an introduction to computer architecture dat 10403 chapter 1
TRANSCRIPT
AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
DAT 10403
CHAPTER 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Reference
Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance by William Stallings
WHY STUDY COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE IEEE/ACM Computer Science Curriculum
2008
By IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Computer Science and ACM (Association for Computing Machinery)
Students need to understand computer architecture in order to make best use of the software tools and computer languages they used to create programs.
INTRODUCTION
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & ARCHITECTURE
Refers to attributes of a system visible to a programmer (attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program)
Examples : Instruction set, data types (numbers, characters), I/O mechanism & techniques for addressing memory.
Refers to the operational units & their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
Examples : Hardware, interfaces between computer and peripherals & memory technology used
COMPUTER OPERATION CYCLE
COMPUTER FUNCTIONS
Computer must be able to :-
COMPUTER OPERATIONS
Simply transferring data from one peripheral or communication line to the other
Data transferred from the external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write)
Data processing en route between storage and the external environment
• Function as a data movement device.
• Simply transferring data from one peripheral or communication line to another.
TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE PROCESSING
1. Data Movement Operation
•Function as a data storage device, with data transferred from the external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write).
TYPES OF COMPUTER OPERATIONS
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE PROCESSING
2. Read/Write Operation
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE
PROCESSING
MOVEMENT
CONTROL
STORAGE
PROCESSING
COMPUTER OPERATIONS [S.William 2003)
3. Process/Storage Operation 4. Process Storage/External Environment
Operations involving data processing, on data either in storage (3) or en route between storage and the external environment (4)
SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
COMPUTER STRUCTURE [S. William,
2003]
COMPUTER
CPUMAIN
MEMORY
INPUTOUTPU
T
COMPUTERPERIPHERALS
COMMUNICATION LINES
COMPUTER STRUCTURE
CPU STRUCTURE Major structural components of CPU:
CPU INTERCONNECTIONS [S. William, 2003]
REGISTERS ALU
CONTROL
UNIT
COMPUTER
CPUI/O SYS.BUS
MEMORY
CPU
INTERNAL CPU
INTERCONNECTI
ON
A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
• born: 12/26/1791
• son of a London banker
• Trinity College, Cambridge
• Lucasian Professorship
• Mathematician and Scientist
Charles Babbage (1791-1871) THE FATHER OF COMPUTER
Difference Engine
• 1822 plan for calculating and printing mathematical tables like they were used in the navy
• using the method of difference, based on polynomial functions
Difference Engine
• 1822design 6 decimal places with second-order difference
• 1830engine with 20 decimal places and a sixth-order difference
• 1834plans for an improved device, capable of calculating any mathematical function
• increase of calculating speed
• never completed
Analytical Engine
Analytical Engine - Architecture
separation of storage and calculation: store mill
control of operations by microprogram: control barrels
user program control using punched cards operations cards variable cards number cards
more than 200 columns of gear trains and number wheels
16 column register (store 2 numbers) 50 register columns, with 40 decimal digits
of precision counting apparatus to keep track of
repetitions cycle time: 2.5 seconds to transfer a
number from the store to a register in the mill
addition: 3 seconds conditional statements
Analytical Engine
Analytical Engine
First programmer – Ada Lovelace
Ada Lady Lovelace, daughter of Lord Byron, was working with Babbage on the Analytical Engine
first ideas of algorithm representation programming languages
already realized: program loops conditional statements
COMPUTER HISTORY
It has become widely accepted to classify computers into generations based on the fundamental hardware technology employed.
Each new generation is characterized by greater processing performance, larger memory capacity, and smaller size than the previous one.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
Generation
Approximate Dates
Technology Typical Speed
(Operations per second)
1 1946 – 1957 Vacuum Tube 40,000
2 1958 – 1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965 – 1971 Integrated Circuit 1,000,000
4 1972 – 1977 Large Scale Integration
10,000,000
5 1978 – 1991 Very large Scale Integration
100,000,000
6 1992 - Ultra large Scale Integration
1,000,000,000
Moore’s Law
Increased density of components on chip Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel Number of transistors on a chip will double every year Since 1970’s development has slowed a little
Number of transistors doubles every 18 months Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged Higher packing density means shorter electrical
paths, giving higher performance Smaller size gives increased flexibility Reduced power and cooling requirements Fewer interconnections increases reliability
FIRST GENERATION
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
First Generation Electronic Computers used Vacuum Tubes
Vacuum tubes are glass tubes with circuits inside.
Vacuum tubes have no air inside of them, which protects the circuitry.
Vacuum tube
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
Vacuum Tubes - 1941 - 1957
ENIAC
first fully electronic digital computer built in the U.S.
Created at the University of Pennsylvania
ENIAC weighed 30 tons contained 18,000
vacuum tubes Cost a paltry $487,000
IAS Computer Memory of IAS consists of 1000 storage
locations. Both Data and Instructions are stored there. Numbers are represented in binary form. Each instruction is a binary code. Each number is represented by a 39 bit
value. With each instruction consisting of an 8-bit
operation code (opcode)
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer A decimal rather than a binary machine.
Numbers were represented in a decimal form.
used stored-program concept. A program could be represented in a form suitable for
storing in memory alongside data.
Design of a new stored-program computer called IAS computer. Main memory Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Control Unit Input/Output (I/O)
First Computer Bug - 1945
Relay switches part of computers
Grace Hopper found a moth stuck in a relay responsible for a malfunction
Called it “debugging” a computer
First Generation Computers
•Used the vacuum tubes technology for calculation as well as for storage and control purpose.
Advantages: (1) Fastest computing devices of their time; (2) These computers were able to execute complex
mathematical problems in an efficient manner.
Disadvantages:(1) The functioning of these computers depended on the machine language.(2) There were generally designed as special-purpose computers. (3) The use of vacuum tube technology make these computers very large and bulky. (4) They were not easily transferable from one place to another due to their huge size and also required to be placed in cool places.(5) They were single tasking because they could execute only one program at a time.(6) The generated huge amount of heat and hence were prone to hardware faults.
First Generation Computers
Too bulky i.e large in size
First Generation Computers
Vacuum tubes burn frequently
First Generation Computers
SECOND GENERATION
First Transistor
Uses Silicon developed in 1948 won a Nobel prize on-off switch
Second Generation Computers used Transistors, starting in 1956
Transistor
1 2
Transistor board
Second Generation Computers
• Use transistors in place of vacuum tubes in building the basic logic circuits.
Advantages: (1) Fastest computing devices of their time; (2) Easy to program because of the use assembly
language;(3) Could be transferred from one place to other very
easily because they were small and light; (4) Require very less power in carrying out their
operations; (5) More reliable, did not require maintenance at regular
intervals of time.
Disadvantages: (1)The input and output media were not improved to a considerable extent(2) Required to be placed in air-conditioned places(3) The cost of these computers was very high and they were beyond the reach of home users(4) Special-purpose computers and could execute only specific applications.
Second Generation Computers
THIRD GENERATION
IC (integrated circuit)
ICs (integrated circuits)
IC (integrated circuit)
Third Generation Computers
• Use of Integrated Circuits
Advantages: (1) Fastest computing devices; (2) Very productive; (3) Easily transportable from one place to another
because of their small size; (4) Use high-level languages; (5) Could be installed very easily and required less
space; (6) Can execute any type of application. (7) More reliable and require less frequent maintenance
schedules.
Disadvantages:(1)The storage capacity of these computers was still very small;(2) The performance of these computers degraded while executing large applications, involving complex computations because of the small storage capacity;(3) The cost of these computers was very high;(4) They were still required to be placed in air-conditioned places.
Third Generation Computers
FOURTH GENERATION
Birth of Personal Computers - 1975
256 byte memory (not Kilobytes or Megabytes)
2 MHz Intel 8080 chips
Just a box with flashing lights
cost $395 kit, $495 assembled.
The MITS Altair 8800 is a microcomputer designed in 1974 based on the Intel 8080 CPU.
Fourth Generation Computers
•Use of Large Scale Integration technology and Very Large Scale Integration technology
•The term Personal Computer (PC) became known to the people during this era.
Advantages: (1) Very powerful in terms of their processing speed and access time; (2) Storage capacity was very large and faster;(3) Highly reliable and required very less maintenance;(4) User-friendly environment; (5) Programs written on these computers were highly portable; (6) Versatile and suitable for every type of applications;(7) Require very less power to operate.
Fourth Generation Computers
Disadvantages: (1) The soldering of LSI and VLSI chips on the wiring board was not an easy task and required complicated technologies to bind these chips on the wiring board;(2) The working of these computers is still dependent on the instructions given by the programmer.
Fourth Generation Computers
FIFTH GENERATION
Fifth Generation Computers
•The different types of modern digital computers come under this category.
•Use Ultra Large Scale Integration technology that allows almost ten million electronic components to be fabricated on one small chip.
Advantages: (1) Fastest and powerful computers till date; (2) Being able to execute a large number of applications at the same time and that too at a very high speed; (3) Decreasing the size of these computers to a large extent; (4)The users of these computers find it very comfortable to use them because of the several additional multimedia features; (5) They are versatile for communications and resource sharing.
Fifth Generation Computers
LATER GENERATIONS
1990s: Pentiums and Power Macs
Early 1990s began penetration of computers into every niche: every desk, most homes, etc.
Faster, less expensive computers paved way for this
Windows 95 was first decent GUI for “PCs” Macs became more PC compatible - easy file
transfers Prices have plummeted
$2000 for entry level to $500 $6000 for top of line to $1500
21st Century Computing
Great increases in speed, storage, and memory
Increased networking, speed in Internet
Widespread use of CD-RW PDAs Cell Phone/PDA WIRELESS!!!
Pentium Evolution (1) 8080
first general purpose microprocessor 8 bit data path Used in first personal computer – Altair
8086 much more powerful 16 bit instruction cache, prefetch few instructions 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
80286 16 Mbyte memory addressable up from 1Mb
80386 32 bit Support for multitasking
Pentium Evolution (2) 80486
sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining
built in maths co-processor Pentium
Superscalar Multiple instructions executed in parallel
Pentium Pro Increased superscalar organization Aggressive register renaming branch prediction data flow analysis speculative execution
Pentium Evolution (3) Pentium II
MMX technology graphics, video & audio processing
Pentium III Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics
Pentium 4 Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals Further floating point and multimedia enhancements
Itanium 64 bit
Core i7 Xeon See Intel web pages for detailed information on
processors
What’s next for computers?
Use your imagination to come up with what the next century holds for computers. What can we expect in two years? What can we expect in twenty years?