an experimental parametric study of air …jiezhang/conference/jie...of cooling air, the heat ﬂux...

Proceedings of the ASME 2017 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences &Computers and Information in Engineering Conference

IDETC/CIE 2017August 6-9, 2017, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

DETC2017-67841

AN EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETRIC STUDY OF AIR-BASED BATTERY THERMALMANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Yuanzhi LiuDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson, Texas 75080, USA

Email: [email protected]

Mao LiBeijing Institute of Aerospace Testing Technology

The University of Texas at DallasRichardson, Texas 75080, USAEmail: [email protected]

Jie Zhang∗

Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of Texas at DallasRichardson, Texas 75080, USAEmail: [email protected]

ABSTRACTThis paper develops an experimental platform and

performs a parametric study of an air-based battery thermalmanagement system (BTMS) for electric vehicles. Aflexible experimental platform with ten battery cells is builtup to investigate how key BTMS design parameters affectthe battery thermal performance. Three design parametersare studied in this paper, including the mass flow rateof cooling air, the heat flux from the battery cells to thecooling air, and the passage spacing size. To evaluate thethermal performance of the battery system, two metrics(i.e., the maximum temperature rise and the maximumtemperature Uniformity) are used. A design of experiments(here 30 groups) are conducted to analyze how the threekey design parameters affect the thermal performance ofthe BTMS. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) ofthe BTMS is also performed to compare and help explainthe experimental results. Both the experimental and CFDsimulation results shows that: (i) decreasing the mass flowrate may deteriorate the thermal performance of the batterymodule; (ii) increasing the heat flux and enlarging thepassage spacing size also deteriorate the battery thermalperformance.

Keywords: Battery management, BTMS, thermal per-formance, design of experiments, electrical vehicles

∗Address all correspondence to this author.

1 INTRODUCTIONLithium-ion batteries are becoming the primary power

sources for electric vehicles (EVs) during the past decades.However, the narrow range of the optimum operation tem-perature is still one of the key issues that restrain their wideuse in the electricl vehicle industry [1],[2]. The appropriateoperating temperature range should be maintained between25◦C to 40◦C to yield a better performance. Otherwise, alower temperature or overheating, in particular, will shortenthe cycle life of lithium-ion batteries and even lead to safetyissues such as combustion and explosions [3],[4]. Batterythermal management system (BTMS) is accordingly devel-oped to control the temperature. Existing BTMS includesthe air-based systems, liquid-based systems, phase changematerial-based systems, heat pipe-based systems, and hy-brid systems [5],[6],[7].

The air-based BTMS has been widely used in EVs dueto its advantages such as simple structure, low cost, andlight weight. Several methods have been developed in theliterature to study the air-based BTMS, such as BTMSmodeling, numerical simulations, and experiments. Themajority of numerical simulation study are carried out withthe computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. For ex-ample, Hwang et al. [8] built up an air-based BTMS nu-merical model using CFD, and found that the location andshape of the air inlet and outlet had significant influences onthe temperature distribution and heat dissipation. Park etal. [9] simulated the cooling performance employing differ-ent manifolds for air ventilation and presented that adding

1 Copyright c© 2017 by ASME

Outlet

Inlet

Passages Battery cells

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Passage Battery cell

Outlet

Inlet

FIGURE 1. The conceptual design of a BTMS experiment sys-tem

extra ventilation can effectively improve the cooling per-formance. Xun et al. [10] developed numerical models forBTMS to analyze the impacts of the volume ratio and thespacing size of cooling channel, and found that the bat-tery temperature uniformity and energy efficiency could bereinforced by enlarging the channel size. Sun et al. [11]proposed a Z-type air cooling tapered manifold, and CFDsimulations showed that this new design can improve thetemperature uniformity of the battery pack. Ji et al. [12]proposed a temperature control method by optimally ar-ranging the battery cells and controlling the air flow rate toequalize the temperature distribution.

There also exist many studies focusing on experimen-tations to improve the existing battery module design byanalyzing the experimental parameters. For example, Zhaoet al. [13] established air cooling models for a cylindricallithium-ion battery pack to study the impacts of differentparameters on heat dissipation, such as battery cells passagespacing size, environmental temperature, ventilation type,and battery dimension. Ye et al. [14] built an integratedmodel with heat pipe, fins, and cooling plate, and experi-ments showed that the integrated model was able to man-age twice maximum heat generated from 8 C-rate chargingcompared to individual models.

However, most of the existing studies have not com-prehensively analyzed the impacts of key BTMS design pa-rameters on the thermal control performance, and few ex-periments were carried out to verify the CFD models. Thismutual verification between experiments and numerical sim-ulations could be potentially useful for the optimization ofBTMS design. Therefore in this paper, a flexible air-basedBTMS experimental platform is established to study theeffects of different key design parameters on BTMS design.This paper will mainly investigate the influence of threekey parameters, including the mass flow rate of the coolingair, the heat flux on the battery cell wall, and the passagespacing size between adjacent battery cells.

TABLE 1. The setup of experimental parameters

Level 1 2 3 4 5

m (g/s) 4.7 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9

q (W/m2) 220 245 270 295 320

b (mm) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

2 THE SELECTION OF KEY DESIGN PARAMETERSThe BTMS aims to dissipate the heat generated by the

electric vehicles timely. The temperature of the batterymodule may rise rapidly if the BTMS fails. For an air-basedBTMS (Fig. 2), flowing air is used as the heat transfer agentto take away all the heat generated in the battery modules.The heat exchange between the battery cell walls and thecooling air is modeled by the following Eqs. 1 and 2.

q = h(Tw−Ta) (1)q = q/A (2)

where q is the heat power, h is the convective heat transfercoefficient, Ta is the temperature of the cooling air near thewall, q is the heat flux, A is the area of the battery cell, andTw is the temperature of the battery cell wall.

Generally, Tw can be regarded as the ambient operatingtemperature of battery cells. One of the control goals ofBTMS is to ensure Tw within an optimal range. After thetemperature of the battery module reaches balance, the heatgeneration is equal to the heat taken away by the coolingair. The correlation between the temperature difference ofthe cooling air and the heat can be described in Eqs. 3 - 5.

q = cpm∆Ta (3)∆Ta = Tin−Tout (4)m = ρvAf (5)

where cp is the specific heat at a constant pressure, whichcan be assumed to be constant if the pressure does notchange significantl. m is the mass flow rate, ρ and v are thedensity and velocity of the cooling air, respectively. AndAf is the flow area.

Equations (1)-(5) can be used to help set up the ini-tial BTMS parameters before experiments. For example,increasing the flow rate of cooling air can lower the air tem-perature difference. Tout will decrease by increasing the flowrate m.


Pressure Gages Data AcquisitionDC Power Input Battery module Air Supply

FIGURE 2. The air-based battery thermal management experiment system

To evaluate the BTMS thermal performance, two met-rics are introduced in this parametric study, which are themaximum temperature rise and the temperature uniformityin the battery module. A design of experiments (as shownin Table 1) is performed on three selected key parameters,i.e., the mass flow rate of the cooling air (m), the heat flux ofthe battery cell wall (q), and the passage spacing size (b).The design benchmark values of the mass flow rate, heatflux, and passage spacing size are 6.30 g/s, 270 W/m2, and3 mm (even size), respectively. The initial parameters of allthe experiments in this paper are set to be the benchmarkvalues. The initial ambient temperature is 293 K, main-tained by the central air-conditioning. The temperature ofthe cooling air is also set at 293 K.

3 EXPERIMENTAL PLATFORM DESIGN AND SETUPFigure 2 shows the air-based battery thermal manage-

ment experiment system that consists of three main parts:the air supply subsystem, the battery module, and the mea-surement and data acquisition module.

3.1 Battery ModuleThe heat generation from the battery cells during charg-

ing/discharging varies from different operations. In someextreme testing conditions, the maximum temperature ofthe battery cells may exceed the allowable range, which maylead to an explosion. For the sake of safety, battery cellsmade of aluminum are used in our experimental platform toreplace the real Lithium-ion batteries. Figure 3 shows thebattery module design, in which there are 10 prismatic bat-tery cells (65 mm in length, 151 mm in height, and 16 mmin width). To adapt with different passage spacing sizes, theten battery cells are fixed on the lateral plate with bolts.In addition, the calculated height of the inlet and outlet

Air outlet

Air inlet

Battery cell

Passage

Thermocouple

Heater

Thermcouple

installation hole

FIGURE 3. The isometric view of the battery cells arrangement

manifold is set to be 6 mm; in order to reduce the impactof electrical wires for heating, the final height is fixed at 8mm.

Two heaters wrapped with thermal silica are placedevenly in each battery cell to simulate the internal electro-chemical heat generated during the charging and discharg-ing process. The heat flux of the battery model rangesfrom 220W/m2 to 320W/m2, which is supplied by two ad-


(a) The battery module renderings

T-type

Thermocouple

(b) The battery module with thermocouplesFIGURE 4. Schematic model of the battery module

justable DC power sources. The heat flux range is set to beequal to that of real battery cells under different chargingrates. Teflon plates are utilized for the purpose of sealingand thermal insulation. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate moredetails of the battery module.

3.2 The Air Supply Subsystem

A stable compressed air source with 50 psi is used tosupply the cooling air. To control the mass flow rate of thecooling air, a pore plate is applied. The mass flow rate can

be determined using Eq. 6

m= CdKp∗√T ∗

A (6)

Where m is the mass flow rate, Cd is the flow coefficient (Cd

equals to 1.0 when the fluid is non-viscous, and it is set tobe 0.7 here), K is a constant (for air, K equals to 0.0404),p∗ is the total pressure, T ∗ is the total temperature, andA is the area of the pore. Equation 6 can be used onlywhen the air flow in the pore reaches the speed of sound.Thus, the pressure ratio between the downstream and theupstream of the pore plate should be smaller than 0.54. Thisprerequisite is satisfied in this experiment. The experimentpaltform is designed in a flexible manner, and different massflow rates can be obtained by replacing the pore plate witha different diameter.

3.3 Measurement and Data Acquisition ModuleIn the experimental system, a total of 14 T-type Omega

thermocouples with an accuracy of ±0.1 K are inserted intothe top of battery cells to monitor the interior temperature.The position is considered as the hottest point since coolingair flows from bottom to top. The temperature data are col-lected and stored at a sampling frequency of 12 per minute.Besides the maximum temperature of every battery cell af-ter air cooling, the initial temperature before experimentsis also measured, which is used as a baseline temperatureto calculate the temperature increase.

The pressure drop is another important parameter inthe BTMS. The cooling air is supplied by a stable com-pressed air source in the experiment, while it is provided bya fan in actual EV application. The relationship among thefan power, efficiency, pressure difference, and volume flowrate is described as follows.

P = ∆pV /η (7)

where P is the power of the fan, ∆p is the pressure differencebetween the inlet and outlet, V is the volume flow ratethrough the fan, and η is the efficiency.

It is seen from Eq. 7 that a larger ∆p will decrease Vas the power input remains constant, which deteriorates thecooling performance. For a certain battery module, increas-ing the volume flow rate V will also increase the pressuredifference ∆p and finally generates a larger P , which willconsume more energy from the battery. Moreover, a fan oflarger power generally requires more installation space. Weuse three pressure difference gauges to obtain the pressurein our experiemnts.


0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150

Time [min]

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Tem

pera

ture

[°C

]

Lateral Plate

Cell 1

Cell 5

Cell 10

FIGURE 5. The temperature rise of battery module withoutany forced air ventilation

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION4.1 Air-based BTMS Dynamics Process Analysis

Figure 5 shows the temperature rise of the battery mod-ule without any forced air ventilation. Since the batterymodel is made of aluminum, there is no need to take thesafety issues into consideration, and thus temperature thatare higher than the critical safety point can be obtained.As seen in Fig. 5, the temperature increases rapidly in twohours, and the highest temperature of battery model surfacehas exceeded 50◦C. The temperature increasing rate of theten battery cells is almost the same, which implies that theeffect of natural air convection for battery dissipation is neg-ligible. And the maximum temperature is determined onlyby the heater’s input power and the heating duration. Stud-ies have shown that a high temperature will significantlyshorten the long-scale life and reduce the battery capacity.The lithium-ion battery would likely to lose 70% of initialstorage capacity after 500 cycles at 55◦C and 60% of ini-tial storage capacity after 800 cycles at 50◦C [15],[16],[17].The temperature of the lateral plate has also reached 50◦C.The temperature rising rate decreases after the temperaturereaches 40◦C. This is due to that the radiative and convec-tive heat transfer between the aluminum lateral plate andthe ambient air is strengthened, though a 1.6 mm Teflonplate is stuck to the aluminum plate as a thermal isolation.

The dynamics ascending process of the BTMS modeltemperature is shown in Fig. 6. The mass flow rate ofcooling air is 7.1 g/s, and other parameters are the same asthe experiment without any cooling ventilation. The tem-perature increases rapidly at the beginning and then in arelatively slight rate after 25 minutes. The convective heattransfer is strengthened due to a higher temperature dif-ference between the battery cell and the cooling air. The

0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120

Time [min]

20

22

24

26

28

30

Tem

pera

ture

[°C

]

Cell 10

Cell 9

Cell 8

Cell 7

Cell 6

Cell 5

Cell 4

Cell 3

Cell 2

Cell 1

Air Outlet

Wall

FIGURE 6. The dynamical process of the temperature rise

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Battery Cell

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Max

imum

Tem

pera

ture

Ris

e [°C

] Heat Flux 220 W/m 2

Heat Flux 245 W/m 2

Heat Flux 270 W/m 2

Heat Flux 295 W/m 2

Heat Flux 320 W/m 2

FIGURE 7. Effects of heat flux on the maximum temperaturerise

whole system achieves the thermal dynamics balance in ap-proximately 90 minutes. Detailed properties of the thermaldynamics will be discussed in the next three subsections.

4.2 Effects of The Heating FluxFigure 7 shows the temperature differences of five lev-

els’ heat flux for each battery cell. The initial temperaturesof the battery cells have a deviation within 1 K, so only thetemperature rising curves are presented. The five curves, aswell as the curves in Figs. 8 and 9 of the following subsec-tion, share a similar linear tendency. Note that the modelis U-type, and the pressure drops of the front channels (i,e.,close to the air inlet) are more than those of the rear ones.Thus more cooling air outflows through the front channels,taking more heat away from the battery module. The max-


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Battery Cell

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Max

imum

Tem

pera

ture

Ris

e [ °

C] Mass Flow Rate 8.7 g/s

Mass Flow Rate 7.9 g/s




FIGURE 8. Effects of the mass flow rate on the maximum tem-perature rise on the battery cells

imum temperature rise increases successively from the airinlet to the rear side. It is seen that the peak temperaturerise occurs at the seventh cell. This will be further explainedin the following CFD analysis subsection.

As the heat flux increases from 220 W/m2 to320 W/m2, the maximum temperature rise of the batterycell near the inlet only increases from 5.2 K to 6.8 K, whilethat of the rear one increases approximately from 7 K to 10K. Also, the temperature uniformity of the 220 W/m2 caseat the thermal dynamics balance point is 1.5 K, comparedto the 3 K of the 320 W/m2 case. Overall, the temperatureuniformity becomes more uneven with the increase of heatflux. Both the phenomena above illustrate that a higherheat flux will significantly deteriorate the thermal dissipa-tion performance of the rear battery cells with the U-typemodel. Other types of models (e.g., Z-type) will be studiedin the future.

4.3 Effects of The Mass Flow RateFigure 8 shows the effects of the cooling air mass flow

rate on the maximum temperature rise. It is seen that, asthe cooling air mass flow rate increases from 5.5 g/s to 8.7g/s, the maximum temperatures of the front and the rearbattery cells decrease from 7 K to 5.5 K and 9 K to 7 K,respectively. The temperature uniformity decreases from 2K to 1.5 K, indicating that a larger mass flow rate wouldequalize the temperature distribution within the batterymodule. In contrast, the pressure of the air inlet increasesfrom 290 Pa to 525 Pa. In the actual EV system, where afan is used to supply the cooling air, a larger pressure dif-ference between the inlet and the outlet causes more powerconsumption. Moreover, A larger fan would occupy morespace that could be used for battery cell installation. Thus,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Battery Cell

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Maxim

um

Tem

pera

ture

Ris

e [°

C] Passage Spacing Size 4.5 mm

Passage Spacing Size 4.0 mm





FIGURE 9. Effects of the passage spacing size on the maximumtemperature rise

it’s an inferior strategy to improve the thermal performancemerely by increasing the mass flow rate. Further researchneeds to be performed to optimize the balance between thetemperature rise and the pressure drop.

4.4 Effects of The Passage Spacing SizeFigure 9 presents the effects of different passage sizes

on the thermal performance. As the passage spacing sizebecomes larger, the temperature of rear battery cells in-creases at a much greater rate than the front ones. Thetemperature rise at the tenth battery cell reaches 10 K atthe passage spacing of 3 mm, compared to 7 K at the pas-sage spacing of 2 mm. A larger spacing size will worsenthe thermal dissipation of rear ones. The temperature uni-formity also change approximately from 1.5 K to 4 K. Itmay suggest that the thermal performance of smaller pas-sage size is better, yet noting that a narrow cooling channelmay cause a bigger pressure drop. According to Eq. 7, asthe mass flow rate remains constant, more energy will beconsumed.

4.5 CFD AnalysisFor the peak temperature rise value at the seventh bat-

tery cell, repeated tests are carried out to eliminate thepossibilities of assembly errors, heater fault, and thermo-couple inaccuracy. The speed and pressure drop of everychannel have gone beyond the experiment’s measurability.

In order to further explain this phenomenon, a CFD air-based BTMS model is built using the commercial softwareANSYS Fluent. The passage spacing size is set at 3 mm;the heat flux of the battery call wall is 245 W/m2; the massflow rate is 6.3 g/s. The boundary condition of air inlet is


FIGURE 10. The temperature distribution of the cooling air inBTMS

set to be mass flow rate inlet, and air outlet is set to bepressure outlet. The properties of the battery cell walls arewith heat flux, while the battery module walls are adiabaticand no-slip. The SIMPLEC method and the transition SSTturbulence model are selected to analyze this model. Thethermal radiation transfer is assumed to be negligible in thissimulation.

Figure 10 shows the simulation results of temperaturedistribution in this battery module. The highest simulatedtemperature of cooling air occurs at the eighth passage,which is next to the maximum temperature rise battery cell(seventh). The mass flow rate distribution of the passagesis presented in Fig. 11. It is seen that the mass flow rateof the eighth passage is only 0.25 g/s, which is the lowestand approximately one-sixth of that in the first channel.The Reynolds number of the passages changes from 1,306to 267, sharing the same changing pattern as the mass flowrate. Since the Reynolds number is below 2,040, the coolingair flows in all passages are laminar flow, implying the sameconvective heat transfer coefficient. According to Eqs. 1 -5, the temperature of the battery cells is highly correlatedwith the passage mass flow rate. This is why the highesttemperature rise occurs at the seventh battery cell. Thetemperatures of the rear battery cells are also higher thatthe front ones.

5 CONCLUSIONThis paper performed a parametric study of an air-

based battery thermal management system (BTMS) in elec-tric vehicles. A number of interesting observations were ob-tained by analyzing the effects of three key BTMS design

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Battery Cell

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Tem

pera

ture

[°C

]

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Mas

s F

low

Rat

e [g

/s]

Maximum Temperature Rise-ExperimentMass Flow Rate-Simulation

FIGURE 11. The battery maximum temperature rise, corre-sponding to the left Y axis; the mass flow rate, corresponding tothe right Y axis.

parameters on the battery thermal performance.

1. Under the situations without any air cooling ventila-tion, the battery module was heated up close to theacceptable safety temperature in 2 hours.

2. The dynamic process of the cooling system reached thesteady state in 90 minutes.

3. Increasing the mass flow rate could reduce the max-imum temperature rise and improve the temperatureuniformity. But, it is not an ideal strategy, since moreenergy will be consumed by increasing the mass flowrate.

4. A larger heat flux may result in a higher maximumtemperature rise and a more nonuniform temperaturedistribution. A larger spacing size acts in a same man-ner.

Based on the analysis above, reducing the mass flowrate of the front battery passages and increasing the massflow rate of the rear ones, may contribute to the tempera-ture uniformity of the battery module. This can be achievedby rearranging the spacing size of each passage through anoptimization strategy. For the future work, we will continueto investigate the effects of tapered inlet/outlet manifold, Z-type BTMS, and rearrange the battery passage spacing sizeby experiments.

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis work is supported by the University of Texas at

Dallas. The author of Mao Li is supported by the ChinaScholarship Council.


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an experimental parametric study of air …jiezhang/conference/jie...of cooling air, the heat ﬂux...

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