to note heads without stems. The

horizontal lines represent the specific instruments, and the location of the dots on

specific lines determines the actual points of sound. For example, the first note head

at the opening of the piece (Figure 6.2) is notated on the second horizontal line of the

Group B system. This informs the performer that the first sound should be the

instrument he has chosen as the middle of the medium wood/membrane group. The

rhythms in which the dots are executed are determined by the intersection of the

vertical lines of the grid with the horizontal lines. The vertical lines mark specific

points in the passage of time, which is represented by the horizontal lines; this system

differs from how Feldman used his grid in The King of Denmark, where the

performer decided the specific rhythms within the boundaries of the vertical lines.

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To apply this graphic system, Figure 6.2 may again be considered. The

marking “greater-than or equal to 152 MM” refers to the tempo of the composition.

A metronome set at 154 beats per minute will correspond to the vertical lines of the

grid. In order to grow more accustomed to this notation, the performer may even

consider each note head placed on the vertical lines to be a quarter note. Ideally, the

performer will eventually be able to recognize the notation as it is written, rendering

this rhythmic transposition unnecessary.

Figure 6.3 is an example of the placement of the dots in-between the vertical

lines. This indicates that these attacks should occur halfway between the dots that are

placed directly on the vertical lines. Using the idea of rhythmic transposition

mentioned above, the performer might consider these notes to function as eighth

notes.

Figure 6.3. Boxes 440-437, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.

A broad examination of the score shows that the piece begins with a thin

layering of instrument groups (Group A and B), grows thicker as more groups are

layered under the first two, and then culminates with only Groups F and C. Figure

6.4 illustrates the largest simultaneous use of instrument groups: Groups A, B, C, D,

and E. As groups are added throughout the piece, it becomes more difficult for the

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performer to keep track of the instrumentation and placement of the note heads.

While Xenakis visually placed the groups together according to timbre (Groups A-C

are wooden/membrane instruments, and D-E are metallic instruments), the higher-

sounding metallic instruments are notated below the lower-sounding

wooden/membrane instruments. Because performers are accustomed to higher

pitches notated above lower pitches, an adjustment will need to be made to Xenakis’

placement of the timbre groups.

Figure 6.4. Boxes 1540-1567, Psappha by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by Permission.

The six groups are never used simultaneously, and Group F is not introduced

until the texture thins toward the end of the piece. Figure 6.5 shows the

instrumentation of the conclusion. It is interesting to note that in this instance,

contrasting to the previous example, Group C is placed below Group F despite the

alphabetic labels. In this case, Xenakis placed the lower instrument—a low

membrane drum—below the high-pitched metals, which gives the performer a visual

reference to correspond to the aural reference. It should also be noted that the third

drum of Group C could appropriately be interpreted as a bass drum with a pedal, due

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to the fact that the hands must play rapid rhythms layered above the constant low

drum. The performer may wish to use two drums to represent line 3 of Group C – a

large concert bass drum for a deeper tone in the beginning of the piece, and the pedal

bass drum to assist with execution in the latter portion.


One other notational device that Xenakis used in his score is illustrated in

Figure 6.6. The excerpt is the first use of the “roll” notation in the composition, and

Xenakis placed a definition above it. Translated into English, the caption describes

the notation as “two or three blows per point.” The performer, therefore, will need to

bounce the stick two or three times for each execution of a note head. In order to

produce smoother sounding rolls, a performance practice is to place identical

instruments upside-down above the first instrument. The performer then rolls one-

handed, back and forth, between the surfaces.

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A performer, or anyone with occasion to look at this score, may pose the

question, “Why did Xenakis choose to notate his composition in this manner?” For

answers, Xenakis’ compositional process—particularly his Sieve Theory—should be

taken into account. The Sieve Theory is a mathematical sifting process; Xenakis

described how he applied it to musical composition in a 1975 interview with Michael

Zaplitny:

What the sieve theory enables you to do is to choose in a totally ordered set, or to structure the elements of the set. By comparison, this is what happens in the major scale, the white key scale, or any other more or less complicated scale. This ordered set depends on an elementary displacement; it could be a quartertone, or a comma, or anything you want. This process represents a very general way of structuring an ordered set.9

The process of the Sieve Theory is a method of providing elements from

which to build a composition, and it may provide the most insight into how Xenakis

created the notational system for Psappha. During a conversation with Bálint Varga,

Xenakis said, “The sieve theory helps in the selection and organization of points on a

line. The line represents any characteristic of sound which has an ordering

9 Michael Zaplitny, "Conversation with Iannis Xenakis," Perspectives of New Music 14, no.1 (1975): 97.

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structure.”10 It seems likely that Xenakis created this notational system simply by

notating his piece exactly as he conceived it: as an organization of points on a line

intended to represent time.

Due to his use of mathematical processes, a common assumption is that

Xenakis’ music is cold and calculated. Dispelling this conception, he once said:

Most of my works are done without calculation. Although I look as if I always work with a slide rule, this is not the case. Sometimes I have to calculate if I am organizing things, but when I have conquered that domain, then up to a point I can forget the calculation and feel at home.11

It appears, then, that Xenakis grew comfortable using sieves in his previous

compositions, and therefore could use them as a framework for Psappha, while

breaking free from their constraints. In fact, he considered Psappha to be “a kind of

liberation from sieves.”12

Perhaps Xenakis, who intended this composition to be a study in rhythm,

simply wanted to devise the notation to represent rhythm in a basic way—free from

the limitations of traditional notation and subdivisions of musical time. This is

especially evident in the fact that the concept of the piece was to consider time “as a

continuous horizontal line, on which you place dots that correspond to the attacks of

percussion.”13

10 Bálint András Varga, Conversations with Iannis Xenakis (London: Faber, 1996), 93. 11 Simon Emmerson, “Xenakis Talks to Simon Emmerson,” Music and Musicians 25 (1976): 25. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 24.

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It is clear that Xenakis’ choice of notation requires tremendous effort and a

significant amount of preparation time from the performer. He must learn this new

system and orient his eyes and brain to follow the notation as readily as traditional

notation. The effort of interpreting the score may discourage performers from

learning the work. However, although the task presented to the performer would be

less daunting if the work had been notated in a traditional manner, Psappha would

inevitably feel and sound different due to the inflections that are instinctual to

performers reading conventional notation. In utilizing his graphic system of notation,

Xenakis chose to strip away the familiar and allow the performer to concentrate

purely on the rhythmic construction.

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CHAPTER 7

XENAKIS’ REBONDS

Composed in 1987-1989, Rebonds, for solo percussion, was premiered by

Sylvio Gualda in July 1988 at the Villa Medici in Rome.1 A comment by Jacques

Lonchampt accompanying the score describes the work as “An immense abstract

ritual, a suite of movements and of hammerings without any folkloristic

‘contamination,’ pure music full of marvelously efflorescent rhythms, going beyond

drama and tempest.”2 Rebonds is a stark contrast to Xenakis’ work previously

examined in this document (Psappha), both in terms of musical content and notation.

Whereas learning Psappha’s graphic notational system is a central obstacle of the

work, the difficulties of Rebonds lie more in the technical and musical challenges of

executing the rhythms.

Rebonds is in two movements: Rebonds a features a gradual build-up of

intensity and density, and Rebonds b encompasses a relentless, driving pulse.

The instrumentation of Rebonds a consists of two bongos, three tom toms, and two

bass drums. Rebonds b utilizes five woodblocks, two bongos, one tumba (conga),

one tom tom, and one bass drum. The notational system that Xenakis used

1 James Harley, Xenakis: His Life in Music (New York: Routledge, 2004), 192. 2 Xenakis, Iannis. Rebonds (Paris: Editions Salabert, 1991).

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throughout this work is quite dissimilar to the system he used in Psappha. In the

previous work, Xenakis placed the percussion attacks along a horizontal timeline,

limiting the subdivision of rhythm. In contrast, Rebonds is notated conventionally

and the two movements explore differing concepts of rhythm; one, a gradual build-up

of subdivisions and the other, a constant driving pulse. The notational system used in

Rebonds provides an excellent example of a clear, logical score that effectively

conveys the composer’s ideas.

Figure 7.1 depicts the first two measures of Rebonds a. The labels next to the

staff serve as the instrumentation key. The score is clear for several reasons: the

notation ascends the staff as the sounding pitches ascend, the notes are limited to one

five-line staff, and the notes are beamed together according to rhythmic groupings. In

addition, the stem directions in Figure 7.1 are pointing in the same direction, which

helps render the rhythmic groupings more clearly.

Figure 7.1. Measures 1-2, Rebonds a by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.

Figure 7.2 illustrates the first two measures of Rebonds b, with the instrument

labels serving as the key. The top staff is reserved for the five woodblocks, and the

bottom staff contains the drums. It is interesting to compare the treatment of

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multiple-staff systems in Rebonds to the works by Stravinsky and Milhaud previously

examined in this document. While the staff systems in L’Histoire du Soldat and La

Création du Monde caused the notation to seem disjointed or disconnected, the staves

in Rebonds b (Figure 7.3) are combined to function as one logical system. By using

two staves, Xenakis clearly differentiated the two timbre groups.

Figure 7.2. Measures 1-2, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.

Figure 7.3. Measures 75-76, Rebonds b by Iannis Xenakis. © Editions Salabert (SACEM). Used by permission.

In L’Histoire du Soldat, Stravinsky often retained all the staves, even when

they were not in use. In the case of Rebonds b, Xenakis used both staves only when

necessary. In Figure 7.4, the woodblock staff has been removed, saving space and

allowing the performer to follow the drum staves without distraction from the empty

woodblock staff.

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Figure 7.4. Measures 3-4, Rebonds b. Used by permission.

The score is clear and logical, due to Xenakis' note placement and treatment

of the staves, which allows the performer to utilize her previous experience with

melodic notation while adjusting to the notation used in Rebonds. Rebonds illustrates

the growth that multiple percussion has experienced since the 1924 release of

Stravinsky's L'Histoire du Soldat. Whereas the notational systems of previous works

examined in this document compounded the difficulties of learning the percussion

parts, Xenakis' clear notation in Rebonds allows the performer to concentrate on

executing the challenges of the work itself.

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CHAPTER 8

HOLLINDEN’S COLD PRESSED

American composer Dave Hollinden (b. 1958) has been the recipient of

numerous artist grants, was trained at Indiana University and University of Michigan,

and is frequently commissioned for percussion works.1 He has composed twelve

works for percussion, including marimba solo Of Wind and Water, percussion duet

Surface Tension, and percussion quartet The Whole Toy Laid Down.2 Cold Pressed,

commissioned in 1990 and published in 1994, was written for solo percussion.

Several of Hollinden’s percussion works incorporate a system of notation known as

“timbre-staff” notation. The timbre-staff system represents an alternative notational

option for composers, gaining more recognition since Herbert Brun’s use of it in the

1974 work In and Out.3

The timbre-staff system utilizes a traditional five-line staff and resembles the

notation of any pitched instrument. However, the notes on the timbre-staff represent

instruments (or timbres) as opposed to exact pitches. In order to correspond to the

traditional notation, the set-up is configured into the layout of a keyboard. A

1 Dave Hollinden’s Web Site, “Bio/Resume,” http://wwwspeakeasy.org/~daveh/resume.html. 2Ibid., “Compositions,” http://www.speakeasy.org/~daveh/compositions.html. 3 Gary D. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1997), 88; Michael W. Udow, “Visual Correspondence Between Notation Systems and Instrument Configurations,” Percussionist 18, no. 2 (1981): 23.

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comparison of Figures 8.1 and 8.2 exemplifies the assembly of the keyboard. Figure

8.1 illustrates a standard piano keyboard, and Figure 8.2 shows a hypothetical

instrument set-up that a composer utilizing timbre-staff notation might use.

Figure 8.1. Piano keyboard. Photo by author.

Figure 8.2. Hypothetical instrument set-up. Illustration by author.

Figure 8.3. Timbre-Staff notation accompanying hypothetical set-up. Notation by author.

The circles in Figure 8.2 represent a hypothetical selection of drums placed

into a keyboard configuration. In traditional pitched notation, the lowest piano key in

Figure 8.1 corresponds to a notated C. Similarly, each drum’s label in Figure 8.2

C# D#

C D E C F G B A

A# G# F#

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corresponds to the accompanying timbre-staff notation in Figure 8.3. The drum

labeled “C” is represented by middle C in Figure 8.3, but is not tuned to the pitch C.

As the notation does not correspond to the sounding pitches, a crossed-off treble clef

sign indicates the timbre-staff.4

An advantage of the timbre-staff system is that it offers a relative

standardization. Regardless of the specific instrumentation of each composition, the

set-ups of timbre-staff pieces have a degree of standardization because the physical

layout will remain similar. The timbre-staff system also provides a compact and clear

score, but it can be aurally confusing to the performer.

Cold Pressed uses a total of nineteen instruments: a snare drum, two tom

toms, a bass drum with pedal, two bongos, a tambourine, three cowbells, two

woodblocks, two temple blocks, two crotales, a ride cymbal, a crash cymbal, and a

splash cymbal. This large set-up demonstrates the timbre-staff’s substantial capacity

for an extensive instrumentation while retaining a compact score limited to one staff.

Figure 8.4 is the key Hollinden provided in the performance notes.

Figure 8.4. Notation key to Cold Pressed. Used by permission.

4 Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed (n.p.: McClaren, 1994).

85

The key illustrates how the instruments are assigned to the exact notation.

The performer must consult the performance notes for the definitions of the

instrument symbols. Hollinden also included a set-up diagram, depicted in

Figure 8.5. The diagram clearly illustrates the arrangement of instruments in a

keyboard layout. The large square on the left side of the diagram represents the large

tom-tom, and is placed in the position of “C” in the layout. This drum corresponds to

the first note, middle C, in the instrument key (Figure 8.4).

As illustrated by the set-up diagram, the three cymbals and the bass drum are

placed outside the keyboard layout. They are therefore notated outside the range of

the “chromatic scale” used to represent the other instruments. In addition, the

cymbals are designated by “x” note heads, which clearly distinguishes the cymbal

notation from the other instruments’ “pitched” notation. This concept is illustrated by

Figure 8.6. The isolation of the cymbal notation is logical because percussionists,

especially those well-versed on drum set, are accustomed to a similar differentiation

between the cymbal and drum notations.

Figure 8.5. Set-up diagram from Cold Pressed. Used by permission.

86

Figure 8.6. Measures 91-94, Cold Pressed. Used by permission.

The last measure of Figure 8.6 illustrates the compactness of the timbre-staff

system, as the use of accidentals provides the capacity for many instruments to be

designated within one staff. Typical line-score or staff-system notation would not

allow for nineteen instruments to be notated in such a limited space; the timbre-staff

not only allows for numerous instruments, but it is also clear and concise due to the

use of traditional “pitched” notation. As modern percussionists are typically

proficient in all areas of percussion, including keyboard percussion such as marimba

and xylophone, the notation of Figure 8.6 should be familiar and comfortable. In fact,

the last measure of the excerpt could easily be mistaken for a marimba or xylophone

score. The ease with which the well-rounded percussionist could execute the pitched

notation on keyboard percussion should transfer to the timbre-staff set-up.

Due to the keyboard layout of the instrumentation, the timbre-staff system

offers a relative standardization between compositions. That is, the system allows for

a similarity between set-ups, even if the instrumentation differs. Regardless of the

specific instruments involved for each composition, the performer will be able to rely

on his kinesthetic sense of the keyboard and the physical position of the instruments

in the set-up. For example, the notated C could represent a woodblock in one

composition and a bongo in another. Although the instrumentation has changed, the

percussionist will be able to locate the necessary instrument simply by locating the

87

“C” position in the keyboard layout. As a result, this system eliminates the need to

relearn new notation or to build new kinesthetic memories for the specific set-up of

each individual composition. The adjustment between two works utilizing timbre-

staff notation would thus be less than between two works of varying systems.

Although this system may remove the burden of adapting to new notation and

set-ups, one drawback is that it may be aurally confusing to the performer. This

confusion results from the fact that the notation designates the location of the

instruments, as opposed to the pitches. The performer must adapt to seeing

conventional pitched-notation used to notate non-pitched instruments. The timbre-

staff notation doesn’t sound the way it appears, and this lack of correlation between

the notation and performed sounds can cause aural confusion for the performer.

The discrepancies between what the percussionist expects to hear based on the

notation and the actual sounds of the instruments may be further impacted by the

composer’s choice of instrument set-up. For example, the composer may choose to

place accessory instruments like tambourines and woodblocks in the “black key”

positions of the layout, while placing drums in the “white key” positions. The

percussionist would reasonably expect the relative pitches of the timbre-staff

instrumentation to ascend to the right, as piano keys do. However, the accessory

instruments would sound higher than the surrounding drums, disrupting the ascending

pattern. Because the performer will have previous associations to the visual

references of ascending pitch, it may be confusing to hear sound results that do not

follow the contour of a keyboard.

88

Despite the advantages of a compact score and relative standardization, few

composers have regularly utilized the timbre-staff system of composition. This could

be due to the responsibility imposed on the composers to devise a set-up and

coordinate it with the notation. The system also contains an intermediate step not

present in the other systems; the composer essentially needs to translate the

percussion ideas into melodic notation. The performer must then translate the

melodic notation back into percussive ideas, because the visual references

percussionists have built through their experiences will not be applicable to the

timbre-staff. The visual cues of the timbre-staff automatically recall pitched

instruments, not non-pitched percussion. Hollinden chose to accept this

responsibility, offering the performer a compact and clear score. Although the

performer must adjust to a new system, she will be prepared to readily adapt to future

interpretations of timbre-staff scores.

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CHAPTER 9

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to examine the notation of various significant

multiple percussion works and illustrate devices used by the composers to record their

ideas. The following scores were thoroughly examined and described in terms of

instrumentation, set-up, composer’s instructions, and notational systems:

1. Igor Stravinsky, L’Histoire du Soldat 2. Darius Milhaud, La Création du Monde and Concerto for Percussion and

Small Orchestra 3. Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark 4. William Kraft, English Suite 5. Iannis Xenakis, Psappha 6. Iannis Xenakis, Rebonds 7. Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed The examination of these eight works illustrated different methods of notating

multiple percussion scores. The study revealed notational devices that present

challenges to interpretation, as well as conventions that are helpful to the performer.

Conclusions can be drawn from indentification of these trends in multiple percussion

notation.

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Conclusions

Several problems with multiple percussion notation can be drawn from the

chosen repertoire, and they include: note placement, unnecessary details, multiple

staves, and unfamiliar graphic notation.

1. Two issues regarding note placement can cause difficulties in the

interpretation of the score. One is a result of the composer’s choice of placement;

the other is the result of the placement not remaining consistent throughout the

composition. Igor Stravinsky chose to notate the instruments in an order opposite to

traditional melodic notation. That is, in L’ Histoire du Soldat, the pitches of the

instruments ascend as the notation descends the staves.

As illustrated in previous chapters, both L’Histoire du Soldat and Darius

Milhaud’s La Création du Monde contain inconsistencies in the placement of notation

for specific instruments. For example, a note placed in the top space of the staff may

not represent the same instrument throughout the entire piece. Even if this aids in

maintaining compact notation, the lack of consistency makes the score difficult for

the performer to follow.

2. Unnecessary details can complicate and clutter the score. In L’ Histoire du

Soldat, Stravinsky obscured the clarity of his percussion part by using stem directions

to indicate stickings and by beaming the notes according to stem directions rather

than rhythmic groupings. Milhaud also provided superfluous details by using “x”

note heads in Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra. Because percussionists

are accustomed to the use of “x” note heads for the notation of cymbals or special

effects, Milhaud’s use adds unnecessary confusion to the interpretation.

91

In English Suite, William Kraft often relied on the use of pictograms to

indicate specific details. Although the information is essential for the correct

execution of the work, the use of such symbols could have been simplified. In some

instances, Kraft overloaded the score with information, which ultimately has the

potential to hinder the execution of the work.

3. Both Stravinsky and Milhaud used multiple staves to notate their works.

This seems especially unnecessary in the case of L’Histoire du Soldat, in which often

only one instrument was notated on each staff. It is difficult for performers to follow

the notation across multiple staves because it appears disjointed and disconnected.

James Blades’ version illustrates that Stravinsky’s musical ideas could be placed

concisely into one staff. It follows that La Création du Monde could also be placed

into a more logical and compact format.

4. Morton Feldman and Iannis Xenakis both used unconventional graphic

notation to compose the percussion works examined in this study. The King of

Denmark and Psappha are similar in that they are both based on a grid representing

the passage of time. In Feldman’s case, the purpose was to allow him to maintain

control over tempo, while leaving the exact rhythms to the discretion of the performer

within the parameters provided. In contrast, Xenakis’ grid strictly controls both

tempo and rhythm. Because the notational systems are drastically different from

traditional scores, performers are faced with not only the challenge of learning a new

composition, but also of learning an uncommon system of notation.

The examination of repertoire for this project has revealed several notational

issues that can cause problems in interpretation. The goal of the composer should be

92

to offer notation that is as clear as possible and does not compound the difficulty of

learning the work. In order for a composer to project a clear representation of his

intentions, I offer the following suggestions:

1. Notation should be as clear and concise as possible. To achieve

compactness, the composer should use no more staves than absolutely necessary.

Kraft’s English Suite, Xenakis’ Rebonds, and Hollinden’s Cold Pressed are examples

of compact scores. With the exception of the second movement of Rebonds, these

three compositions utilize only one staff.

2. Notation should be placed in an ascending order. That is, the pitch of the

instruments should ascend as the notation that represents them rises. This will allow

for a natural transference from traditional pitched notation. Kraft’s English Suite,

Xenakis’ Rebonds, and Milhaud’s La Création du Monde illustrate this concept.

3. Placement of notation should remain consistent. For example, if a snare

drum is placed on the top line of a staff, it should not be notated on any other line for

the remainder of the composition. Kraft’s English Suite, Xenakis’ Rebonds, and

Hollinden’s Cold Pressed adhere to this idea.

4. The set-up should be considered in the compositional process. Many

composers do not specify a configuration of instruments, and percussionists are

accustomed to devising their own set-ups for each composition. However, if the

composer is aware of a set-up during the compositional process, this will ensure the

practicality of executing the notation. Stravinsky and Hollinden provided instrument

set-up diagrams with their works. Regardless of the difficulties presented by the

93

notation, the fact that they considered the set-up while composing is obvious in the

logic and ease of the physical movements required of the performer.

5. The score should be as detailed as possible so that the performer can fully

realize the composer’s intentions. However, the composer should take care not to

overload the score with details. Too many details, like the pictograms in Kraft’s

English Suite, can ultimately obscure the clarity of the score.

6. A degree of standardization is desirable to performers, but it is realistic that

some composers will inevitably stray outside convention. The goal is to provide clear

and concise notation, but if the composer feels that her ideas cannot be notated in a

traditional manner, creativity should be allowed to expand the current possibilities.

Feldman and Xenakis both created systems outside convention. The notational

systems of The King of Denmark and Psappha present significant challenges to

performers, but neither composer compromised his ideas for the purpose of fitting

into convention.

Although the conclusions and suggestions drawn from this study are not new

ideas to the general realm of percussion notation, the examination brings the state of

multiple percussion to light. Problems and inconsistencies are clearly prevalent in

multiple percussion notation. Because there is no true standardization and the current

available literature does not contain much information specific to the genre, non-

percussionist composers are often left with very little upon which to base their

notation. As a result, performers are faced with inconsistent notation. This project is

intended to illustrate compositional methods, whether hindering or clear, that have

been used to notate multiple percussion works.

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Suggestions for Related Projects

The current study suggests applications for further projects into the area of

multiple percussion notation. Recommended applications are:

1. The renotation of early multiple percussion works, similar to how James

Blades simplified the notation of L’Histoire du Soldat. It is recommended that works

such as La Création du Monde be similarly edited so that performers can concentrate

on the interpretation of the music rather than understanding the notation.

2. The development of a multiple percussion notation course component for

composers. This project would involve creating a university course component to be

implemented within an orchestration curriculum. Such an offering would explore

percussion notation in detail. It is recommended that the component include a

background of multiple percussion as well as a study of historical repertoire.

Students should gain first-hand knowledge of physical set-ups, possibly using the

repertoire examples they study. In addition, the students could experience playing on

multiple percussion set-ups through the integrated use of existing compositions. I

recommend that the course include a workshop element where students play each

other’s compositions and offer feedback regarding the set-up and notational clarity of

the works.

3. The creation of an additional multiple percussion method book. Most

current publications are collections of solos and several contain only one type of

notational system. I recommend that an in-depth review of current available method

books and solo collections be conducted to help identify the specific needs to be

95

addressed by an additional book. Appendix A contains a selected annotated

bibliography of available multiple percussion collections.

I suggest that the additional book contain material suitable for young

beginning percussionists as well as for the serious student (intending to pursue

percussion as a college major and career path) with limited multiple percussion

experience. The book should start on a basic level in terms of rhythm and set-ups and

move in a progressive manner, building reading and technical skills. I recommend

that the problems illustrated in this document be included, as serious percussionists

will likely be exposed to several of the examined works throughout their educational

and professional careers. The book should contain and address all types of notation,

providing students with the tools needed to adjust to each new composition they

encounter in the future.

Recommendations for Further Research

The Review of Literature indicated there is a need for further examination into

the area of multiple percussion notation. Recommendations for further research into

this topic include:

1. An examination of notation in repertoire for percussion ensemble.

According to the anthology Percussion Solo Literature, edited by Thomas Siwe, solo

multiple percussion compositions were rare during the time period between

Milhaud’s Concerto for Percussion (1929) and the 1960s. The percussion ensemble

genre, however, was developing during this time period. It is recommended that the

procedures applied to the current study be utilized in a similar examination of

percussion ensemble repertoire. The desired result would be an exposure of the

96

continued development of multiple percussion notation throughout this period.

Suggestions for repertoire selections include:

• Amadeo Roldan, Ritmica No. 5 and Ritmica No. 6 (1930) • Edgard Varèse, Ionisation (1931) • Henry Cowell, Ostinato Pianissimo (1934) • Béla Bartók, Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937) • Henry Cowell, Pulse (1939) • Lou Harrison, Bomba (1939) • Lou Harrison, Canticle No. 1 (1939) • John Cage, Third Construction (1941) • John Cage, Amores (1943) • Michael Colgrass, Three Brothers (1951) • Michael Colgrass, Inventions on a Motive (1955) • Benson, Warren Three Pieces for Percussion Quartet (1960) • Carlos Chavez, Toccata (1964)

2. An additional examination of notation in selected repertoire for multiple

percussion. An additional research project could be conducted based on the

procedures utilized in the current document. I recommend the process be applied to

multiple percussion repertoire not covered in this examination. Suggestions for

repertoire selections include:

• Benjamin Britton, Concert Piece for Jimmy (1956) • Karlheinz Stockhausen, Zyklus (1958-1959) • William Kraft, French Suite (1962) • Charles Wuorinen, Janissary Music (1966) • William Cahn, Nara (1976) • Per Norgard, I Ching (1982) • Maki Ishii, Thirteen Drums (1985) • Nebojsa Zivkovic, Generally Spoken It Is Nothing But Rhythm (1991) • David Lang, Anvil Chorus (1991) • Marta Ptaszynska, Spider Walk (1993) • Dave Hollinden, Dusting the Connecting Link (1995)

97

APPENDIX A

SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AVAILABLE EDUCATIONAL

MULTIPLE PERCUSSION COLLECTIONS

98

Burns, Roy and Saul Feldstein. Intermediate Percussion Solos: Book One. New York: Adler, 1966. This book contains six solos “designed to introduce the drummer to multiple percussion playing.” It is appropriate for intermediate students that are comfortable reading rhythms but have little experience with multiple percussion. All the compositions use line-score systems. The majority of compositions use only three lines, and because the greatest number is five, the line-score system remains clear and logical. ———. Advanced Percussion Solos: Book One. New York: Adler, 1966. This book is in the same series as Intermediate Percussion Solos, and is similar in design. The progression moves toward more technically challenging solos. The line score presents more clutter in this volume. Cirone, Anthony J. Portraits for Multiple Percussion. N.p.: Belwin-Mills, 1996. In this collection, Cirone applied the etudes from his popular snare book Portraits in Rhythm to a multiple percussion set-up. It may be interesting for a student to learn the snare etude and then follow-up the study with the corresponding multiple percussion etude. All of the etudes are designed for one universal set-up. Although the rhythms of this collection will challenge students, it is not appropriate for training students to become accustomed to the fact that multiple percussion set-ups and notation vary. Feldstein, Saul. Multiple Percussion Music. New York: Alfred, n.d. Multiple Percussion Music is excellent for young or inexperienced percussionists. The solos progress in technical difficulty. The opening solos can even be used to introduce multiple percussion to students who have been studying for only a few weeks. All works in the collection are notated with line-score notation. Goldenberg, Morris. Studies in Solo Percussion. Edited by Ralph Satz. New York: Chappell, 1968. This book contains an extensive collection of etudes by Morris Goldenberg, who has also written collections for the snare drum and for keyboard percussion. It also contains works by composers such as Robert Russell Bennett, Morton Gould, and William Kraft. This volume is a combination of etudes suitable for performance and pedagogical etudes intended to hone multiple percussion skills. The compositions in this collection would best serve students with considerable rhythmic reading ability.

99

Houghton, Steve and George Nishigomi. Percussion Recital Series: Multiple Percussion. N.P.: Warner Brothers, 1996. The cover of this book states “Designed for the multiple percussionist and/or teacher in search of performance literature with musical accompaniment.” It consists of five solos and a CD containing accompaniment to each. Each solo uses a five-line staff and is preceded by a notation key, set-up diagram, and performance notes. The notation is clear and logical, and offers students an opportunity to play with accompaniment. Udow, Michael W. and Chris Watts. The Contemporary Percussionist. Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith, 1986. A collection of twenty multiple percussion solos. Each contains its own set-up diagram and instrumentation. The majority of solos utilize a line-score system, four use a five-line staff system, and three illustrate the timbre-staff system. The rhythmic difficulty of the compositions dictates that the student must have significant experience to use this book.

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APPENDIX B

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY OF EXAMINED WORKS

101

Igor Stravinsky, L’ Histoire du Soldat

CD Title Performer Date Released

Label / Catalogue #

Boulez Conducts Stravinsky – Le Chant Du Rossignol, Etc

Richard Weiner 2001 Deutsche Grammophon 471197

Stravinsky Conducts Stravinsky

William Kraft 1999 Sony Classical 64136

Igor Stravinsky: The Soldier’s Tale / London Sinfonietta

James Holland 1990 Pangea 4610482

Stravinsky: Le Noces / L'Histoire du Soldat / Boston Symphony Chamber Players

Vic Firth 1994 Praga 250057

Darius Milhaud, La Création du Monde


Label / Catalogue #

The Jazz Album / Simon Rattle

London Sinfonietta 2002 Emi Classics 47991

Honegger and Milhaud Conduct Their Own Works

ORTF Chamber Orchestra

1997 Pearl 9459

Milhaud: La Création Du Monde, etc / Bernstein

ORTF Chamber Orchestra

2000 Emi Classics 47845

Preludes, Fugues and Riffs – Jazz in Classical Music

Columbia Chamber Orchestra

1999 Sony Classical 61697

Darius Milhaud, Concerto for Percussion and Small Orchestra


Label / Catalogue #

Virtuoso Percussion Music

Rainer Kuisma 1994 Bis 149

Milhaud: 6 Little Symphonies, Etc.

Faure Daniel 1994 Vox Box 5109

102

Morton Feldman, The King of Denmark


Label / Catalogue #

Markussion Markus Leoson 2003 Nosag 71

Iannis Xenakis, Psappha


Label / Catalogue #

Xenakis: Pléiades Gert Mortensen 1994 Bis 482

Gert Mortensen, Solo Percussion

Gert Mortensen 1994 Bis 256

Markussion Markus Leoson 2003 Nosag 71

Open Hans Sorensen 2002 Bis 1219

Iannis Xenakis, Rebonds


Label / Catalogue #

Steven Schick – Drumming in the Dark

Steven Schick 2001 Neuma 450100

Open Hans Sorensen 2002 Bis 1219

Dave Hollinden, Cold Pressed


Label / Catalogue #

American-De-Construction

Joseph Gramley 2000 Unknown Label ASIN: B000056NU0

103

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an examination of notation in selected repertoire for ... · this document is an examination of...

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