an introduction to perspective
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50
U83
PERSPECTIVE,
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY,
DRAWING
AND
PAINTING.
. . .
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v/ >
N
INTRODUCTION
.
peeJsp
ective,
PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY,
DRAWING
AND
PAINTING;
NEW
AND
PERFECT
EXPLANATION
OF
THE MIXTURE OF COLOURS;
WITH
PRACTICAL
DIRECTIONS
FOR
. r > 0 2 8 3
MINIATURE, CRAYON, AND OIL PAINTING:
IN A SERIES <
I
Sir
FAMILIAR DIALOGUES BETWEEN THE AUTHOR'S CHILDREN,
AND LETTERS
ADDRESSED TO
HIS PUPILS.
ILLUSTRATED
WITH
NUMEROUS
WOOD
ENGRAVINGS,
FROM
DRAWINGS BY JOHNHAYTER, ESQ.
AND
COLOURED PLATES.
BY
CHARLES
IIAYTER, ESQ.
THE
SIXTH
EDITION.
LONDON
S AM * EL \ \ AG S T E R A X D
SONS
PATERNOSTER
I I
O
W
M.IK'CC.XI.V.
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LONDON:
PRINTKD BY J. WERTHKIMKR AND CO.
CIRCUS
PLACE,
FINSBURY
CIRCUS.
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TO
SIR MARTINARCHERSHEE
PRESIDKNT
ft r
TR« RATAL
ACADKMY
OF
ARTS, O.C.I,
. ,
F.R.S.,
KTC. KTC. ETC.
1I Y
WHOSE VALUABLE FAVOUR AND
PATRONAGE
A FORMER EDITION OF THIS
WORK
HAS BEEN FOSTERED
THE
PRESENT
GREATLY IMPROVED SIXTH EDITION
I S BY PERMISSION
DEDICATED
WITH
GRATITUDE
AND
PROFOUND
RESPECT
BY HIS MUCH OBLIGED SERVANTS
THE PUBLISHERS.
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fUO
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PREFACE.
How many persons, upon finding themselves possessed of the
power of using
a
pencil for their amusement, or at
least
of the
i ncli nat io n to
learn to
draw, have
been
turned
from
becoming
acquainted with the principles of Perspective, by the repul-
siveness
of
the mode in which the necessary i nf ormat io n has
been presented.
Yet
excellence as
an Artist i s not
to
be attained by any
means short of
a
comprehension of the truths of this
science
—
nor
c an any
neglect
i t s paramount claims, without danger of
falling
into
frequent
and glaring
inconsistencies—or
without
i t s
aid, produce even
a tolerable e f f e c t .
Perspective must be studied and mastered
by
a l l who desire
to
excel as Artists.
Is
this science, however, really so
difficult
as
i t i s
repre
sented?
We
affirm that
i t i s
not.
The Author of the present Volume found that i t was not,
when
pursuing
hi s su cc es sf ul career as a Teacher of
Painting
and Perspective Drawing; and he has l e f t us here the results
of hi s long experience, in a series of interesting intelligible
Dialogues between
hi s
children, which familiarly ex plai n the
whole subject—nitiating the reader, and conducting him from
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Vlll
PREFACE.
subject
to subject, in a manner at
once delightful and
ob
viously
natural, and
leaving him
l i t t l e
difficulty
to
contend
with,
and
no
labour
beyond t he c arryi ng ou t of Mr.
Hayter's
frequent and
invaluable
admonition,
to
practise
every new
lesson as
i t i s learnt.
To give every possible facility
to
the learner, and
at
the
same time
to
do
justice to
Mr.
Hayter's
instructive
lessons
on
Pers pe cti ve, a series
of entirely new Drawings
has been pre
pared for this edition by John
Hayter,
Esq., and
engraved
by
Mr. Kirchner, in the finest style of wood-cutting:—nd to
illustrate our author's theory of
the
natural
results
of
the
combination of Colours as applied
to
miniature and general
painting, highly finished
coloured
plates
have been
prepared
after Mr.
Hayter's originals. The typography of the
work
has
also
received
the utmost attention ; and, as a whole, the
present
sixth edition of
this popular
book
will
be found not
only
greatly improved, and
beautified
in
appearance, but
more
than
ever adapted to secure i t s amiable author's object—the
form
ation
of a sound basis for either youth or
maturity to
build
on, from
which Genius may
proceed with
advantage.
Paternoster
Row,
December,
1844.
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CONTENTS.
Perspective the Foundation
of
Truth in
a
Picture
Perspective
generally defined -
Practical methods of drawing
-
On practical
geometry and the use of the
Instruments
Definitions of
geometry,
with
explanations
Practical
Geometry
Copying by reticulation -
Methods
of squaring
P ri n ci p le s o f
Perspective
-
The
horizon
of a picture
-
The bird's-eye view
The apparent inclination of levels to the horizon
The point of sight, and
horizon -
Reasons for the height of horizon -
Point of
sight
Objects
which
f a l l
under
different angles
The point of distance
-
Effect o f p ers pe ct iv e
drawings
explained
The
proper distance
from a
picture -
Perspective of the stage of a theatre
-
How to begin a sketch from nature -
Scale
of extent of
view - - - -
Angular
view of
objects -
On foreshortening and
anamorphosis
-
Vanishing points
The perspective of a circle
Page
1
2
3-—
( i -
—12
1 3 -
—21
21-
—33
34
86
39
39
41
42
43
45
4B
49
51
53
55
5 0
58
60
63—
7
6 1
67-
-74
74--77
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CONTENTS.
Practical Perspective—
Method of procedure
7
Apparent
anomalies
explained
-
80
—
3
Method of
drawing objects
of determinate heights
at given distances 4
To take an angular view by measurement - - 87—2
Process
of
inking in perspective
lines
- -
92
Accidental surfaces
and points
-
92
The perspective of open doors explained
- - 93—
5
The perspective of a chair explained -
-
97—9
The
double
cross
00
—
01
Perspective view of a room - 102—04
Vanishing points—ifficulties resolved
- -
10 5
Reflection of objects on water, e t c . - - 108—12
How
affected by
undulations -
113
The
perspective
of shadows
explained - -
114—19
The practical process of drawing them
- -
12 0—26
On
the
subordinate parts
of a
picture - -
127—
28
\
Letters on
Drawing
and
Painting—
Introduction 29
Genius must be assisted by Art - - - 131
Particular
objects
of
attention - - - - 131
Advantages of inquiry, etc. - 135
Rudimental information
33
Materials and Instruments required, and how to
use them
39
Command
of
hand
explained
-
140
Process
of drawing—
ubjects
recommended
-
142
Directions fo r copying
—
mportance of
precision -
145—51
The human figure 5]—61
Directions
for Chalk Drawing - 162
—68
On Pencil Drawing - -
168—
71
Indian
Ink 71—
73
General Rules fo r li ght and
shade
- - 174
—
80
Drawing
from
solid
objects
-
180
—
82
True and false shadow
distinguished
-
182—83
Truth preferable to ideal beauty -
184—86
The arbitrary
power
of light
-
186—92
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CONTENTS.
XI
Paoi
Indian
Ink
(continued).
Blackness considered as shade - 193—96
Memory,
forecast,
manner,
etc. -
196
—
00
Hints on
composition - 200
—02
On
Colours—
The
compendium of
colours -
203
The
mixture
of
colours -
204
—
06
Axioms 07
The
f i r s t
coloured
plate
explained
-
208—10
The ultimatum 11
The
second
coloured plate explained - -
212
—15
The
third coloured plate explained -
215—16
The fourth coloured plate explained
-
216—17
To produce
an
a r t i f i c i a l rainbow - - -
217
Laws
of light, shadow,
and reflection
- -
218
—
21
The principles
on which
the
plates
are
coloured -
221
—
25
Landscape Painting - 25—34
On outline, profile,
the
painting-room, e t c . - 234—38
Miniature Painting
—he
practical
process
- -
239
—
58
Crayons, Oils,
and other materials - 25 8
Recipe
for a composition for painting
in
imitation
of t he a nc ie nt Greek manner - 268—72
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A LIST
THE ILLUSTEATIONS.
Case of mathematical
instruments -
Drawing board and parallel
ruler -
Jointed
compasses
Dividers
Protractor ______
Geometrical
Diagrams
—
Lines and angles
Square_ ___
Parallel
l i n e s and
curves -
Segments
Polygons, regular
and
irregular
Four-sided
figures -
The c i r c l e
and
e l l i p s e -
The
principal
s o l i d s
-
Conic sections -
Practical geometric problems
Copying by reticulation -
Reduction of pictures -
How
t o draw a parallelogram outline
Horizon i l l u s t r a t e d
Bird's eye
v iew—
he
chess
board -
Level
planes
i l l u s t r a t e d
-
- -
The point of sight defined - - - -
I t s position explained -
Plate—hewing
the
apparent position of
the
horizon
as viewed
by several ob
servers _____
Engraving.
Page
I
7
2
7
3
8
4
0
5
10
6—2
13
13
14
14 18
15
19—1
16
22
—
1 16—8
32
—7
18—9
38
—9
19
40
—
4
20
45—9
20
50
—8
21—34
89
—
0
34
01
35
92
37
93
38
94
41
95
42
96
44
97
46
98 47
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XIV
LIST
OF ILLUSTRATIONS CONTINUED.
Emoi
Compendium of colours -
Ultimatum
- - -
The
effect
of
distance
on
colour
Penknife
Colour
diagram,descriptive
o f t he curious
effect
of combining t he t hre e
primitive colours -
15 0 275
LAVING.
Page
146
203
147
211
148 231
149
2b7
THE COLOURED PLATES.
The Three
Primitive
Colours, Yellow, Red,
Blue, illustrating
the
theory,
that
a l l colours result
from
their combination.
The
Painter s Compass
—hewing the beautiful
comparative
effects of warm and cold t i n t s .
The
effects
of
Shading
proved
not
to
depend
upon
mere
depth
of
colour.
The composition of Light illustrated.
The Artificial Rainbow—n illustration of the results of the
combination of the three primitive
colours.
The Publishers
are
indebted to
the
skill and experience
of
Owen Jones, Esq. for the production of the beautiful coloured
plates
which accompany this volume.
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PERSPECTIVE EXPLAINED.
THE
DIALOGUE.
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PERSPECTIVE EXPLAINED
IN A SERIES OF DIALOGUES BETWEEN
THE
AUTHOR'S
CHILDREN,
GEOEGE,
ANN,
ELIZA, AND JOHN.
PERSPECTIVE THE FOUNDATION OF TRUTH IN A
PICTURE.
SO 283
INTRODUCTION.
Eliza. My dear brother, when will
you
begin to teach
us
perspective?
You
know I
do
not love a
s t a t e
of darkness; and
you
have
told
me
that a painter might a s well
be
blind, a s
ignorant
of
t h i s
most
important
branch
of
his
a r t .
George. Indeed, my
dear
E l i z a , i t i s
of
the
very f i r s t
importance; and i s rather the main
r o o t ,
or foundation
of
t r u t h , in a picture,
than
a branch. I am
very
happy t o
find
you
s o
earnestly
disposed t o study
i t ;
and
i f s i s t er
Ann
i s
a t
l e i s u r e ,
and
John will be a t t e n t i v e , I w i l l now endeavour to
make you
acquainted
with a l l the
necessary
rules
and
prin
c i p l e s .
I
t r u s t
you
will not
allow
doubts, or c r i t i c a l objections,
to
interrupt
the information I s h a l l o f f e r you.
John. Why, brother,
you
know I
c an draw,
and yet I do
not understand perspective. What i s it? Shall I be able t o
draw better
when
I
have learned
i t ?
Ann.
You know, my dear
boy,
you have
always
something
to copy
from; which,
i t i s granted, you imitate
p r e t t i l y ;
but
what
would you do without
a drawing ready
designed
t o
your
hand?
The
attention
which
George
has
recommended,
will
be the best means of obtaining an answer to your question.
George.
That
i s
well
observed :
and
I
s h a l l
proceed
—
i r s t ,
to
point
out
t o
you the general and
distinguishing character
of
Perspective; which
i s ,
the
representation op
ob-
s
1
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2 PERSPECTIVE GENERALLY DEFINED.
JECTS AS THEY
APPEAR,
AGREEABLY
TO THEIR REAL
FORMS, DIMENSIONS, AND VARIOUS
DISTANCES;
BY
DRAW
ING
OR PAINTING
ONA
FLAT SURFACE
:
for
YOU know
that
paintings,
drawings,
and
prints, are a l l produced on flat sur
faces, and
yet on such
f l a t surfaces, distance,
height, width,
depth,
and
the
various
appearances of a l l sorts of
substances,
even
the thi n
air,
i s perceived to
bear
so
nearly
the effect of reality,
as oftentimes
to
de ce iv e t he
imagination: and
to produce this
e f f e c t ,
successfully, a
thorough knowledge of
Perspective,
and a very
ingenious
and judicious u se of such knowledge
i s
absolutely
necessary.
The
EYE
(the
particulars
of
the
con
struction
of
which you
will learn when you
study optics)
i s
so
wonderfully
contrived,
as to receive, at one view
or action of
sight, and comprehend, a l l
the
visible matter which may appear
within
a certain space (or
under
a
certain angle,
according
to
the technical term to be hereafter explained) ; producing a per
fect idea of the real forms seen, by an association of lines and
angles totally different from their absolute or
geometrical mea
surements.
Yet
the
form
of
a true
and
judicious
perspective
representation, will so perfectly agree
with
the
knowledge
con
veyed by the absolute
or
geometric form, that the
one
will
stand as
an evidence,
or
test
of the
truth
of the other.
Thus
:
In
viewing a long walk, or a
street
(which we will suppose to
be level,
straight,
parallel, and uniform in the buildings), i t
will
appear to
diminish
according
to
the distance,
converging
towards
a
point
at the
furthest end—hus, therefore,
a perspective
representation would
describe it
—et would the
drawing preserve
and
convey to the mind a perfect
idea
of the
geometric
and real
forms presented to the v iew. This, however,
so very differently from the objects themselves, that there might
be
but one
retiring, or converging
level
line, that of the
hori
zon,
in the
whole
drawing,—nd no
two
retiring parallel
lines,
e xcept such as were really not so in the objects of v iew , but ac
tually
diverging
from
the
sight
in
the
same
degree
as
real
parallels
appear
to converge
to i t :—o r , a l l other lines
t hat are
seen parallel must be perpendicular l i n e s , and parallel with the
surface of the picture ; a l l
lines
also that
are
parallel with the
horizon must be drawn as seen.
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PRACTICAL METHODS OF DRAWING IN PERSPECTIVE. 3
Now for an experimental proof.—o to the window, and
look
s t e a d f a s t l y
through the squ are of g l a s s
which
i s directly
opposite
to
your
face
(you
know
the
g l a s s
i s
a
f l a t
s u r f a c e ,
and
must be understood to constitute what i s called the transparent
plane
in
perspective)
; now,
i f
you can keep
yourself
s t a t i o n a r y ,
within reac h o f the g l a s s , you may
t r a c e ,
with a pen, a proper
perspective o u t l i n e of the scene or objects in view; and by f i r s t
layi ng a thin wash of gum water, or i s i n g l a s s , on the pane,
you
may
trace
the
scene
with a black, or rather red chalk pencil;
and then
placing
a piece of paper over i t , you may trace i t off
a s
an
outline
to
make
a
finished
drawing
from.
Ann.
But, brother,
you must
t e l l us
how to keep
the
eye in
one
p o s i t i o n , a s I perceive a t once the success of the operation
depends on t h a t .
Eliza. O
s i s t e r , that may
be
contrived many
ways —
long to try t o take a view by t h i s method. I wonder painters
do not
use
i t
: I
r e a l l y f e e l
a s i f I wanted no
further informa
tion on the
s u b j e c t .
George. This
could
not
f a i l
of
truth f o r
the
o u t l i n e
of
a l l
stationary objects—ut the sun shadows are
continually
changing
a s
the
day
advances,
while
a tru e pi ctu re requires that
every
thing should be represented as seen a t o n c e , a s when you look
a t
a picture ; which you could not accomplish without receiving
instruction, which will follow in i t s proper p l a c e .— very
complete apparatus has b ee n mad e, by which to take
views
in
o u t l i n e
corresponding
with
t h i s
method;
and
i s
used
where
ex
pedition, or a want of
knowledge
of a r t , makes i t necessary : i t
may be called a Master-key
t o perspective, and
i s
named,
Hatter's portable Perspective Tripod, which I
have simplified
and
rendered
very
portable. But I directed
you
to the tracing on the window, only
t o
CONFIRM your ideas
on t h i s leading f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , that in every thing you draw, you
are to conceive
you
are drawing,
on
a g l a s s or transparent
plane,
o b j e c t s
which
are
supposed
to
be on
the
other
s i d e .
But
you are not t o s i t down with these contrivances,
i f you
intend
to
become
acquainted with the a r t of painting; a s i t w i l l
be
absolutely requisite f o r
you to
learn
a l l
the elements,
beginning
with p r a c t i c a l geometry ( s u f f i c i e n t
knowledge of which
I
s h a l l
X
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4 ITS EXTENSIVE
POWER.
r e f e r you t o in due order),
and
leave a l l the secondary means of
picture-making to those who will not acqu ire the a r t of doing
without them.
John.
What
i s meant by secondary means ?
George. All COPYING, whether by measuring,
tracing,
squaring,
or
pouncing; and
a l l mechanical aids in
making
copies of pictures;
because
an o r i g i n a l i s previously provided;
s o that a l l the study, knowledge, and labour which i s required
to produ ce an o r i g i n a l picture, i s already prepared t o the eye
and hand
of the c o p y i s t .
Ann.
Then
engravers
are
but
secondary
a r t i s t s ?
Eliza.
I believe, s i s t e r , t h i s i s too
hasty
a conclusion ; f o r
by what
I have somewhere read
on the
subject,
engraving
(although dependent on some mechanical means to obtain a
certain and correct outline of the subject of imitation) i s one
of
the great departments of a r t ,
and
may be a s excellent, i n i t s
way, a s painting
i t s e l f ; and
such good
engravings a s are done
from
pictures
which
are l e s s correct
in colouring than in l i g h t
and
shade,
may
be
s o
f a r
improvements on
the
o r i g i n a l s .
En
gravers consider
themselves a s
t r a n s l a t o r s
of pictures into
another language,
and
claim
the meri t of improving
on many
o r i g i n a l s ,
with advantage t o
the
s u b j e c t .
John.
I
beg
pardon, s i s t e r s ;
but I think you
should
not
talk
about
engraving now
: i t i s
a hindrance.
George. Now, to convince you of the
great
advantage of
a regular acquaintance with the Art of p e r s p e c t i v e , please to
observe, that a r c h i t e c t s ,
a f t e r
they
have
drawn the geometrical
plans
and
elevations
of a building,
can (by du e knowledge of
t h i s a r t , united
with a tolerably
good t a s t e
f o r landscape
drawing) give very true
pictures
of
intended
buildings or im
provements b e f o r e they are begun, making
due
allowance f o r the
e f f e c t s
of what i s called Landscape-gardening, and they often
convey good hints
f o r
t h a t .
Eliza.
What
entirely
without
seeing
them
?
George.
Yes, a s perfectly a s
you could
trace
them
on a
transparent
plane, a f t e r the
whole
i s
completely built and
planted : and those architects who thoroughly
understand
per
s p e c t i v e ,
can
make
out geometrical plans and
elevations
from
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PERSPECTIVE
ATTAINABLE
BY CLEAR RULES. 5
c o r r e c t perspective
pictures of
buildings s o truly a s to
enable
them
t o erect exact copies of a s much of the r e a l e d i f i c e a s i s
represented
in
the
picture;
f o r
t h i s
plain
and
evident
reason,
—
If a geometrical object presents the means of making a t r u e
perspective picture of i t , such picture must contain the material
evidences
of
the
original
geometrical elevation.
Ann.
How delightful
What
an a r t
i t must be —ut
I
cannot help thinking
i t
very d i f f i c u l t .
Eliza. Why, there seems
to
be a
kind of prophetic power
in
perspective,
i f one i s enabled to shew the true picture of a
place before
i t i s
b u i l t .
I
a l s o
have
some
serious
apprehension
of
the d i f f i c u l t y .
George. Never
f e a r , s i s t e r s .
Attention
and perseverance
will surmount great
d i f f i c u l t i e s ;
and perspective being a t t a i n a b l e
by r u l e s ,
must
not
be classed among the g r e a t e s t . I will
do a l l
i n
mypower to
make the whole a s easy and pleasant a s p o s s i b l e .
John. Then you know, E l i z a , we s h a l l be able t o prophesy
pictures without
t r a c i n g .
Eliza.
And
y e t ,
f o r my
p a r t , I
have
conceived
a
great
par
t i a l i t y to t h i s drawing on a g l a s s ; f o r while a t the window I
could
imagine t h e
window frame t o be a picture frame,
and
a l l
I saw
beyond appeared t o be a perfect picture.
Do come
again
and
look,
Ann;
and i f you take my i d e a , you will be
delighted :
f o r
though the
scene i s
not composed
of
the
most
picturesque
o b j e c t s , yet
only
consider
i t ,
a s
I do, a painting,
and
t e l l
me
i f
ever
you
saw
a
better?
Ann. Oh, E l i z a ,
I almost
envy you
t h i s
step I t has
now
taken myimagination r i g h t l y . You may well c a l l i t a perfect
painting, although the scene makes i t a poor p i c t u r e . Well,
who could have thought we should ever f e e l s o much pleasure
in looking towards that
dull s t r e e t
George.
Now, s i s t e r s , i f only # , right
idea
of perspective has
given you
so
much pleasure,
you
may
f a i r l y conclude
that a
right
knowledge
of
i t i s
worth
the
study
;
f o r
t o
study
we
must
proceed:
and
I hope you w i l l never quit any su bject or s u f f e r
me,
t i l l
you c l e a r l y
understand
me.
And
l e t me entreat you to
follow my explanations
a t t e n t i v e l y ,
inquiring f r e e l y about what
i s
passing;
but do not lead on too f a s t by looking forward, a s
f
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6 PREPARATIONS EXPLAINED.
that
may
tend t o the
s o r t
of
dispatch
which
must
be considered
more a desire t o get ri d of a
l e s s o n ,
than t o
become
acquainted
with
i t .
ON GEOMETRY
AND THE USE
OF
THE INSTRUMENTS.
Ann. Pray, brother, i s not
practical
geometry the proper
introduction t o perspective?
Eliza. O, geometry —he very word
alarms
me.
George.
And pray, s i s t e r ,
did not the
word alphabet once
alarm
you? and
afterwards the
words
grammar,
French,
geo
graphy,
gamut,
e t c .
?
Anticipation
i s a s often
erroneously
awful
a s
i t i s
pleasing;
possession i s
the t e s t .
Let
the rudi-
mental knowledge
you already
p o s s e s s , teach
you
how t o f e e l
respecting the important addition we are endeavouring t o make
to your
accomplishments.
What say you to geometry, my
brave John?
John. I do not intend to b e alarme d a t a word, I promise
you.
I
suppose
you will
soon
shew
us
the
meaning
of
i t :
—
What i s
Geometry?
George.
P r a c t i c a l l y ,
i t
teaches
the methods of drawing l i n e s ,
polygons,
c i r c l e s , o v a l s , and
a l l
other measurable
surfaces
with
t r u t h , and
proportionate
to any
s c a l e
you may
find occasion
to
adopt. But i t may be some
considerable
g r a t i f i c a t i o n
t o
you
to l e a r n ,
that
l i t t l e more than the names of the
general
f i g u r e s ,
and
drawing the usual p r a c t i c a l problems, will be a l l that i s
requisite t o our
progress
in perspective. There w i l l be very
few
mathematical calculations ; and
I
promise you great pleasure
in the r e s u l t s of your s t u d i e s . One attainment, v ery c ondu c iv e
to your
success
in
perspective drawing will be, the
acquiring a
ready use of the
instruments:
a t the same
time
you
w i l l
be
gaining a knowledge
o f , a t l e a s t ,
the alphabet of a
universal
language; which geometry may be considered, i t s
principles
being
invariably
the
same
everywhere,
and
a t
a l l
times.
Do
you know,
John, where
to find
the
case
of
instruments, and
the
p a r a l l e l ruler
?
John.
You
know you always clean
and
lock them up s a f e l y
in your drawer.
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INSTRUMENTS
EXPLAINED.
. over the back of the paper (that side
on
which the
maker's
water-marks
read
backwards);
then take out the
panel, and
place
i t evenly
on
the paper; l i f t up the paper
and
panel
together ; place them in the frame
;
press them
well
up t o the
f r o n t ;
replace the
two bars behind;
and, when
dry,
the
paper
i s ready t o draw o n .
Ann. I s t h i s s o r t of drawing-board absolutely r e q u i s i t e ?
George.
No; draftsmen paste
or glue the edges of very
large s h e e t s ,
and
lay them down on smooth boards;
and
t h i s i s
the
most
usual method with architects
and
others
f o r l a r g e
drawings.
Eliza. Please to t e l l us the p r o c e s s .
George. F i r s t , observe that
you must
damp the back of the
paper, and
l e t
the moisture d i f f u s e t i l l the sheet i s pliant ; then
paste (with strong p a s t e , quickly) about half an inch of the edge
of the
paper.
Some a r t i s t s double
back
a s much of the paper
a s they mean to paste or glue ; but I think i t b e s t , when past
ing, to
lay a
f l a t
r u l e r , a s a barrier
to
the p a s t e . If
you want
to
use the
paper
i n s t a n t l y ,
you
must
glue
the
edge,
a s
that
will
bear
drying
by the f i r e : the pasted edges will not, but must dry
gradually. I t i s well to lay down paper f o r drawi ng on the
evening previous to the day on which you
wish
to use i t .
Recollect to use glue quickly,
and
s t i c k the part you
glue t o
the board a s you proceed; f o r glue will s e t , or h i l l , very
quickly.
John.
I
hope the paper will
soon
be
quite
smooth—want
to
see
you
begin
drawing.
George.
I must f i r s t
ex plai n the in
struments, to which
I beg you w i l l pay
great attention: now take the l a r g e s t
compasses
( f i g . 3 . )
out of the
c a s e ,
and
by
unscrewing that
l i t t l e screw
a t a ,
you may take out the s t e e l leg (take
care
of
i t ) : then take that instrument
out of the case which has a lead pencil
in
i t , b , and place i t in the compasses
where you to ok o ut the s t e e l
l e g ,
and turn
the screw tight again;—hu s we are
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INSTRUMENTS EXPLAINED.
provided with the means of drawing the
circular
parts of
geometrical
drawing. Very highly finished
instruments are
made without the screw a , the parts being f i t t e d t o each other
so nicely
a s
to
hold
well together without i t s
help.
Ann. That i s
very complete:
will
you
t e l l me,
brother,
why there i s a joint c in the pencil leg you have fixed in the
compasses, a s there i s not one in the s t e e l leg which
you
f i r s t
to ok o ut?
George. Were i t not f o r the j o i n t , the
p e n c i l , or
drawing
pen,
would
lean too much on i t s side when a
large
c i r c l e i s
required
to
be
drawn,
and
the
l i n e would
of
course
be
broad
with
the p e n c i l ,
and
the pen
would
not mark
;
but by
bending
that
knee or joint you can draw t o the f u l l extent of the compasses,
with the poi nt perpendi cu lar
to
the paper: thus geometry r e
wards
the ingenuity of mechanics. Try i t , and prove i t .
Eliza. Here i s another leg with a joint in i t d; what i s
that
a t
the other
end of
i t , with a
l i t t l e
screw ?
George.
That i s
a
s t e e l
drawing pen, t o
place
in the
com
passes
a f t e r
the
pencil
outline
i s
correct
;
and
you
are
therewith
enabled
to
ink
i n a l l the
circular
parts of your
drawing.
John. Then
I suppose
t h i s long
s t e e l
pen
which
has no
joint i s to ink i n the s t r a i g h t lines?
George. Very rightly supposed, John.
John. And
what
are those compasses f o r ,
which are without any joint or screw? ( f i g . 4 . )
George.
They are to take dimensions with,
and are called
d i v i d e r s ,
and are nicely adapted
to s e t
o f f any
number
of equal p a r t s , e t c .
Eliza. What i s t h i s l i t t l e rule f o r , which
has
s o many l i n e s and
figures on
i t ?
I
mean
t h i s with a joint?
George. You appear perplexed
a t
t h i s in
strument: come,
I
s h a l l
soon relieve you;
i t i s
called
the
s e c t o r ,
and
i s
particularly useful in
many
points
of
mathematical
in
quiry,
but
almost entirely u s e l e s s in the practice of perspective :
yet I
hope you will
find
opportunity f o r learning
the use of the
line of l i n e s
on one s i d e ,
and the
l i n e of polygons on
the
other,
when
you
are
f a r
enough advanced in arithmetic.
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10
INSTRUMENTS
EXPLAINED.
Ann. Where s h a l l we
find
the
proper
explanation?
George. In the Encyclopedias,
or
Kerby's Dr. Brook
Taylor's
Perspective
:
there
i s
a l s o
a
cheap
pamphlet
on
the u se
of the instruments.
Ann.
And what use are
we to
make of
t h i s neat
l i t t l e
thin
r u l e ,
which has such a
number
of
l i n e s
and figures
on
i t ? Will
you p l e a s e ,
indulgent master, t o
dispatch
t h i s i n t r i c a t e
a r t i c l e
a s you did the sector?
George. Your request i s granted, without
any
indulgence
on mypart ; a s you
will only
use i t
f o r a
nice r u l e r . But I may
t e l l
you
that
the
l i n e s
and
figures
are
only
proportionate
s c a l e s ;
a s , suppose
you consider
any one whole division on either of
the l i n e s , a s an inch, f o o t , yard, p o l e ,
furlong,
or mile, you will
find the proportionate subdivisions a t the end of that
l i n e
;
and
on the other side i s a l i n e of inches, each divided by t e n (or
what i s
properly
called decimally), and below that i s a
decimal
s c a l e ,
which, by
means of the
diagonal
divisions
a t
each end,
exhibits the smallest tenth
part that
a
draftsman can
distinguish
practically
by
l i n e s .
Eliza. I think
we
s h a l l
not,
hereafter, be
alarmed
a t i n t r i
cate
appearances, since your
explanations are s o
very i n t e l l i
g i b l e .
Ann. We were both cowards, Eliza; but George w i l l par
don u s .
George. Pardon, s i s t e r s You
know
i t
cannot be
long since
I looked on these instruments
with
the same ideas of them a s
you seemed to entertain:
there
i s nothing
t o
pardon but a
l i t t l e impatience.
Deliberate
attention will render the
whole
a s plain a s that
which
I
have already
taught you.
J ohn. Please to
t e l l us what t h i s
half c i r c l e
of
brass
( f i g . 5 . ) i s f o r ,
and
then
we
s h a l l
know a l l the in
struments.
George. I t
i s
c a l l e d the
pro-
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THE
PROTRACTOR EXPLAINED.
11
t r a c t o r :
i t i s used
to find
the number of degrees contained in
an
angle; thus—
nn,
draw a right l i n e , and place the straight
edge
of the protractor truly
on i t ; then
make a mark on the
paper,
a t the top of the semicircular part of the protractor, a t
90, and (without moving the protractor) make a mark on the
l i n e exactly a t that l i t t l e mark on the straight edge of the pro
t r a c t o r , which divides i t in h a l f , and which i s the centre of i t s
circular part: now take i t o f f ,
and
draw a right l i n e through
the
two
marks
you have
made
on
the paper, and i t w i l l
be
ex
actly perpendicular to the
l i n e
f i r s t drawn. From t h i s
you
may
remember
that
a
right
angle
contains
90
degrees, or a
quarter of a c i r c l e . *
Ann. I see any other angle may be found in the same man
ner;
do
you
comprehend i t , Eliza?
Eliza.
Not quite s o c l e a r l y a s
you
appear to
; but
George
will favour
me
with another example.
George.
Come, Ann, shew your s i s t e r how to
find the
angle
of 75 degrees.
Eliza.
I
have
i t ,
George
I t
i s
only
t o
mark
a t
75,
a s
Ann
did
a t 90, and
draw
the
l i n e
t o the c e n t r e .
John. Oh any body may do i t ; but I cannot t e l l of what
use i t i s t o know t h i s .
George.
. I
will t e l l you, John, one advantage you
have
gained by
i t ; you know you
are
very
attentive
to conversation :
now suppose you had
heard
any one
say that the
sun
was about
30 degrees
above
the
horizon
(before I taught you t h i s ) , could
you
have
conceived
what
height
the
sun
was?
John. No,
brother.
George. Can you now?
John. I
must consider
a
l i t t l e
: come, ask Ann
and E l i z a ,
and l e t
me hear how they
answer.
Ann. I
think a l i n e drawn from 30 on
the protractor t o
the
c e n t r e , would be in the same oblique direction from the l e v e l of
the protractor, a s the l i n e from my eye to the sun, when i t i s
30 degrees high, or
above
the
horizon.
Eliza. But the difference
between
a degree on t h i s l i t t l e
* The student must practise t h i s , i f u na cquai nt ed w it h what the problem
explains.
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12
THE PARALLEL RULER EXPLAINED.
instrument,
and
the
vast extent
of
that
c i r c l e which the sun i s
supposed t o make t o the
e a r t h ,
or
rather
the earth
to
i t , seems
to me t o bear
no
comparison.
George. The observation i s
allowable a t present;
but
you
must henceforth remember, that the three hundred
and
s i x t i e t h
part of the s m a l l e s t c i r c l e t h a t can be drawn, or concei ved, i s a s
much one
whole
degree of such c i r c l e , a s the three
hundred
and
s i x t i e t h part of the l a r g e s t c i r c l e imaginable in the vast im
mensity
of space; and 30
degrees on
the one would form pre
c i s e l y
the same
angle a t
the
centre a s
on the
other Now,
E l i z a ,
f o r
proof;
take
a large
sheet
of
paper,
and
draw
an
angle
of 30 degrees ( l e t the point, or centre, be near the middle of
the paper) : now
place
the
s t e e l
leg of the pencil compasses
on
the point of the angle, and s t r i k e the l a r g e s t c i r c l e the paper
w i l l admit; now s t r i k e the smallest p o s s i b l e , and two or three
intermediate c i r c l e s ,
and
you will observe, that the space
between the two l i n e s which forms the angle of 30 degrees, will
be
found
t o be exactly one twelfth part
of
the circumference
of
each
of
the
c i r c l e s ,
where
they
c r o s s
these
l i n e s ;
and, conse
quently, each
i s
30
degrees, because
twelve
times
30
i s 360.
You must each
of
you
perform
t h i s experiment.
John. Now, brother, I understand how to c onc ei ve the
sun's height when I hear the number of degrees mentioned;
and I love the instruments the more I
know
them: but I
always
thought
them
very
d i f f i c u l t things
t i l l
you
began t o
explain them.
Come, will
you
please t o ex plai n the p a r a l l e l
ruler?
George. (Fig. 2 , c . ) I t almost
explains
i t s e l f .
Practice,
with care and
caution,
will render
i t
familiar t o
you.
When
you
have drawn a l i n e , and require
another p a r a l l e l
to i t ,
take
care t o
keep
the limb of
the
r u l e r ,
which you do not
want t o
move,
quite
s t i l l , and firm t o the p ap er wi th
one
hand,
and
move the other s i d e , or limb of the r u l e r , upwards, or down
wards,
to
the p oi nt requ ired
;
then
hold
that
firm
to
the
paper
while you
draw
the l i n e ; i f
t h i s
i s not nicely
attended
t o , you
will
l o s e
the
p a r a l l e l ,
and
confuse you r drawi ng :
i ndeed, the
whole use of the
instruments
depends on
p r e c i s i o n ,
insomuch,
that
the
words
geometrical
precision
( s t r i c t l y
meaning,
ma
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GEOMETRICAL FIGURES EXPLAINED.
13
thematical, )
are
the terms
made
use
of t o
convey
an idea of
the utmost
c o r r e c t n e s s .
There are made p a r a l l e l r u l e r s on
r o l l e r s ,
and
many
other
useful
instruments;
but
I
will
now
go
on with
Practical Geometry
—emanding yo ur w ho le attention
f o r a short space of time; and then, John,
I
will teach
you
to
draw in
perspective
: you
must keep
your
eyes on the
diagrams,
while
I
explain each f i g u r e , or give
you
what i s
termed
THE DEFINITIONS
OF
GEOMETRY.
Fig.
6 This i s
only
a single dot or point,
and
i s
e l , . ,
p . i . t .
j . j l e
f j j . g j .
j . e r m
m
p r a c t i c a l
geometry:
i t
i s
to
be
conceived a s
without
length, breadth,
or thickness.
Fig. 7 i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e , having length without
7 - reference
to
breadth
or thickness,
and
which
you may imagine
to be
a
number
of dots
united.
John.
But, brother,
i f dots
mean
p o i n t s , a s you have s a i d ,
without length, breadth, or thickness, how would they ever
make
a
l i n e
?
George. That i s
a f a i r question, John
; but
you
must allow
the palpable dot
f o r
the present, although you are c o r r e c t .
Figs.
8 and 9 . These two
figures
are curved l i n e s , having no
straight p a r t .
Fig. 10
i s a
right
angled t r i a n g l e ,
or an angle of 90
degrees.
Fig.
11
i s
an acute a n g l e ,
or
l e s s
than 90 degrees.
Fig. 12 i s an obtuse
a n g l e ,
or
more
than
90 degrees.
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14
GEOMETBICAL
EXPLANATIONS.
Fig.
13,
a , i s a
l i n e
perpendicular
t o
b , because i t i s
a t
a
right
angle
with
i t .
Observe,
that
l i n e
i s
a l
ways considered perpendicular to
a horizontal or l e v e l l i n e , which
i s a t a right angle with i t ; but a
plumb-line
i s the
original
principle
of a perpendicular, without
any
material
exception
to the object
of our pursuit.
Ann.
Can
there
be
any
exception?
George.
Yes,
when
a
plumb-line i s suspended
near
the side
of
a
mountain,
i t w i l l be attracted out of i t s v e r t i c a l
and
proper
perpendicular
direction, towards the centre of gravity, by the
mountain.
Eliza.
In
what proportionate degree, brother?
George. I t will be
too great a digression
from the object of
our present pursuit t o answer your question properly ;
you
will
find
i t
f u l l y
explained
in
the Encyclopedias,
under
the
word
' ' Attraction
.
which you will
read
a t your
own
convenient
time.
John. What i s a plumb-line?
George. Tie your
top-string t o
the peg of your top,
and
l e t
i t hang a s a
weight, and
the
string
will be a plumb-line. You
may
have
observed
the
bricklayer's
building-rule, that has a
l i n e and plummet of lead : i t i s called the plumb-rule ;
by
which
they
are able
t o
prove
the
perpendicular
of
their
work,
which
i s a
point
of the utmost importance in building : the
pavior's
l e v e l l i n g - r u l e
has a l s o the plumb-line
hanging
perpendicularly
over the centre of i t s level edge or
base l i n e .
Ann.
Then,
a s
they
are s o very
accurate
in their works, I
conceive we shou ld not be
l e s s s o
in our imitations of them.
Now
I
f e e l the
force
of your remarks on my
f i r s t
sketches ; you
used t o say that the houses I drew
were
falling down.
Eliza.
Why, a l l my l i t t l e
landscapes
will shock
me
now;
f o r the architecture i s a l l leaning t o the right hand, l i k e writing.
John.
Yes,
I dare say i t
was
the practice of writing
which made you draw s o sloping; and,
I think,
the best way
w i l l be t o take
more
care
in
f u t u r e .
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GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS. 15
George. Fig.
13, b , i s a
horizontal l i n e , and
represents a
perfect l e v e l : i t i s the base l i n e of t h i s f i g u r e . (The term base
l i n e i s properly applied t o that
l i n e on which
a
figure
i s erected.)
The
bottom
l i n e of
any
picture i s i t s
base
l i n e .
Fig.
13, c , i s a
diagonal
l i n e , because i t c r o s s e s the figure a t
opposite
angles, and
in
i t s direction may be considered the
oblique
l i n e : that i s the geometrical term f o r a straight l i n e ,
which i n v e r t i c a l f i g u r e s i s neither l e v e l nor perpendicular;
and
oblique l i n e s , on any plane, are such
a s
are not
perpendicular
or
p a r a l l e l
t o
the
base
l i n e .
Figs.
14
and
15
are parallel
l i n e s
:
~
they always
follow one another
a t
equal d i s t a n c e s . The two edges of the
brass semicircle of the protractor are
a s
p a r a l l e l
a s those of the straight
p a r t .
Fig. 1
6 i s a chord, or
subtense : i t
i s the straight l i n e that
joins
the two
1 6 . extremities of an
a r c , exactly a s the
string
of
an
archer's
bow,
when strung:
i t i s
the
bow
which
makes the t i t l e of archer proper.
Fig. 1 7 . As p i r a l l i n e i s a curved
l i n e
issuing from i t s centre, and
continually expanding, and going
o f f from i t , a t every turn.
John. I can make a s p i r a l l i n e , by rolling t h i s narrow s l i p
of paper
round
my
p e n c i l ,
and
then
letting
i t
l o o s e .
George.
I l i k e
your
observation, John;
I
s h a l l
soon
direct
you
to the means
of
drawing one
properly
; l e t me
f i r s t
explain
a l l
the
f i g u r e s .
f \
Fig.
18 i s a t a n g e n t , which
I J touches another l i n e without c u t -
—
^
—
— ting i t .
8 . 6
Eliza.
By
the
f i g u r e ,
i t
appears
that
the
surface
of
the
table
would be a tangent
t o an
orange ;
I wish
you
would
make the
experiment, brother.
George. The
application
deserves one;
and
we
w i l l
divide
i t by cutting into four equal parts : the l i n e s which pass through
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GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS.
147.28 D.grsei.
Fig.
30.
The hendecagon,
or
figure
of
eleven
equal
s i d e s
and
a n g l e s .
Fig.
3 1 . The dodecagon,
or
figure
of twelve equal s i d e s
and
a n g l e s .
When
these
figures are
to be described
within
c i r c l e s , a l l
their
angles must touch the
circumferent
l i n e ; but when pro
duced proportionate t o a given measurement
f o r
one s i d e , the
circumferent
c i r c l e must a r i s e , in some instances, out of the
geometrical
process necessary f o r finding the angles of such
polygon : which
I
will teach
you
in proper course.
The number of
degrees
which i s contained in one side of
each
polygon
i s
marked,
to
shew
you
that
the
protractor
( f i g .
5) may be used
t o divide a c i r c l e
into
any number of
equal p a r t s ,
in
the manner explained
under
i t s proper
head
—
the use
of
the protractor
(pages 10 and
1 1 ) .
Triangular figures are distinguished by what i s c a l l e d the
q u a l i t i e s
of their angles; a s a
right-angled triangle
( f i g . 1 0 ) , an
acute-angled
triangle ( f i g . 11),
an
obtuse-angled triangle ( f i g . 12),
and
the trigon ( f i g . 22).
The
distinguishing
names of
four-sided
f i g u r e s
are
a s f o l
low:—
Fig. 32. The s q u a r e .
Fig. 33. The parallelogram.
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GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS.
19
Fig.
34. The
rhombus.
Fig.
35.
The
rhomboid.
Fig. 36. The t r a p e z o i d , which has
two
opposite s i d e s p a r a l l e l ,
and
the
other two
unequal.
Fig.
37. The trapezium,
having
a l l i t s four s i d e s and angles unequal.
The other two regular figures are-
Fig. 38. The true c i r c l e .
Fig. 39. The e l l i p s i s .
y
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22
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
e e then a right l i n e drawn through e e , w i l l
divide
the l i n e
AB equally a t G.
.
■
George.
I I I . Now
erect
a
perpendicular
on
the
end
of
a
l i n e .
John. I can
do
i t with the protractor, without following
these directions—nly marking my paper a t 90
degrees,
you
know.
George. We c an p ro ve
that
h e r e a f t e r . Come,
proceed according to your
example
( f i g . 5 2) ; draw
the
l i n e
A B, then open the compasses t o about
half i t s
length,
place one
foot carefully on the
end
of
B,
and
pitch
the other
f o o t
down
a t
adventure
over
the l i n e
A
B,
and
mark i t by C, on
which
f i x
one
foot of
your
compasses, and
then, with
the
o t h e r , mark
the
curves
GF
and
D, then the l i n e from D
through
C
w i l l c r o s s
G F, and produce the point E ; and a l i n e drawn from i t down
to B
w i l l produce the
answer
t o
my
question.
IV.
Now observe
how to l e t f a l l a per
pendicular from
a given point over a
right
l i n e t o
that
l i n e .
A
B
( f i g .
53)
i s
the
right
l i n e ,
and
the given
point
i s
a t
E ; open the
compasses to somewhat l e s s than the space
AE,
s e t
one foot on E, and describe the arc
C D, producing
the
points
C D, on each of which, with
an
equal
opening of the compasses, make the c r o s s
curves
below the l i n e ,
t o which
from E draw E
F, which i s the
l i n e
proposed.
V. To l e t f a l l a
perpendicular
from a
point
nearly,
or
exactly,
over
the
end
of
a right l i n e ; A B ( f i g . 54) being the
given l i n e , and
C
the given
point:
f i r s t
draw
an oblique l i n e from
the poi nt C t o
wards A, a s
a t
F ;
divide
F C equally a s a t
D, s e t one foot on D, carefully extending the other
t o
C, then
describe
the arc C E, draw a l i n e through C
and
E,
and
i t i s done.
VI. To
draw
one l i n e
p a r a l l e l t o an- y
- . . . j G
other
l i n e ,
a t
a
given
distance
asunder.
c
d d
Draw
the l i n e AB
( f i g .
55),
then
take the
a-
j - u
given
distance
C
in
your
compasses, and c
(any
where) on
A
B, s e t one foot a s
a t a , 5 5 .
and describe the curve c c , and again on b , describe d d ;
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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
23
¥«
then draw the required l i n e F G a s a tangent
t o
both,
c c and
d d—nd i t will be p a r a l l e l to AB a s required.
VII. To make
a geometrical square
to
a
given measure. Let
the
l i n e
A B
( f i g .
56), of
any
length, be
the measure
of
each side of the square, then draw EF the
same
length,
and erect the perpendicular F D
equal
in
length
with AB
;
now
open your
compasses
to
the
given length A B, and
with
one foot on E describe the curve
a a , and with the compasses opened t o the diagonal space E D
describe
(on
F) m
m,
crossing
a
a ,
and
producing
the
point
C;
then draw the l i n e s
C
D and C E, and the square i s completed.
A VIII. To draw parallelograms t o given
g
measures.
Let
A
be the length
and
B
the width.
F i r s t ,
draw the l i n e C D ( f i g .
5 7) equal t o A, then s e t up the given
width B
perpendicularly
on C, producing
G,
w .
and
by describing the curve e e on D
with
the
length
of
B, then
(with
the
diagonal
measure
G
D
in
your
compasses,
setting one foot on C, )
describe
the curve o o , pro
ducing the point
F,
from which
draw
F D and F G.
IX. To make
a
triangle
by
the given
lengths of i t s three s i d e s , a s A B C ( f i g .
58). F i r s t ,
draw D E equal to A, then
take the length of B in your compasses,
and
with
one foot
on D describe the
curve e
e
repeat
the
l i k e
with
the
length of
C
on
E,
describing the
curve
a a across
e
e , producing the point F, draw D F and E F, and
the
triangle
i s true
to
the given
measures
of i t s s i d e s .
H
„ X. To
make an
angle equ al
t o
one
given. C and A ( f i g . 59) converge
and
meet
a t B, making
the given angle; now
5 9 . ~ draw E F equal to A B,
and
on B describe
the curve
G
H, and with the same opening of your
compasses,
wi th one
foot
on
F,
describe
the
curve
e
e ;
then
take the
space
of
the opening G H,
and
mark the space e e on the curve e e
equal t o GH, then through the upper e draw the side D to
F,
and
the angles are equal.
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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 25
XV. To inscribe
the l a r g e s t c i r c l e
pos
s i b l e within
any
triangle :
—
raw any t r i
angle,
a s ABC
f i g .
64), b i s e c t any
two o f the
angles ( s e e the angle D of the lower diagram)
thus—
e t
one f o o t of the compasses
on
D, and
a t
any convenient
opening describe the curve
fg,
and
on
those
points where fg c r o s s e s the
two
limbs of the angle, s e t your compasses and
mark h h from / , and
i
i from g , producing the
point
E, then the central l i n e D E
b i s e c t s
the angle; follow t h i s
method
on
the angles
of
your
original
t r i a n g l e ,
and where
the
two
bisectional l i n e s a and
e
c r o s s , a s a t o , i s the proper centre
of the required c i r c l e .
XVI. To
find
the s i d e of
any
re
gular
polygon, not
exceeding
twelve
s i d e s , within a c i r c l e . First draw
a
large
c i r c l e , and through O ( f i g .
65),
the
centre,
draw the
diame
t e r
A
B,
which
divides
the
c i r c l e
into two equal parts, then with the
radius of the
c i r c l e ,
and
one
foot
on
A, mark
K and L,
the l i n e K L
w i l l be
the
s i d e of an e q u i l a
t e r a l t r i a n g l e to that c i r c l e ; then A C will be the s i d e of a
regular square
in
the c i r c l e , a s a polygon of four s i d e s ; next
place
one
f o o t of
the
compasses
on G,
and
extend the
other
to
C; describe
C E,
and the straight l i n e
C
E i s the side of a
regular
pentagon,
f i v e s i d e s
;
then
the
r a d i u s ,
or
semidiameter,
makes
the hexagon,
s i x
s i d e s . The heptagon i s
found in half
the length of the
l i n e
K L, a s K
G
or
L G,
t h i s
i s
the
polygon
of
seven s i d e s . Bisect
A
C a s a t I , draw
A
I , that i s the side
of an octagon, or regular polygon of e i g h t s i d e s . The l i n e NL
i s
one-third
of the arc
L
K,
and
consequently i s the true side
of
a regular polygon of
nine s i d e s ,
c a l l e d the
enneagon,
or
nonagon. The decagon i s found by the
length of
O E, or
by
the
chord
of
half the
arc
C
E,
t h i s
i s
the
regular
polygon
of
t e n s i d e s , e t c . Now to find the side of the hendecagon, draw
F N;
then the length
F
H answers f o r the side of the
polygon
of e l e v e n
s i d e s .
And
the chord
of
half the arcs
A
K
or A L,
y
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26
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
gives the length
of
the side of a dodecagon, or polygon of
twelve s i d e s .
Ann.
I t
puzzled
me
to
look
a t
t h i s
diagram
t i l l
you ex
plained i t : but suppose
I
had a fixed
measure f o r
one side of
any
polygon—ow should I proceed?
George.
Only follow
me
through the next figure a s atten
tively a s in
t h i s ,
and
you
will not
f a i l
of
an
answer.
XVII.
To
describe any regular poly
gon, including twelve s i d e s or l e s s , to
the gi ven length of
any
one s i d e .
Let
A
B
( f i g .
66)
be
the
given
measure
of
one s i d e ; b i s e c t i t a t
Q,
and r a i s e the
perpendicular Q P;
now
with one foot
on A,
and
the other
extended t o B, de
scribe the arc B H; then on B describe
the
opposite
arc A H; then
divide
the
arc B
H
into
si x
equal p a r t s ,
and
number them a s in the ex
ample:
then on the
point
H, a s a c e n t r e ,
with the compasses
open
H,
1 ,
describe
the
f i r s t
small
semicircle,
I ,
1 ,
7 ,
which
produces the points 7 and
I ;
making I the centre f o r a c i r c l e
t o pass through A and B, which would make the l i n e AB a
side of &
pentagon to such
c i r c l e ;
then
taking H f o r the centre,
and A
B
f o r
one s i d e , you will produce a c i r c l e
which
would
contain a
hexagon
with AB a s one of i t s equal s i d e s . The points
numbered on the
perpendicular,
are the centres f o r their poly
gons,
and are found by placing
one
foot on H ( a s I
7 , was
found),
and
extending
the
other
t o
f i r s t
2 ,
then
3 ,
e t c . ,
describing the
small dotted semicircles up to their p o i n t s , a s numbered on the
perpendicular Q P.
Eliza. Then
i f
I would make the given
l i n e
A B, a side of
an enneagon, I understand that I must make the po int 9 (on the
perpendicular
Q P)
the centre;
and
the
space
9 A, or 9 B,
the r a d i u s , or semi-diameter of that c i r c l e ,
which would contain such polygon.
John.
And
s o ,
of
course,
with
the
other numbers on Q P.
George.
XVIII.
I will now show
you
how t o describe
an oval
of a given length,
without
regard to
width.
AB
( f i g .
67)
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28
PRACTICAL
GEOMETRY.
methods; bu t a s the ingenious contrivance of producing a true
r e s u l t by the i n t e r s e c t i o n of l i n e s w i l l be i n s t r u c t i v e ,
you
shall
have
two
d i f f e r e n t examples.
XX.
To
describe,
then,
an
e l l i p s i s of
any
given length and width by the
in
tersection of l i n e s , producing o r d i n a t e s .
First draw the length A C B ( f i g . 69):
take the
half
of the long
diameter
a s at
C,
in
your
compasses,
and
describe the
l a r g e s t c i r c l e ; then with
half
the given
short diameter on the original centre C,
describe the
inner
c i r c l e ; now divide the outer c i r c l e
into
24
equal p a r t s , then lay your ruler on the
centre C, and
(passing i t
successively
on
t o each of the divisional
marks
on the outer
c i r c l e ) , where your
ruler
c r o s s e s the inner c i r c l e , repeat the divi
s i o n a l marks upon i t ; then from every mark o f the inner c i r c l e
draw horizontal l i n e s
t o
the great c i r c l e ,
and
perpendicular
l i n e s
from a l l the marks on the great c i r c l e t i l l they c r o s s the f i r s t
s e t
of
l i n e s ;
the
points
through
which
the
t r u e
e l l i p s i s
can be
traced
will be thus produced.
XXI. This figure exhibits
a
quarter
of a
true e l l i p s i s ; by which method
t h e
whole might
be drawn. First draw AB ( f i g . 70) a s half
the length of an e l l i p s i s , and l e t f a l l the per
pendicular
A C equal t o half the width; then
draw
C
D
p a r a l l e l
to
A B,
and BD E p a r a l l e l
to
A
C,
exactly
twice
the
length
of
A C;
now
divide
A C
and
C
D into si x (or
any
other number) of equ al p a r t s , and draw
l i n e s
from
each division on the line A
C, a l l
converging
to
B;
and
from E,
across
each
division
on the l i n e C D, t i l l each
meets
i t s
correspondent,
a s
in the example
; then a
curve drawn through
the
points thus
found will be a
true quarter part
of an e l l i p s i s .
XXII. But to
find
the
c e n t r e of
a given o v a l , and i t s two diameters;
you
must
f i r s t
draw
the
two
parallel
l i n e s
Q G, and MO ( f i g . 71), in any d i r e c t i o n ,
and any distance a p a r t , within the
given
oval; b i s e c t them a t H
and
N, then
draw the l i n e E P through H
and
N;
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32
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
from
the
points
c
and B
( s e e
No.
I I . ) ;
then
a
l i n e
from
y
through z produces e
and continues
down t i l l i t
meets
the
perpendicular c g f a t d , which point i s the centre, with the
radius
d
A,
f o r
describing the
arc
required.
Ann.
Why i s t h i s
c a l l e d
a scheme arc?
George. I t
i s
an accepted
name f o r
so
much of a c i r c l e a s
i s seldom l e s s than 70 degrees, or more than 90, and never an
e n t i r e
half
of a c i r c l e .
XXXII.
To draw a scheme arc to
any given height
and
width by the
intersection of l i n e s : A
C B( f i g . 81)
i s
the
width
(or
span)
of
the
a r c ,
and
C e
i t s height ; which i s carried up
to
twice
i t s length a s a t d; then
draw
A d
and B
d ,
subdivide
both into
a
l i k e number of
equal
parts ( a s
here,
into t e n parts),
number them
according
to the
example, and draw
l i n e s
from
1 on
A
d to 1 on Bd ,
then
from 2 to 2 ,
and s o
on; t h i s
w i l l complete
the
required a r c .
Perhaps t h i s ingenious contrivance was that which gave us
the word scheme
a r c ; f o r
i t i s not a
perfect
segment of a
c i r c l e ,
nor can a perfect
c i r c l e
be produced by the
method
here
given.
P XXXIII. To describe
an
arc of
equal height with a
s e m i c i r c l e ,
bu t
of greater span, f i r s t draw the
chord
of the longest span
dg
( f i g . 82)
and
b i s e c t
i t
a t
e
;
then
with
the
radius
of
8 - the s e m i c i r c l e ,
with
one foot on e ,
describe
A c B; now proceed a s in No. XXXL,
and
you will
produce the required arc d
c
g .
Eliza. What i s the use of t h i s
problem,
brother?
George. Suppose the regular facade of a
building
to be an
arcade,
and
that the central
entrance,
or two s i d e
wings,
required
arches of wider
span than
the r e s t , they can
be uniformly
produced
by
the
means
here
adopted
—
h i s
i s
only
one
in
stance
of i t s usefulness; but
were
you to pursue the study
of
geometry, you would
find
every
problem repeated
a s often
a s
you find the alphabet repeated i n langu age, or the nine figures in
arithmetic.
or
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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
35
Ann.
I s
t h i s
the end of
Practical
Geometry?
.
George. I may c a l l i t t h e alphabet rather than the end.
John. Must we remember i t a l l ?
Eliza. We have learned how to read i t a t any r a t e , and can
r e f e r t o our problems, a s we do t o our dictionaries and maps
occasionally.
George.
And
questions
which w i l l
often occur
you w i l l
remember, a s well a s
you
do your language.
Whenever
you would make a small copy of a picture,
divide
the original by whole
numbers,
so that the copy may measure
exactly
one-half,
one-third,
fourth,
f i f t h ,
s i x t h ,
seventh,
or
eighth, e t c . , part
of
the o r i g i n a l , both
in height
and
width
;
that the
proportions may
be the more
e a s i l y
compared.
But should i t be required to
copy
some
particular length
or
width, the proportion to the
o r i
ginal
may
be
perfectly obtained, by
drawing a
diagonal
right l i n e ( f i g .
91)
on
the
o r i g i n a l ,
with
a
piece
of
f i n e twine, or thread, from one
corner
a t the top, t o the opposite
corner a t
the bottom
; then s e t up
the
given
length
from
the bottom)
p a r a l l e l
t o the s i d e ,
or
wi dth from
the
s i d e ,
p a r a l l e l t o the
end,
t i l l
cither touches the diagonal, and
from
that
point
the
corresponding
width
or
length w i l l
be
truly de
termined.
Ann.
Has
the triangular
figure ( f i g . 7 3 ) , any other
use than
what
you
explained
in No.
XXIV.
?
George. One of i t s angles i s made a correct right angle, f o r
the purpose of drawing
right angles
without the geometrical
p r o c e s s .
John. Then why
di d
you not explain
t h i s
before ?
Wecould
hav e done a l l the
right
angles
i n s t a n t l y ,
without so many A's
and B ' s .
\
A
\i
.
s i
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36
ON THE DIAGONALS OF THE
SQUARE.
George. Yes ; but then you
would not
have known
how
to
make
or prove this instrument.
Eliza. What
i s
i t s diagonal side
f o r , and
why
i s
one side of
the right angle longest?
George. If the
three
sides
are
proportionally
made to mea
sure three, four, and five inches, f e e t , yards, e t c . , the
squares
of
the two
shortest
sides added t oge ther, are equal
to
the square
of
the
largest,
or diagonal
s i d e .
John. What do you mean
by
t he squ are
of
a side?
George. Multiply
the side three inches
by
three,
and
that
will
be 9 ,
or the square
of
three;
then
multiply
four
by four,
and you have 16, which i s t he squ ar e of the next
shortest
side:
add them
together,
and they make
25.
Nowsquare the longest
side 5, and that will also produce 25, which stands as a general
rule, that
the
square
of any diagonal (or longest side) of a right-
angled
triangle,
i s equal
to the
united
squares of the two lesser
sides: turn to
No.
XXVIII.
,
and
you will find i t proved. By
this rule, builders
begin
to
set their large
framing at right
angles
(s u ch
as
the
f i r s t
timbers
of
roofs,
which
are
termed
plates); and persons
drawing plans,
prove the
truth
of their
proceedings thereby.
John.
I
wish, brother, you would
shew
mehow
they
make
use of this
rule.
George. I will give you one instance : suppose a jointed two-
foot rule
to
be two pieces of timber, 12
feet
long instead of so
many inches ; and you wish
to lay
them down exactly at
a right
angle :
f i r s t ,
open
the
dividers
to
5
inches
( supposed
feet)
;
then
lay the
rule
on the table, with i t s
two limbs
as nearly as you
can
at a ri ght angle,
and place
one
foot of the dividers exactly
at
3
inches
from the
centre
of the joint, down one limb o f t he
rule,
and move the other limb t i l l the other
leg
of the dividers will
touch the point, which i s four inches from the centre, and the
angle
will be
right. This
one
right
angle, thus
found,
i s a
rule
for
the rest of their operations, as
far
as relates to the square,
because their opposite sides must
be parallel,
which i s explained
in your examples Nos.
VII.
and VIII. of
Practical
Geometry,
figures 56 and 5 7 : (the
numbers
6, 8, and 10 f e e t ,
are
gene
rally the builders' guide, because their ten-foot rod proves the
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PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 37
diagonal of 6 f e e t and
8
f e e t ) . Endeavour t o complete your
knowledge of
geometry; f o r
a smattering of any
a r t
or science
will
only
pass
with
the
ignorant,
and
must
expose
you
to
the
r i d i c u l e or contempt
of
the p r o f i c i e n t . Knowledge
of
t h i s
nature i s
f o r u s e ,
not show ;
and every
step one
takes
in
geometry leads to an end s o delightfully c l e a r , that the student
seems
t o
f e e l as i f he had always known
i t .
Ann.
Can we begin perspective
now?
George.
Yes, by the help of
No. I I I .
of
our
Practical
Geometry;
f o r
you know, s i s t e r , i t will be
r e q u i s i t e t o
have a
right-angled
f i g u r e ,
or
parallelogram,
t o draw
our
designs
i n .
John. I can do that by the protractor now, i f you w i l l t e l l
me
how long and
how
wide i t
must
be
;
i t i s
exactly
our
example VIII., which I could do
with
the
right-angled
triangle
now ;
but I
w i l l use the
protractor to f u l f i l my
promise.
George.
Come, then, draw the figure 3
J
inches long
and
2\
inches
wide;
and explain
your
work a s
you proceed, in
a
clear manner.
John.
I
f i r s t
draw
a
l i n e
A
B
( f i g .
92)
3£
inches
long;
then
I s h a l l s e t the straight edge of the protractor on that l i n e , very
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38 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
even,
and
with
the
l i t t l e mark a t
the centre of i t
exactly
to one
end of
the l i n e ; then I s h a l l make the mark a t 90 degrees, a s
you
told
u s ,
and
draw
a
l i n e
through i t ,
t o
that
end
of
the
base
l i n e whereon I placed the centre of the protractor, which l i n e I
must
mark exactly 24 inches long—hat
makes one
corner, you
know : now I have only to mark the length 34 inches from the
top of the
perpendicular
I
have
drawn,
and
the
wi dth 24
from
the poi nt of the other
end
of the base
l i n e ,
and draw the
other
two s i d e s
t o the
mark
thus obtained, t o complete i t . (See
figure 92).
Eliza.
Well
done,
John.
Ann. I am delighted with i t .
George. Now
t o prove the truth
t h i s
right-angled f i g u r e ,
the
two diagonal
lengths, A
C
and B D, must be
equal.
Ann. This
i s
taught
us by the
diagonal
measure used
in
our
Nos. VII. and
VIII.
George. You
have
now,
I
perceive, vanquished your t e r
ror a t the sound of the word Geometry and i t gives
me
great pleasure t o
be
able t o
pay
you a l l
the f a i r
compliment
of
my
very
sincere
thanks f o r your cheerful attention, and for
the
proofs you
have
evinced
of
my
success a s a teacher.
John. I t i s a l l e a s i l y enough understood, but then i t i s so
t e d i o u s
t o
draw them.
George. My dear brother, a s the love of play and light
amusements
gradually s u b s i d e s , you
w i l l
find
the
benefit of
knowledge
f u l l y
worth
the labour
and
application i t
requires
;
you have already proved how ignorance skulks away a s i n t e l l e c t
advances in power.
We have now l a i d a s u f f i c i e n t foundation f o r our progress in
Perspective.
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PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE.
The youthful reader i s to bear in mind, throughout the following explanations,
—hat the words
Ob je ct o f
study, Scene, or Subject, r e l a t e to real
nature, no t to the p i c t u r e s , or drawings,
they may
undertake to copy,
a s ,
i n
such examples,
a l l
the laws
of perspective
a r e , or should
b e , complete to
t h e i r
hands.
ON
TIIE HORIZON OF
A
PICTURE.
George. Now l e t me
remind
yon
of
the rule l a i d down in
the
f i r s t
part
of
our
conversations,
—
hat
t h i s
outline
or
limit
of
the
picture
( f i g . 92), must
be
conceived to
be
the s i z e of an
a p e r t u r e , through which you view the object
of
your study ( I
mean by t h i s not a p i c t u r e ,
or
drawing, but a
r e a l
scene, or
object of
nature);
and the
g l a s s
s u r f a c e ,
supposed
t o cover t h i s
aperture, i s always t o be understood a s the transparent
plane,
on
which (were your eye
stationary)
the drawing might
be made
a perfect outline : and,
in
drawing the ground
plan and eleva
tions
preparatory
f o r
a
perspective
drawing,
t h i s
transparent
plane i s always represented
by
a
l i n e c a l l e d
the s e c t i o n l i n e ,
which
w i l l
be further
understood
in proper course.
Now,
on viewing
the diagram ( f i g .
93), you
may imagine a
l e v e l
surface extending
from
the base
l i n e
t o the
utmost v i s i b l e
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HORIZON
AND
BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.
41
John.
Now, if I were
to
draw
the
likeness of my l i t t l e
dog,
I
must have a
high
horizontal line
to
the picture ; because my
eye
must
be
considerably
above
him,
unless,
indeed,
I
placed
him on the table, which, you know, i s not a proper place for a
dog;
but
the portrait
of
a horse, or an elephant,
would
have a
low
horizon, inasmuch as their height i s above the level of my
eye. AmI ri ght, George?
George. You have comprehended me most happily. Such
active and proper
application of what
I have taught you
i s
a
proof of your attention.
Ann.
I have
seen
some
very
strange-looking
prints,
in which
(what I now understand to be) the horizontal l i n e was almost
at the top of the picture,
and
one might see
over
the tops
of
houses, and
even
partly
down the
chimneys, and over
a vast
e xt en t o f country : what name doyou give to this sort of view?
George.
It i s called
a bird's eye view ( f i g . 94) ; because the
height
of the
eye
i s considered, in
such
pictures, to be
inaccessible
to
any eye but
that
of a
bird
high
in
the
air
; by which only
such an extensive
view
c an be obtained.
This
sort of
pictures
i s rather descriptive,
and the chiefpleasure
they give i s information : they convey
a
tolerably
correct
idea
of both plan and elevation, in
one
piece, and are adapted to
explain the positions of f l e e t s
or
armies,
or
the general view of
an estate or fortification. Palaces, and o the r p ub li c buildings,
are
thus represented
occasionally.
John. I hope, brother,
you
will draw us a specimen
of
a
bird's-eye
view.
George. You
will
find
one in the perspective
view
of the
chess-board ( f i g .
94).
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42
OF LEVELS
AND
POINT OF SIGHT.
Now be very
attentive
; and, instead of 64 square inches
(which admit to
be
the real dimensions of the chequer-hoax&),
you
must
consider
them so
many
f i e l d s ,
each
a
hundred
yards
square
: l e t this
fix
the scale of proporti on with
regard
to
the height
of
the horizontal
l i n e
;
and you
will find the eye at
c ,
exactly
400 yards above the
base
l i n e ,
or
level ground,
which i s
certainly a
height inaccessible to any eye but
that of
a bird.
Eliza. Or
a
balloonist's
suppose
we
new
name
i t ,
since
bal
loons
have, in a l l probability,
rivalled
the
utmost
height of the
eagle.
Ann. The thought i s a-propos : but the old name i s estab
lished; and, as
i t
conveys the proper idea,
need
not
be
changed.
We
must a l l thank
you,
brother,
for
your
very
satisfactory ex
planations.
ON THE APPARENT
INCLINATION
OF LEVELS TO THE
HORIZON.
George. Now
that
you seem to
comprehend
the
horizon
MW£ .P i
~
lWi niiiirannri~a.
..
,
i.
.
.n,
,
i „.
,„..
,
i irii.rifilliiMTOflE
1
~
. - j j - j i - ^ S ^ H
~ / . C - i e J a i j ^
■ = - ^ ^ . . . . = f - * .
- ^
—— p* ;s=g3* .'pMHMM ^ p B ^ ^ B B==
^jg^j^'il^.. |- - [I
. l ~
W MUKw
-
iBbI
:.i:r;::->4>fc ;.^^
( f i g . 95 ) as the utmost
visible line
of level
land,
or of
water,
you
must
also take
for
a
rule,
that
a l l level planes (such as
f l o o r s ,
steps,
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ON POINT OF SIGHT
AND
HORIZON. 43
t a b l e s , s h e l v e s , c e i l i n g s , e t c . ) appear to tend t o the horizontal
l i n e of the picture, a s directly a s level land or water. In the
diagram
are
represented
f i v e
l e v e l
planes,
which
you
may
c a l l
broad
shelves or f l o o r s ,
and their undersides c e i l i n g s :
observe,
they a l l
converge towards the horizontal l i n e , although they are
representatives of
parallel
surfaces
; two
of which are below,
and
three above the
horizon
:
and
were their breadth
t o be continued
to
the
utmost
extent of
v i s i b l e
distance, their retiring
edges
would a l l appear to
unite
in one
point
on the
horizontal l i n e , ac
cording to the l i n e s in the
example.
Eliza.
This
i s
very
c l e a r ,
brother:
now
w i l l
you
t e l l
me
the
proper
name of the point t o
which a l l
their retiring edges
would converge?
George.
I t
i s the POINT
OF
sight; because the eye which
could see the f i v e l e v e l planes just a s they are drawn, must be
exactly opposite that p o i n t .
Ann. Let me understand you c l e a r l y .
I s
t h i s point t o be
considered a s
in
the picture,
and on
the
distant horizon?
or i s
i t placed there t o represent the p oint which f a l l s directly oppo
s i t e t h e eye of
one
viewing the
scene ?
George.
The large white surface in f i g . 96, which repre
sents a plai n
canvass
t o be
painted
on,
explains the
matter a t
once
; there the boy's eye, or real
point
of
s i g h t ,
i s in i t s proper
place, and
the
nominal point
of
s i g h t properly
placed on the
canvass.
John.
That
makes i t
very
c l e a r .
George. Suppose you
go t o the
transparent plane
(the win
dow) and f i x
yourself steady,
a s i f
you would trace on
i t
the
scene before
you,
—here would be one
point
of the
g l a s s
you
look
through
exactly l e v e l with
your eye ; and
the
continuation
of
that point by a l e v e l l i n e , right
and
l e f t , would be the proper
horizontal
l i n e .
But
t h i s
particular
point
must f a l l
precisely
on
that part of such l i n e , where the ray or direct l i n e of sight
would
form
a
r i g h t
angle
with
the
g l a s s ,
s o
a s
t o
be
exactly
per
pendicular t o i t s surface and t o your eye; and the ray of s i g h t ,
thus
determining t h i s point, i s called the
principal
v i s u a l ray ;
which you
w i l l
be well acquainted with
when
you begin
t o
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,.-**
44 ON POINT OF SIGHT
AND
HORIZON.
draw in perspective.
Therefore,
a s
a l l visual rays proceed
from
the
e y e ,
and
not
from
t h e
horizon
. o f
the
scene,
the
point
thus
marked
must be
considered
t o be
OPPOSITE
t h e eye ; and
i t
i s
t o
be marked on the horizon, only because i t i s impossible to
describe
the
r e a l situation
o f the eye, which must
always
be
at
l e a s t
t h e
length
of
t h e picture distant from i t , a s will be further
explained a s
we
proceed.
John. I observe, brother, you sometimes say horizon; and
a t
o t h e r s , horizontal
l i n e :
what i s the difference ?
George.
All
drawings
of perspective representations
must
have a
horizontal l i n e
: but
there are many pictures
wherein a
view of the natural horizon, or utmost distance, cannot be
expressed : such
a s
architectural views, i n t e r i o r s , caverns, woody
scenery, mountainous distance, and perspective descriptions of
machinery; the
s t r i c t
distinction therefore i s , that the horizon
i s the r e a l o b j e c t ,
and
the horizontal
l i n e
i s a
l i n e l e v e l with
the
eye, drawn
on
the picture or
transparent
plane, exactly where
the natural horizon would appear,
and
which governs
a l l
the
level objects in a
picture
: because, a s I told
you before,
i t i s
determined by the height o f the eye.
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REASONS FOR THE HEIGHT OF HORIZON. 45
Eliza. It seems difficult to agree with one part of your law,
that the appearance
of
l e v e l land should be
drawn
as high as
my
eye,
when,
in
truth,
i t
i s
no
higher
than
my
feet?
George. Your observation i s very just ; and although you
will s t i l l find the horizontal l i n e , in the picture, as high as the
laws of perspective have fixed i t ,
I can give
you the satisfaction
of
knowing, that ^bur inquiry
i s founded
in truth ; and yet,
strange
as
i t
may
seem to you,
the rule
i s
quite consonant with
the law
of vision.
Ann. Come, John, we must attend to this curious point ;
for
if
the
ray
of
sight
does
really
descend
from
one's
eye
to
the
distant horizon, which i s admitted to be level, and consequently
no higher than our f e e t , I cannot
conceive
how George c an
maintain hi s rule, of drawing the horizontal line as high as the
eye.
George.
The ray, which conducts your
sight
down to the
proposed point, i s at
the
same
time a conductor of the
appear
ance of
i t up to your eye; and,
consequently, in e f f e c t ,
i s as
high
as
your
eye.
Suppose
your
eye
to
be
five
feet
higher
than the level
whereon
you
may be supposed
to stand,
and
you
direct a
ray of sight to
t hre e mi le s
distance, towards the
hori zon of
a
level
plain :
now c oncei ve
a
transparent plane of
glass to
be set
up
for
you to sketch the
scene upon
—say
three
feet from
you towards the horizon) ;
i f
you were
to
draw
the horizontal l i n e , on the glass or transparent plane, exactly
where you
would
see i t—ou must allow i t would
be
the true
perspective situation of the horizontal l i n e on the
transparent
plane ;—
nd
how much
would i t
be below the level of your
eye
think
you?
Ann. It must be somewhat
lower.
George. It
i s , as nearly as possible, only the eleventh
part
of the
eighth of an inch lower than your eye, when truly
marked on the glass, at three feet
distance
from i t : this i s an
atom
in
Eliza's
favour
;
but
i t
i s
too
small
a
difference
to
in
fluence
the
rule
laid
down,
that the horizontal
l i n e
in a
perspec
t i v e
drawing
must always be as
high
as
the
e y e .
And
you must
observe,
that
i t i s the distance of the transparent plane from
your
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46
REASONS
FOR
THE HEIGHT
OF
HORIZON.
Five
f e e t .
e y e , which occasions t h i s space between the
abso
lute l e v e l of your eye,
and
the descending ray:
f o r
were
you
t o
advance
the
transparent
plane
t o the distance of one foot from
your
eye, the
space between the r e a l l e v e l ,
and
the apparent
horizon,
would
be redu ced the
t h i r t y - t h i r d
part
of the e ighth of an inch ; and, agreeably t o what
I before observed, a s the l e v e l
ray
and the
descending one both meet in the eye, they will
therein be of
one and
the same
height.
For
the sake
of giving
you
a
diagram
within
the compass of our paper, I have reduced the dis
tance from three miles to
36
yards. The di a
gram ( f i g . 97) w i l l prove to you, by
mathematical
demonstration, that an object f i v e f e e t high, at
only 36 yards distance, would be but one inch §
and
£
in
height,
when traced
on the
s e c t i o n ,
or
transparent plane, a t three f e e t
from
the eye
;
and, consequently,
only
that
measure
from
head
to
foot below the horizontal l i n e of the drawing.
The two
l i n e s
drawn on the t a b l e t
(which
i s re
presented
on
an e a s e l bythe
figure)
supposes the
horizontal l i n e , and the height of a l i n e a t 36
yards
distance according with the p r o f i l e , to make
the space of one inch f and £ of an eighth
between
them. Then
suppose
you
were
to
paint
a
l i f e - s i z e
figure
or
group,
with
the
perspective
d i s t a n c e a t 12 f e e t , a figure a t 36 yards
distance
must
be four ti mes the height of the space found
in t h i s example; where the perspective distance
of the
t a b l e t
i s three f e e t .
We may now proceed, t i l l we
arrive
a t the
subject
( f i g . 97), when
I hope
to make you clearly
understand t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n .
John. We
are
sure
now
that the
horizon
can
never be higher than one's eye.
Ann.
I
thank
you,
brother.
But f i r s t
l e t me
ask
you
one
more question
respecting the horizon.
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50
OBJECTS
FALLING
UNDER
VARIOUS ANGLES.
centre on
the s t a t i o n of the eye, on a ground
plan
of rays : a s
in
f i g .
1
1 7 ) , and the more t o the right
or
l e f t objects are from the
principal
v i s u a l
ray,
or
perpendicular
of
your
e y e ,
the greater
must
be the angle under which those objects will f a l l . I
mean
that
the number of degrees between objects furthest a p a r t , must be
the greatest; and in tracing them on the g l a s s , or transparent
plane, a s they would appear thereon, especially near the fore
ground, you would
mark them broader
than their proportionate
s i z e : which w i l l be
made
c l e a r t o you in f i g . 114. Let t h i s
s u f f i c e t o lead
us on
towards a complete knowledge of the point
of
s i g h t .
John. I have heard you explain the ray of sight which
goes
from
one's eye,
directly
through
the g l a s s , or
transparent
plane,
to
the
horizon,
a s the
principal v i s u a l
ray.
This,
I think, I
understand ; but I cannot
s e e
how a ray can be perpendicular to
a
picture,
without
you
lay
i t on the f l o o r ,
and look
down per
pendicularly over
i t .
George. I
cannot expect
you
t o apply a l l
I have
taught you
a t
once;
but
had
you
recollected
the
definition
of
a
perpen
dicular
l i n e , given
in f i g .
13, a ,
I
should think
you would
not
have
raised t h i s
scruple ;
but, f o r
the sake of confirming you in
a thorough knowledge of the
matter, return
t o f i g . 13, which
I hope
w i l l
explain i t
t o
yo u r tho ro ugh comprehension.
Nowyou must a l l attend to the b o y ' s
e y e , and
the dotted l i n e ,
or ray, from
i t
t o the
centre
o f the
canvass,
which dotted l i n e i s
drawn
t o exhibit t o
your
view
the
principal v i s u a l
ray, a s perpen
dicular
t o
the
picture
;
f o r
i t i s
t o
be
understood
t o
be
a t
a
right
angle
with
the surface of the canvass on a l l s i d e s ;
and
i f the pic
t u r e , or canvass, were l a i d down on the f l o o r , a s
John
proposed,
and that ray were a
substance
of straight
wire,
properly fixed,
i t
would
then
be
a s
perpendicular
a s
a
plumb-line: therefore,
place
the
surface
of the
canvass in whatever
direction
you choose,
the
wire (thus
fixed) would
retain
i t s
r e l a t i v e
perpendicular to i t ;
and any eye directed along t h i s ray (of wire) must, according
t o the perspective acceptation of the term,
be
perpendicular
to
the canvass whereon i t i s thus f i x e d .
Eliza. Will
you
shew us how
you
made the pavement in
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POINT OF
DISTANCE.
51
this
drawing
look so square: as the compartments
decrease in
their
apparent
width as
well
as length?
—
here
i s some
regular
rule,
1 have
no doubt.
0
2 8 3
ON THE POINT OF DISTANCE
George. The question
which
ended ou r l a s t conversation,
brings
the
point of distance now
under
our attentive considera
tion ; which i s the distance of the
eye from
t he t ran sp are nt plane
through which
you
are supposed to see the objects
of
your study,
and
on
which you would
mark
or
trace them
accordingly,
were
i t not
for
the geometrical means
you
are now learning, to produce
precisely the same effect in another
way
: for although we do
not
absolutely trace on the
glass
from a given point of distance
for the eye, we are under the necessity
of
introducing, on a
ground plan of the subject
(see
ground plan, f i g .
117),
a section
l i n e , to answer the p urp os es o f the
glass,
in order to obtai n the
true perspect i ve
measurements
of
the objects ; and the distance
of
the
eye
from t h i s l i n e ,
or
substitute
for
the
surface
of
the
picture,
(glass, or transparent plane, a l l which mean one and
the same thing), constitutes the point of
distance.
Ann. I
take i t very
kind
that
you
so often re peat t he words
or transparent
plane,
whenever you
have
occasion to
speak of
the
surface
of the picture ; but don't you remember, brother,
we a l l
caught
the
right
idea at the very f i r s t ,
when you
called
John to the window
to trace
the
view
on
it?
I think
you
need only say picture in
future.
Eliza. And leave ou r
minds'
eyes to comprehend the r e s t .
George. I thank you, ladies, for
your
good-nature, attention,
and
wit.
John. Come, brother, shew u s what i s to be done with this
point of distance.
George. It i s always
to
be
marked
on the horizontal line,
on
the
right
or
l e f t ,
or
both,
of the
point
of
sight,
at
exactly
whatever measured distance of the eye from the
picture maybe
determined
on.
Now, Ann, you
shall
make the
drawing
(%, i o o ) .
X
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EFFECTS
OF
PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS EXPLAINED. 53
and rule the horizontal l i n e .
Now we
have
two squares
: come,
John,
you do the third.
John. That i s soon done; bu t I wish to sec as many as are
on the
chess-board—
hen we
should
know how to draw a whole
f l o o r .
George. You shall ; and / will draw i t , to teach you to han
dle the instruments in a better manner than you do .
Now
attend : I shall f i r s t
draw
the representation of the
whole
chess
board ( f i g .
101),
as one large
square seen
in perspective, by
the
same
process
that Ann found
the perspective of
one square of pave
ment; then I shall
divide
i t , at the
base
line,
into
eight
equal
parts, and
draw lines
from
1 0 1 ,
them to the centre, or poi nt of sight : these divisions will cro ss
t he o bli qu e line (which
I
f i r s t
drew,
to
find
the whole
square)
exactly where
the
horizontal
divisions of the
squares
must
be
drawn, giving their apparent depth equal
to
their geometrical
width.
John. I see this comes* like a l l perspective : but I wish you
could draw them to appear quite
square,
as the
real
object does
when I
am n ot t hi n ki n g
about
perspective
:
this
drawing appears
t o diminish ; and the furthest
divisions
look really smaller than
the nearest.
George. I
hope I shall be
able
soon
to
clear away this very
reasonable objection.
One
reason,
perhaps, why
the drawing
does
not gi ve a
truer
effect
may
be,
that
this sort
of
lesson
i s
drawn with
too
l i t t l e
attention to
the gradual
diminution
of each
* Professional term f o r e f f e c t produced.
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54 THE INTEGRITY
OF PERSPECTIVE.
retiring
l i n e ,
a s i t
recedes
from the
base
l i n e ; but the
chief
reason i s ,
that
the utmost perfection perspective can give to a
p i c t u r e ,
i s
only
t o
convey
the
true
idea
of
a
scene,
or
o b j e c t ,
when
viewed a t
the
very point of
distance the
a r t i s t
determined
h i s picture
by; whi ch, you have
already
been
informed,
means
the
measured
distance of the eye
from
the picture (see
page
44,
%,
9 6 ) .
Suppose then the picture to be one, two, or more f e e t in
length,
that
measure w i l l
determine
a
proper distance
to view
the p i c t u r e , i f the distance be taken by the rule
I have
made
general
in
my
diagrams.
The
examples
I
have
given
you
are
s m a l l , and the point
of
distance proportionate to them : but i f
you can bring your eye t o that distance,
you
w i l l find the e f f e c t
you wish. Now,
f o r
experiment's sake, open the dividers t o the
length
of the distance ( f i g . 101) that i s equal to the space
between the po int of sight
and
the point of distance ; keep one
foot on the
point
of s i g h t , and r a i s e the
other, a s nearly a s
you
can, perpendicular over the point of s i g h t ; then bring your eye
carefully
t o
the
raised
point
of
the
d i v i d e r s ,
so
a s
not
to
hurt
your
eye, and look s t e d f a s t l y
on
the
drawing
f o r a few seconds,
and
you
will find the
true e f f e c t
i s properly
produced.
John. Indeed, s i s t e r s ,
you
must try t h i s experiment; for
the
whole drawi n g of the
chess-board looks r e a l l y
square, just
a s I meant : mind
t o
keep your eye perpendicular
t o
the point
of s i g h t .
Ann. I confess
I
f e l t the same objection
John
made, t i l l
we
had
t h i s
experimental
proof;
but
i t
i s
now
s o c l e a r , that
I
think
I c ou ld gi ve
another example.
Eliza. Pray, Ann,
t r e a t
us
with
one of your b e s t .
George. I
s e e Ann i s
prepared.
Ann. I t i s c e r t a i n , when I look
upon any o b j e c t ,
that my
eye
i s a t the
only point
a t
which
i t
could
possibly
s e e
i t
in
that
particular
shape;
and were I
t o draw i t ,
while viewed
from
that
point
and
distance,
ever
s o
perfect in
a l l
r e s p e c t s ,
I
think
that no
one (who
was
not determined to
be deceived) could
suppose the drawing
t o
be the r e a l o b j e c t , except while viewing
i t
exactly
in a similar l i g h t , shade, and distance, a s the object
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THE PROPER DISTANCE FROM THE
PICTURE.
55
was
when drawn. Now,
only
lay the dictionary on the
table,
as we s i t
in
two
different
directions
from i t ,—ere we to make
each
a drawing
of
i t ,
and then
exchange drawings, without, at
the
same
time,
changing
places,
i t
would
be
impossible
to
com
pare
them
with the original ; a nd , e qu ally
s o ,
to suppose
either
could be taken for the real book.
Eliza. I am very much obliged
to
you, s i s t e r . Now I wish
to ask George, why the
length
of a pi ctu re
i s
fixed on as the
proper distance of the eye from it?
George. It i s the
SHORTEST
distance
allowable ; because,
were you to take a nearer point, you c ou ld not c onv eni ently
perceive,
atone
view, a l l the objects
within
the boundary line
of
the transparent plane, right and l e f t , above and below the
point
of sight or centre of the picture ; for the same distortion and
widening
of
the appearances
of
objects,
that
f a l l
under
a greater
angle than about
25 degrees from the
principal visual
ray,
would
occur, which
I
shall describe to you hereafter
by
f i g . 1
14
; the
triangle, therefore, which
would
shew
you the largest view a
painter
should
take,
i s
found
in
the
heptagon,
as
a
ground
plan,
by taking
the
centre for
the
station of
the
eye, and any one of
the
circumferent
sides
of
the heptagon as the
length
of the
picture
or section
line; which conclusion determines a
single
landscape
to be about one-seventh part of the whole panorama, or c i r c l e .
Ann. I perceive the great importance of
taking
a
proper
distance ; and i f I comprehend what has passed, I think the point,
in a l l respects,
which we
take to paint a pi ctu re must
be
the
best
point
t o
view
i t
from,
as
I
have
tri ed to
prove
by
drawing
and
viewing
our
dictionaries.
George. You
are perfec tly right, s i s t e r ; and I e xpe ct this
subject
will afford you
some
entertainment when we study the
term foreshortening
Eliza. I su ppo se, then , i t i s contrary to the laws of per
spective
for
one to
go
to
various stations in
a
room to view
a picture, since that point and distance
which
the painter per
formed
his
work
by,
i s
determined
to
be
the
best
?
George. Most
assuredly i t
i s ,
when the light f a l l s properly
on the picture; but, unfortunately, many very fine paintings
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56
PERSPECTIVE OF A
THEATRE.
are hung s o disadvantageously, that the glittering of the varnish
or
g l a s s , i s a l l one can
see a t the
true mechanical
point; t h i s
obliges one t o
take some
indirect position to
avoid
the g l a r e .
Without some
such
good
reason,
you
may
rely
on
the
r u l e
i n
perspective
a s
an unerring
guide ; always taking a
position
per
pendicular t o
the
point
of
s i g h t ,
and
moving
forward or back
ward t i l l
you
find
you
are a t the
p a i n t e r ' s
d i s t a n c e .
For
the
d i r e c t perspective picture of any
long
room
w i l l
appear
longer
or
shorter than the true measure,
bytaking a greater or
l e s s distance
to
view
i t from than that which the a r t i s t appointed
f o r
the
s c i e n t i f i c government of his
work
;—nd t o do t h i s i s a duty
you
owe the
a r t i s t
before
you
are qualified t o c r i t i c i s e the
perspective
of h i s picture,—specially of
c i r c u l a r
planes.
John. Will you t e l l me why
pictures
of circular planes re
quire t o be v iewed from the proper point more than the repre
sentation of
any
other object ? and a t the same time t e l l me
what are
c i r c u l a r
planes
?
George. Circular planes
are
c i r c l e s described on f l a t s u r f a c e s ,
a s
a
c i r c u l a r
waiter,
a
coach-ring,
a
wheel, the top of a
saucer,
cup,
or g l a s s ; the horizontal section of a column, e t c . ,
e t c .
; which
will not only appear very unpleasing, but incorrect, when seen
perspectively in a picture from
any
point except the true point
of
sight
and d i s t a n c e .
Perhaps the
d i r e c t front
view of S t . Pe
t e r ' s a t Rome (of which there are engravings with the circular
colonnades,) i s one of the best specimens you can prove t h i s
by ;
f o r ,
on viewing t h i s picture obliquely, and a t a wrong
d i s
tance,
the
whole
scene
i s
d i s t o r t e d .
Ann. I
thank
you, brother; t h i s explanation leads t o the
solution of
an e f f e c t which has puzzled me ever
since
we were
l a s t a t the t h e a t r e .
You
know we
s a t
on one s i d e , near the s t a g e ,
and
the scenery and s i d e
wings
appeared
so
badly
arranged
t o
what
they
were before, when we s a t in that box
which i s
behind t h e pit ; then they a l l united s o surprisingly naturally,
that
I
wondered a t the ingenuity of the contrivance : t h i s was
owing t o
my
being
much
nearer
t o
the
p a i n t e r ' s
point
a t
one
time than a t the other ; was i t not ?
George.
Your
observation
has
been
very correct; and i t i s
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PERSPECTIVE OP A THEATRE. 57
extremely
cheering t o
me
t o
find
myself s o
well
understood ; f o r
when you s a t in the
front
box, you were
on
an
exact l e v e l
with
the horizontal
l i n e
of the
s c e n e s ,
and a t t h e very
point
of distance
the a r t i s t drew them by, or shou ld have drawn
them
by, which
governs
the
perspective a s s o c i a t i o n s of
the s t a g e ,
s c e n e s ,
and
side wings.
Eliza.
I did not remark
what
Ann
did;
but I could not
discover that the stage was not level t i l l we s a t l a s t i n the s i d e
box. Why does i t slope downwards towards the front?
George.
The
stage
should be
made t o
have
a
due
i n c l i n a t i o n
towards
the
horizontal
l i n e ,
a s
the
s i d e
wings
have
t o
the point
of s i g h t , governed
by
the distance of an eye i n the centre of the
front box; where the deception
or stage
e f f e c t i s the g r e a t e s t ,
and the converging inclination the
l e a s t perceivable.
Suppose
a
theatre
to
be eighty f e e t
long from the front of the boxes
t o
the utmost
extent
o f the s t a g e , then allow
forty
f e e t f o r the p i t ,
and
there w i l l
remain
forty f o r
the stage; but
should i t
be re
quired to make the stage appear 100 f e e t long ( f i g . 102 a p r o f i l e ) ,
*, Real St* . 40 Feet- Appearing 100 Feet
draw
a l e v e l
l i n e 140
f e e t long
(by
a
s c a l e
suited t o the extent
of your paper); then make a mark a t forty
f e e t f o r
the
length
of the p i t , and a perpendicular mark a t forty
f e e t from
the front
of the s t a g e , which i s the real
length
of i t ; then s up po se an eye
in the
front
box
about
four
f e e t
above
the
l e v e l l i n e
f i r s t
made,
and draw a ray from the eye down t o the end of the 140 f e e t
line ;
and
where i t
c r o s s e s
the
perpendicular, which
you marked
to
represent the
r e a l
extent of the house, i s the point t o which
the back of the
stage
must be r a i s e d ,
and
i t will
correspond
with
the
proper horizontal l i n e , and produce the e f f e c t .
John.
Upon
my
word,
he mu st have been a clever fellow
who f i r s t contrived a l l these
things.
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SKETCHING FROM NATURE. 59
to view the
scene
; especially i f those
two
extreme objects you
wish most
particularly
to
include,
are no
great
distance from
each
other.
Let
u s
return
to
f i g .
88,
page
34,
and
suppose
the
whole line
c a
to be the principal ray of sight : and
that
part of
d
b which
l i e s
between b
and
the right
angle, to be half
the
le ngt h o f your
tablet—then,
suppose your f i r s t station
to
be
at
« , you could sketch nothing to the l e f t
of
b (we take the dia
gram as a ground plan),
but
should d be a desirable object,
you c an include i t in the original space by moving back to c ;
but
I
must
not confine you
too closely to
rule in
this particular.
The
rule
i s
the
standard,
and
should
never
be lost
sight
of:
yet
there
are
beauties in
picturesque
nature which
perhaps
would
be lost
to
the portfolios of the
landscape
painter, if he
confined
hi s
labours
too strictly
to rule
:
genius
must
ever be
one
of
the
council, and necessity ha s no law.
Ann. Now, suppose I had made a l l those leading marks on
my
paper; how
am
I
to o btai n the oblique
lines
which so
gen
erally oc c ur in the perspective appearance o f bu ild i ngs?
George.
Take
care
to
keep
the top
edge
of
your
paper
strictly horizontal,
and move i t higher
or
lower,
t i l l you see the
lowest end of the inclined l i n e
you
would obtain in your draw
ing;
then sketch
a
line,
as
near
the top of your paper as
you
can, parallel to that line of the
building
which i s the subject of
your observation : this must, of course, be done carefully
over
the place in which i t i s
to
oc c ur in the drawing; and i t s length
i s
supposed
to have been previously marked on the top edge
of
your
drawing,
according
to the former
part of
this
instruction.
Avery
few of
such lines
as are the representatives of converging
l e v e l s
(such as top
and bottom extremities of
roofs, the
hori
zontal lines of
rows
of windows, and the base, or ground line of
level objects),
i f
truly
marked
in their proper
places
in
the
drawing, will converge to
the
horizon, and indeed,
by
their
meeting,
will find and fix the
station
of the horizontal line of
the
drawing ;
which, once
obtained, will
govern
the inclination
of
a l l other
levels. It may
be
a very
good experiment
to prac
tise
this
from large
pictures,
within
doors,
f i r s t ; for
you
have
all
the points
the same, if such pietures
are
truly drawn
from
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60
SCALE OF
EXTENT.
nature. If the picture
you
would make t h i s experiment
from
be
four or f i v e
f e e t long, you must
be that distance from
such
p i c t u r e , and your paper must be held i t s
length
distant from
your
eye,
a s
i f
you
we re v i ewi ng
a
scene
i n
nature.
Fig.
103
OSijrcts com
(irehc
l i f t e d within
th e limits of th e aperture.
w i l l
shew
you
the
necessity
of
holding
or
setting
up
your
t a b l e t
a t one invariable distance, a s we find the transparent plane of
the tripod, in order
t o
make your leading marks available to
wards the general truth of your f i r s t sketch. Consider the
aperture a t o be your
sketch-book,
held
up
t o draw any
object
that might be on b , c
or
d , and i t would cover e i t h e r , exactly,
or in e f f e c t a s the eye a t the beginning of the l i n e would see
them; therefore
any
alteration of the distance of your tablet
f ro m yo ur eye would vary a l l the proportions previously marked.
I have placed the
surfaces
in t h i s diagram
about
t h r e e f e e t
apart
(instead of owe
f o o t ,
which, according t o our rule f o r perspective
views, a s
above
given, i s the proper distance, because the aper
ture i s one f o o t ) , t h i s i s done that each
surface
might be seen
by the student c l e a r of the other in t h i s example'. The eye,
not your eye, i s there
represented
a s
looking through
a , the
square
aperture
;
and
the
s u r f a c e ,
6 ,
shews
you
that
the
eye
can
s e e a space twice the length and breadth of the aperture, a t twice
i t s distance
;
and
three
times each way, a t three times the dis
tance ;
and four
times f o u r ,
a t
the fourth
distance
;
and s o on,
in
the same progressive proportion.
John. Then I think
I
can t e l l how large
a space
might
be
seen
through
the
one
foot
aperture,
a t
nine
times the
given
d i s
tance from the eye.
Ann
and
Eliza.
How
can
you
t e l l ?
John. Nine times nine i s eighty-one; i s i t not? then that
would be
a
surface
of eighty-one square f e e t .
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AN ANGULAR VIEW. 61
George. You
s e e ,
s i s t e r s ,
that
boys do not
learn their mul
t i p l i c a t i o n
table f o r
nothing ;
you
have known i t
a s
perfectly a s
he
does,
but
practice
has
strengthened h i s
memory
i n t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r , and enabled him to apply h i s knowledge readily : i t
only required
your recollection
of the explanation of the
square
of
a number, t o
have
had
no doubt
of
John's making the answer
he h a s .
By t h i s diagram, i t i s proved
t h a t ,
a t the
distance
of
a mile,
a space of one mile, from right t o
l e f t ,
would be comprehended
by the
eye, within
t h i s one
foot
aperture when
held
up a t one
foot
distance
from
i t .
Do
not fancy
any
thing
more
deep
or
i n t r i c a t e than i t
r e a l l y
i s . By s u f f i c i e n t application you
w i l l
find
a l l become
c l e a r .
AN
ANGULAR
VIEW. iy \) J. O♦•
Ann. I NOWwant
t o
know how
t o draw the chess-board, i n
perspective,
when
viewed
with
one
corner
or
angle
of
i t
nearest
my eye, instead
of
the
side?
George. I hav e one drawn ( f i g . 104).—ow I beg you will
begin a t t e n t i v e l y ,
and
endeavour
t o
explain the manner
of
drawing i t .
Ann.
I
should
f i r s t
draw the
base
l i n e , then the horizontal
l i n e , and mark the point of s i g h t about the centre of the hori
zon ;
and
draw a perpendicular l i n e from i t to the b a s e , to mark
the
corner of the
board
nearest
me;
then
I
should
mark
the
point of distance on the horizon, equally on each s i d e the point
of s i g h t ;
then I s e e
you
di vi de the base
l i n e
into
sixteen equal
p a r t s ,
eight
on each
s i d e
the c e n t r e ,
and draw
l i n e s from each
to
the point of sight;
then
draw the two
oblique
l i n e s , from
the points
of
d i s t a n c e
t o
the
c e n t r e on t h e base
l i n e ; t h i s ,
I
per
ceive, forms the two nearest s i d e s , and the hithermost angle o f the
chess-board ; then I have
only
to draw l i n e s from a l l the
p o i n t s ,
where the
sixteen
equal divisions
c r o s s
the
two
oblique s i d e s , to
the opposite points of distance,
and
the outline i s done.
George. Those p o i n t s , which you c a l l e d the points of d i s t a n c e ,
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02
AN
ANGULAR VIEW.
are
a l s o
vanishing
points
( a s
w i l l be explained on
f i g .
1
17,
page 89);
and
the distance
of
the
eye
from the picture w i l l
not
determine
s ' K
t h e i r
s i t u a t i o n ,
except
' ■
\
in
a
very
d i r e c t dia
gonal; in a l l o t h e r s ,
one
point w i l l be f u r
ther
from
the poi nt
of
s i g h t , and the other
nearer, according t o
the angle you view i t
under.
But
the
d i s
tance
may be
always
ascertained bydividing
equally the
space
be
tween
the
two vanish
ing points of a right
angled object in a truly
drawn p i c t u r e . When
you
begin
a
ground
plan,
preparatory to a
perspective
view,
ob
serve to ensure the s i z e
of
your
paper t o the
problem,
by f i r s t mak
ing a section
l i n e , then
open the compasses
from
i t
t o
the
base
l i n e of the paper, s t r i k e
a half
c i r c l e
downwards
from
the section
l i n e ,
an d whe re i t i s cut by
the
half
c i r c l e , the two
vanishing points are
given
t o
the f u l l
extent
a s
in
f i g .
117.
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64 FORESHORTENING.
successful treatment of a foreshortened limb will only convey the
e f f e c t agreeably
and truly a t
one particular
point of
view, which
you now
s o
well
understand,
namely, the exact distance the
painter viewed i t from ; f o r in taking a greater distance
than
the
painter, i t will
look
too
long, and on
a nearer view, too
short
:
yet there i s a picture which, from the s k i l f u l management in the
foreshortening of a figure in i t , has obtained the t i t l e of Mi
raculous / and there i s a picture by one of the Dutch masters,
of a man presenting a gun directly t o one's eye, which excites
the idea of Beware . ' yet you
see only
the muzzle
of
the
gun.
There
i s
a l s o
a
very
pretty
Cupid,
by
Cosway,
drawing
an
arrow
to the head, pointing directly towards one,
entitled
Beware . '
The arrow
and
the barrel of the gun a r e , in the p a i n t e r ' s phrase,
foreshortened: genius and judgment must govern t h i s very
d i f f i c u l t point, because i t w i l l
sometimes be
not only unavoidable
but absolutely necessary to that v a r i e t y of character and expres
s i o n , which should naturally appear in groups, a s well of animals
a s in the human f i g u r e .
Ann.
Then
i f
I
lay
a
p r i n t ,
or
drawing,
f i a t
on
the
t a b l e ,
to
copy i t , I must view i t foreshortened, which would be an imper
f e c t representation
?
George. You are r i g h t , s i s t e r ; t h i s thoughtless or ignorant
habit,
with many who attempt t o
copy
a p r i n t ,
or
drawing, thus
l a i d
before
them, a r i s e s from copying by writing, where i t mat
t e r s
l i t t l e how
they
place
the o r i g i n a l , s o that they
c an b ut
read
i t : in the same manner they think they c an copy a
picture,
if
they
can but
obtain
a
glance,
s o
a s
t o
conceive
they
see
the
object before
them. I
say conceive
because, unless
i t i s placed,
a s
a l l
pictures should b e ,
according
t o the rules
already
explained,
students must
depend
on
a
thorough knowledge
of design, and
copy
rather what they know
t o
be in the picture, than what they
could
possibly see while viewed
in
an
i n d i r e c t
p o s i t i o n .
Now, John, t e l l me how long the 12-inch rule appears t o your
eye, a s you s e e i t endways t o you, where you s i t ? ( f i g . 106.)*
* Notwithstanding the clearness both of the
drawing and dialogue,
the student
should
make the experiment
practically—ay
a
r u l e
on a t a b l e ; and
study
the
subject
thoroughly.
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FORESHORTENING
65
John.
I
think
i t
appears
twelve
inches
long.
George. And I will presently prove, that i t only appears
about
three inches
long
to
you. Come, s i t s t i l l , and shut
one
eye; now mark with the pen (carefully) the shape of the rule
on
this glass
which
I
hold up
;
—
here
you
see
i t
i s , as
I
told you,
about
three inches long.
John.
That
i s very surprising
why, I
drew the
whole length
of the rule, and you know i t i s twelve inches. Must i t be
so
short
as
I have
traced
i t
on
the
glass,
were
I
to
s i t
down
here
to paint a pi ctu re of
i t
without tracing
?
George. Most
assuredly
; because perspective requires you
to draw things as they appear ; and this tracing of the rule on
the transparent
plane
of
glass,
i s a
general
outline of i t s
appear
ance at the point you viewed i t .
Eliza. I t i s clear
to
menow, having this perspective draw
i ng of
the
12-inch rule on the glass,
that
there c an be no position
proper for me to set i t in for copying, but that wherein the
principal
visual
ray of my eye would be a perpendicular line
to
the point of sight of
this
surface, as Johns was when he
traced
i t .
John.
Why,
sister?
5
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66 ANAMORPHOSIS.
Eliza. Because your perspective representation of the rule
has already reduced twelve inches to three ; and, were you to lay
i t on the t a b l e , where the rule i s , and
copy
truly what
would
then
r e a l l y
appear
t o
your eye, I suppose the
second
drawing
would only
be about
three-quarters of an
inch
long
Ann. This would be foreshortening foreshortened—am now
so
convinced o f the
absurdity
of looking
o b l i q u e l y on
a
picture
when copying i t , or on myown drawing, that I f e a r I should
shew
symptoms
of
r i d i c u l e , were
I to
see
any one
copying
a
drawing s e t
o b l i q u e l y
before them,
and
i t i s but
f a i r
to
begin
with
myself.
I
must
laugh
when
I r e c o l l e c t
how
improperly
I
have
placed
some
of
the
things
I
have attempted
to
copy.
John.
But,
s i s t e r s , how i s i t
then
that I have taken copies,
which you a l l have
praised,
from
drawings l a i d
f l a t on the
table?
George. Do not you r e c o l l e c t that
you
often took up the
o r i g i n a l ,
to have a d i r e c t view
of
i t ,
a s
you proceeded?
John. O yes I believe I d i d .
George.
I t
was
thus
that
you
learnt
what
you had
to
do;
f o r
had
you
never seen the original
in
any but the
oblique
view
you had of i t when l a i d f l a t on the
t a b l e ,
youwould never have
earned the praise you received.
John. Thank you, brother;
I now see
the necessity of
taking the same point t o
copy
a picture,
a s one ought to
take to
c r i t i c i s e i t .
Eliza. 'Twill
be
good fun to
s e e
persons twisting
and
turn
ing
pictures
about
in
a l l
d i r e c t i o n s ,
saying,
Now
I
have
i t
completely,
when the picture i s in such a position
a s
to repre
sent only an anamorphosis.
Ann.
And
to
see
the
connoisseurs
pulling one another to
various p o s i t i o n s , saying,
Do but come here,
I have i t
to
perfection
Ha ha ha
George.
This
i s the
mirth I promi sed you ;
i t i s the well-
earned joy
of
i n t e l l e c t refined
by rudimental information;
yet
we
must
not
s u f f e r
vanity
to grow up
with
our
knowledge,
but
patiently teach those who desire t o l e a r n , and s u f f e r the lazy
and will-governed ignorant to pass on in
their
e r r o r s .
John. Pray, brother, w i l l
you explain
the
meaning
of the
word
that Eliza
made
use
of just
now?
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68
ON VANISHING
POINTS.
George. Only
those of
l e v e l p a r a l l e l s , such a s the chess-board,
the pavement, and the shelves ; but the converging poi nt o f the
v i s i b l e
u n l e v e l
p a r a l l e l s ,
which
are called
inclined
planes
(see
the
roof of f i g . 107, a s explained below), must f a l l above the horizon,
according
to
their obliquity : these
vanishing points
are called
accidental
p o i n t s .
Ann. Will
you shew us
an example or
two, to make us
un
derstand these distinctions?
George.
Figs.
107—10 will shew you such objects
a s
have
some of
their
s i d e s in such d i r e c t i o n s , a s to have
their
p a r a l l e l s
converging
t o
vanishing
p o i n t s ,
not
on
the
horizontal
l i n e .
The
roof
of
f i g . 107 i s
formed of
two
i n c l i n e d
planes, and the
vanishing
point of
the s i d e s a
and b
must
ascend
f a r
above
the
horizontal
l i n e , and would unite perpendicularly over the
point
of
s i g h t , which
i s the
vanishing
point of the l e v e l planes in this
perspective view ; and were there
f i f t y
(more
or
l e s s ) such
houses adjoining the example, and seen in the same direction
on
the receding l i n e , the v i s i b l e
s i d e s
of their roofs
( i f a l l
of
the
same
obliquity)
would
converge
t o
the
same
V.
P.
a s
the
two
l i n e s
a
and
b ;
because a l l
r e t i r i n g planes, that are parallel
t o one
another, converge
t o one and
t h e same
V.
P . ,
further explanation
of which will be given in the figures on Shadows : but I s h a l l (in
t h i s
stage of our study) produce the inclination of the s i d e s a
and b , without finding the
vanishing
p o i n t .
Ann. I s the method you now propose, better than the
one
you
allude
to?
George.
I find i t a s s c i e n t i f i c , and much e a s i e r t o beginners
;
and, producing the same e f f e c t , I consider i t , f o r the present,
preferable; f o r many of the methods already extant, appear to
be
more d i f f i c u l t , being
s c i e n t i f i c confirmations
of t r u t h , rather
than the readiest
means
of attaining i t : yet
you
should learn
them
a l l .
Eliza.
Come,
then,
shew
us how t o
draw
the roof of f i g . 107.
George.
Now
attend,
and
apply
t o
the
figure
a t
every
refer
ence, while I
teach
youhow t o draw i t : a s i t i s chiefly
t o
i l l u s t r a t e
the method of
finding
the points of
t h e
r o o f , I have not
made
any
s c a l e of dimensions. First ( a f t e r having drawn the parallelogram
a s a boundary
l i n e
t o
your
picture) draw the horizontal
l i n e ,
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ON VANISHING
POINTS.
G9
,%JVP
and mark the
point of
sight
near the centre;
then draw the
l i n e
c
d
a
con
venient
length,
t o
form
a
figure
on,
l e v e l , and
near
the base
l i n e
of the pic
ture;
l e t
i t
be
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o
the
l e f t hand
of
the
point
of
s i g h t , t o
shew the inclination of the roof a t the
end d .—This end,
and
i t s opposite, and a l l such, are called
by builders
gable
ends )
—
ow r a i s e perpendiculars from
c
and d , of equal length, and a c on veni ent height above the
horizon; then draw the
l i n e
e , which forms the bottom of the
roof;
next
draw
the four
rays,
from
the
four
angles
of
the
figure you have drawn, to the point of sight; then draw the
l e v e l l i n e , which forms the farthermost s i d e of the figure from
g t o
/ ,
a t a convenient
distance
( a s no
particular depth from c d
i s
here
r e q u i s i t e ) ; from g and / r a i s e perpendiculars, t i l l they
touch the two top r a y s , and there draw the l e v e l l i n e , which
forms the opposite s i d e of the
bottom
of the roof: thus
you
have the
perspective
l i n e s of a c u b e , t o which we only require
a
r o o f .
Now
draw
l i n e s from
c to/, and from
d
t o g ,
an d whe re
they
cross i s the central perspective point of the figure ; draw a l e v e l
l i n e
a c r o s s t h i s point t i l l i t
touches
the
two
bottom
r a y s ,
which
go from
c
and d
t o
the point of sight ; from
each
end of which,
erect
perpendiculars, to a proper height,
f o r
your r o o f ; draw
then the inclined l i n e
b , t o any
angle you
please
;
then where
i t
c r o s s e s the central perpendicular, draw the ridge l e v e l , a s i :
t h i s
produces
the
termination
f o r
the
l i n e
a ,
and
i t s
opposites,
k and I—nd the figure i s done. The V. P. of k and / would
be
below the horizon, perpendicularly under the P.
S . ,
a s the
V. P. of a
and
b i s above i t .
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70
PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE.
Eliza. What are those two dotted l i n e s which ascend from
the l i n e s a and b of the
roof ?
George.
Were
they to ascend t i l l they met, they would form
the
vanishing
point
of
the
v i s i b l e s i d e
of
the
r o o f ,
which
i s
an
i n c l i n e d plane, of which the l i n e s a and b are the two
edges:
t h i s
point always
f a l l s
on that perpendicular
l i n e
which would a r i s e
from that
original
vanishing
point on the
horizon, towards
which
the side of the figure converges;
but you
prove, by the
manner we have found the true inclination
of
the r o o f , that i t s
V. P. can be dispensed with.
Ann. This i s very s a t i s f a c t o r y , brother:
now
shew us how
to draw
f i g .
tt». / Oj
.
George.
You will produce the whole (below the
roof)
exactly
by the process
used
in drawing f i g . 107 (which you may take
a s
a general
rule f o r drawing
the perspective
view of
a cube,
when viewed in the
l i k e
position, and when
you
are not
confined
to any
particular s c a l e of
measurement):
now
divide the top
l i n e
of
the
hithermost
side
of
the
cube
in
h a l f ,
and
r a i s e
there
a
perpendicular, a s high
a s
you
intend
the roof
t o
be; from the
bottom
and
top of which, draw rays to the po int of sight; and
by
raising
another perpendicular, on the furthermost side of the
top
of the c u b e , a t c
(which divides i t
in h a l f ) , t i l l
i t touches
that ray which forms the
ridge
of the f i g u r e , you will
have
found the points where the inclined planes, which form the r o o f ,
terminate^
and their ascending
s i d e s will be p a r a l l e l .
Fig.
lw
shows
you
how
to
draw
a
cube
seen
on
one
angle
where the vanishing points are not the same length
from
the
point of s i g h t , a s the distance of the
eye from
the
picture ; and
t o
make the
point of
a r o o f , or s p i r e—
ind
the centre, according
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FIGUKE 109
EXPLAINED
73
v p * . i i ; , : :
t o the
method
used i n f i g . 107,
and page 69,
l i n e 27, and
r a i s e a
perpen
dicular
the
height you r e
q u i r e ,
and
draw
l i n e s t o the top
from the
three
apparent
an
g l e s ,
and
the
1 0 B , s i d e s
of
the
s p i r e are i n c l i n e d p l a n e s .
John. I
think you
should
have shewn us these
things
before
you
taught
us to draw
cottages and roofed buildings, f o r
I begin
to think a l l I have
drawn
must
be
very much out of perspective.
George.
That
l i e s
a t the door of
yo u r e x amples
hitherto
;
a s
your
practice
has
been
rather
to
bring
you t o
the
right
method
of using a p e n c i l , and to learn to distinguish a perpendi cular
from a l e v e l , and a c i r c l e from an o v a l , or a right angle from an
acute or obtuse one, by the means of
sight and
practice; in order
t o
obtain
a correct eye and hand from the
study
of others;
but
now, a s
you
are improving, i t i s proper
you
should know the
cause
of the
e f f e c t you produce,
and form a c r i t i c a l judgment
of
whatever you
take
in hand.
Eliza.
What
are
we
t o
learn
from
f i g .
110?
George. As
these
f i g u r e s
are
on the subject of inclined
planes, and
the converging
or
vanishing points of t h e i r
p a r a l l e l
s i d e s ,
I
have
thought
i t
proper t o
give you one
example of
an
inclination of the plane, receding downwards,
directly before
you,
a s a down-hill e f f e c t , towards the arched entrances.
The vanishing point in the declining planes of t h i s f i g u r e , a s in
the roof o f f i g . 107, i s produced bythe
meeting
of the
l i n e s
of
i t s
two
s i d e s ;
and
consequently
a r i s e s
out
of the
process
in
draw
ing the
f i g u r e ,
which saves the trouble of searching f o r t h i s
point, a s a necessary means of
performing
the
work.
Eliza. And will i t be quite s u f f i c i e n t t o enable u s to draw
any inclined figure?
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PERSPECTIVE
OP A CIRCLE.
75
describe the perspective l i n e s
of
the two c i r c l e s , by the process
laid down in your example.
Eliza. I
perceive
I
must
draw a
half c i r c l e under each
square,
and divide these
into
eight equal
p a r t s :
and then draw perpen
dicular l i n e s from each division t i l l they touch the l i n e A B,
and from
the point E.
I find
the same
divisions
are
repeated
across those
I
have drawn
t o
the
point
of sight; in
which
I am
governed by the
diagonal
ray
PDR
which I f i r s t drew from
the point of distance to find the depth of the whole square, pre
c i s e l y a s the horizontal l i n e s of the chess-board
were drawn.
Now
I
have
only
the
c i r c l e s
t o
draw,
which I
see
pass
through
those
angles which you
have
marked abed, &c. ; t h i s will
e a s i l y
direct me to the end of the operation
;
a s I understand I have
only
to repeat
the same on the other
square, which i s
marked
H.
George. I hope
your
suc cess i n t h i s will encourage
you ;
—
f o r i f
you
attend to the directions which must of course accom
pany such drawings, the vast
number
of l i n e s ,
which
a t a general
v i e w appear confusing, will l o s e that e f f e c t a s you
proceed
; and
the
principles will
be
unfolded
to
your
mind more forcibly
than
when you
have
a master
by
your side to
help
you over every
d i f f i c u l t y .
John.
But t h i s only teaches us to draw the perspective
of
c i r c l e s on a f l o o r or a table : how are we to describe the circular
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78
PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. ■
just
remind you of our
general
r u l e , to
draw considerably
larger
than the
example
—nd l e t me a l s o impress upon you that (by
due application to
your
s c a l e ) the rule
you
will
receive for
drawing t h i s problem, will serve to guide you in taking a per
spective view of a l l such geometrical objects a s are perpendicular,
l e v e l , and p a r a l l e l ; a s s t r e e t s , squares, walks, roads, rooms, &c,
by applying their geometrical dimensions properly. For,
sup
pose
a l l
the
posts
were immense obelisks or towers, and
their
distances asunder bearing the same
proportion to
their
height
as
they
do
in the example, the drawing might
be
precisely what
i t
i s
;
they
would
however
in
such
case
most
probably
r i s e
f a r
above
the
horizontal
l i n e . And whenwe come
to f i g . 1 1
7
, and
youhave
made yourselves thoroughly acquainted with i t
(which will re
quire practical study ) , i t will only be necessary f o r
you
to draw
a
few
different s u b j e c t s , such a s come
properly
under the laws
ofour present problem, and the whole
of f i g .
117, and
you
will
find
yourselves able t o draw geometrical
objects
in any
similar
direc
t i o n .
Ann.
I
w i l l draw
i t
on
t h i s
half
sheet
of
f o o l s c a p .
I
shall
f i r s t draw the
s i z e
of the
picture, not
more than
two-thirds the
length of
the paper, that
I
mayhave room
t o
mark the
point of d i s
tance a t the proper place on the horizontal l i n e ;
then
divide the
he ight of
my
drawing into three, and
give
the one-third
from
the base l i n e f o r the height of the horizontal l i n e , which I shall
thus draw. This space I see you have divided into f i v e equal
parts :
I
understand each
division
i s to be considered a s one f o o t ,
which
forms
a
s c a l e f o r
the
measurement
of
the
r e s t
of
the
work.
Eliza. Why
do you determine the horizontal l i n e to be five
f e e t
high, brother?
George. Because t h i s prospect i s considered a s a l e v e l one,
viewed by
a
person
standing;
whose
eye would be nearly that
height
:
and f i v e f e e t being a whole number,
i s better
adapted a s
a
r u l e , than
f i v e
f e e t ,
s i x
inches, which
might be
rather nearer the
height
of the
eye
of
a
t a l l man.
Ann.
I
now
draw
the
horizontal
l i n e
t h e
whole
length
of
my
paper,
and
mark the p oi nt of
sight
on the centre o f the picture
;
then,
with
the
dividers
opened to the length
of t h e
p i c t u r e , placing
one foot on the
point
of
s i g h t ,
and touching the horizontal line
with
the other,
I find and
mark the
point of
d i s t a n c e ,
a s
P
D.
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PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE.
7 )
John.
Why
do you
draw
the
horizontal line
so much longer
than the picture?
Ann.
That I
P
D
. . . . . . . . . .
. . .
- -'.iS f^-
^v^ifT^..
-
. . * - , . . . . .
[w~~ LL^r
. . ~ \ [ ]
L
^
J«»
~ - ~ ~ -~0\
r-
may
mark
the
point
of
distance
on
i t
:
have
you
forgotten
how
we
found
the
f i r s t squares of
the pavement?
(See
f i g .
100.)
George. Very good, indeed —roceed.
Ann. I
believe I must
next draw a perpendicular
l i n e
from
the point
of
sight to the
base
l i n e ,
and
then
mark s i x feet accord
ing to my
s c a l e
on each
side of the centre on the base l i n e , f o r
the width of the walk.
Eliza. Pray,
s i s t e r , how will
you
determine t h i s measure?
Ann. From
the height
of the horizon
;
which
i s determined to
be f i v e f e e t .
I
take
s i x
of those divisions ; i s that c o r r e c t , George ?
George.
Certainly.
Eliza. I f e e l I must hav e b ee n forgetful of what
you
explained
respecting
the l i t t l e
s c a l e
r u l e , in the case of
instruments ; but I
am
very glad I have inquired, a s i t helps t o
confirm
the know
ledge o f drawing
proportionately
to a r e a l o b j e c t .—x c u s e the
interruption.
Ann.
I s h a l l
now
decide
the width
of
the r e s t
of
the walk,
by drawing
l i n e s from the
point of sight
to the width marked
out on the base l i n e ; then, a s there are to be s i x p o s t s , there
w i l l of course
be
f i v e intermediate spaces of
four
yards each
(except the nine
inches f o r
the s i z e of
the p o s t ) ,
which
are
found
exactly a s we did the squares of the pavement
(fig.100);
and by
repeating t h i s f i v e times from the base, towards the horizon, I
s h a l l
produce
the
perspective
length of
twenty
yards,
with
the
addition only of
nine
inches beyond the
farthermost
p o s t .
John. And how will
you
draw the p o s t s ,
s i s t e r ?
Ann.
I
s h a l l f i r s t mark the space o f ni ne inches a t the base,
on the
outsides of
the walk, and
draw l i n e s
from those
marks
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80 PRACTICAL PERSPECT1VE.
to t he p oi nt of
sight :
this
gives
me
the
width of
the
posts, their
depth inward
being
exactly the same as
the ir wi dt h.
The
ground plan of each post
I find
as
I
did that
of
the large
square
:
as you
may
see
by
the
l e f t
hand
post
at
the
base line
:
from
which I draw a l l the v i s i b l e perpendiculars,
or
angles of the
post. Their heights
are determined
by
drawing
the first
two
posts
which are on the
base
line,
three
feet in height (by
my
scale) ; and from
these I
rule
lines to
t he p oi nt of sight, which
will mark the pro p er he ight of the r e s t .
George.
Your
progress
delights me
Eliza.
As
this drawing has proceeded, i t has.
struck
me
that objects must invariably diminish in appearance, according
to thei r
distance from
the eye ; and yet
I
find, that
when
a row of
columns or posts, & c.
i s
drawn fronting
the eye,
with the bases
parallel t o the
base l i n e , they
appear in many
pictures
to
be
given a l l of
one
dimension,
whatever
may be their various
di s
tances
from the eye.—ill you
explain
this matter to u s?
George. Were you
to
trace a
direct
front view of a
portico,
or
row
of columns,
exactly
as
viewed
from
a fixed
short
point
of distance (see f i g . 114), you would find those nearest the
centre
would
mark
the
narrowest, and those to the ri ght
and
l e f t , although
farther from the
eye, would
(from
their
oblique
point of
view) mark broader
than
their diameters, i f viewed
through, and traced
on a glass directly
fronting the portico.
This has raised some objection t o a s t r i c t adherence t o the laws
of
perspective, when such an object of imitation
f a l l s under
so
great
an
angle ;
because,
notwithstanding
the
true
effect
would
be obtained
by following
the
real
situation
of
the outlines
of
the columns on the transparent plane, when
viewed
from a pin
hole
point
of distance,
such
as the sight hole in the eye-post
of
the
Tripod,
they
would
appear disproportionate when viewed
from any
other point;
therefore, to accommodate the
subject to
ou r
conceptions,
and
adapt
the picture to a l l points
of
v iew ,
experience and sound reasoning have determined us to draw the
perspective
views
of
such
subjects (when
viewed
in front)
at
the greatest possible point
of
distance consistent with a
good
effect; by
which
a l l apparent
distortion
and disproportion i s
avoided without deviating from
the
laws or perspec
tive.
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ON DOUBTFUL
SUBJECTS.
81
£1
S
Ann.
I
had a question similar to E l i z a ' s
t o a s k ,
respecting our
view
of
l e v e l
l i n e s ; such
a s
the
p a r a l l e l joints
of
brick or
stone
walls, when viewed i n
front—u st they
be
drawn l e v e l
and
parallel?
George. Straight l i n e s , which are l e v e l and parallel with one
another, and with t h e
base
l i n e , w i l l
always
r e t a i n t h o s e properties
in
the respective representati ons in a picture, when taken a t
such
a proper
distance
a s that the whole subject may be
com
prehended within a convenient angle
and
distance in a
d i r e c t
front view; which, I believe, you a l l understand
t o be
when
t h e
6
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82 SATISFACTORY
CONCLUSION.
principal
ray of
your eye forms a perpendicular
t o
the
picture
and
the surfaces of the objects of your examination.
Eliza. But, surely, i f I stood opposite a long wall, and
directed
my
eye
by
a
perpendicular
ray
to
i t s side,
I
could
not
turn my eye
right
or
l e f t
along the
joints
of
brick
work, without
seeming
to
see
the
consequent
diminution
of
their size regularly
converging to a
point,
as much
as
in any perspective view I
c an imagine?
George. Your qu e st i on gi v es me
an
opportunity of clearing
a point which has c onfu sed many
through
an
imperfect
con
struction, or
a deviation
from
an original
position.
The
pro
position you have put
does
not admit o f yo ur turning your eye either
right
or
l e f t ,
beyond the
limits prescribed by
t he t rans paren t
plane
o r p ic tu re through which either really or in imagination
you view i t ; w hi c h plane must be kept
or
considered
as
immoveable
as the objec t of you r study, throughout the whole process of su ch
drawing,
—
ecause a direct
view was
proposed ; that i s , as much
as
c an
be comprehended by the
eye
within the boundary line, or
picture
frame, when
placed
at
a
proper
distance
—
ay
40
or 50
de gree s of
a
circle
from
l e f t to
right,
of
which
your
eye
would
be the centre or
angular
point. Now,
suppose
that from this
centre
you
could form
one
cont in ued sheet
of
sight rays along
the
whole visible
length
of any one
joint of the b ri ck
wall,
you
would find this triangular sheet of rays to be a perfectly straight
surface (admitting the wall to be well built), and so i t would
be to every joint of the wall, which, being parallel, and so seen,
must
be
so
drawn.
Eliza. That which a minute ago seemed a very reasonable
question,
ha s now changed i t s character to that of absurdity.
Who, with a grai n of tho ught , would p ro po se lo oki ng to the
right or to the l e f t , for a demonstration of a question on a
direct view?
George.
And yet
some
who
have
imagined themselves
greatly your superiors in
this science,
have maintained the
f i r s t
idea
with
great
obstinacy.
Ann.
Upon
what g ro u nd s, b ro the r?
George. By departing from the accepted and general
practice
of
us ing a
straight section line as
the edge of the
transparent
plane,
and
inventing a
curved one.
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TO
PRODUCE
OBJECTS PROPORTIONABLY. 85
life-guardsman
on
the
base l i n e appears
the
head t a l l e r than f i v e
f e e t , because
i t i s a l l
above the horizontal l i n e . The next figure
i s
e v i d e n t l y s h o r t e r ,
because
his
eyes
only
reach
the horizon,
and
the f l a g i s found
to
be
about
four f e e t deep
by
t h i s s c a l e .
The
third
must
be t a l l e r , a s his chin i s above the
horizon
;
and
the
horse's back r i s i n g just t o the horizon, assures us he i s f u l l
f i f
teen
hands high.
John.
Four inches make a hand's breadth, 1
think?
George. And the
exact
distances of a l l the
figures
from the
base
l i n e ,
and from each other, may
be
e a s i l y found bythe rule
given
i n
f i g .
113,
by
which
the
distances
of
the
posts
were
de
termined ; and
i t i s
proper f o r you t o observe, that the horizontal
l i n e i s
not
required to be any particular height on t h i s occasion ;
f o r in
the
example just
quoted, the
horizon
i s
much higher than
the posts
:
yet
their exact heights, s i z e , and various d i s t a n c e s ,
are a s well determined a s the figures i n f i g . 115,
our
present
study.
Eliza.
I
perceive t h a t , t o find the distances of the
o b j e c t s ,
the
horizontal
l i n e
must
be
lengthened,
and
the
point of
distance
marked properly : from which,
rays
should be
drawn across
the
points whereon
the
figures
appear
to stand,
t i l l
they
touch the
base l i n e : and the space between each mark thus produ ced on
the base l i n e
would,
with the
help
of a s c a l e ,
shew
us the
r e a l
distance between each f i g u r e , a s well a s their distance from the
base
l i n e .
John. And pray, s i s t e r , how
would
you measure that space,
so
a s t o t e l l how many f e e t they were
asunder?
Eliza. By
the
s c a l e
of
f i v e f e e t , which
i s
agreed t o be
the
height
of horizon
from the base l i n e ,
to be
sure
:
do
you not
r e
c o l l e c t how Ann determined
the
height
of
the posts i n f i g . 113?
George. I have
traced level l i n e s from the f e e t
of
each
figure
t o the converging s c a l e l i n e , f o r the purpose of ascertaining the
heights of any f i g u r e ,
in
any part of the picture, a t the same
d i s t a n c e .
For
example
:
Suppose
a
ladder,
placed
a s
f a r
back
in
the
scene
a s the
third l i n e
; a
man's height, on
the top of that
ladder, would be found by the
height
ofthe
third
perpendicular
on our
converging s c a l e : i t would answer the same purpose, i f
the figures
were required
t o be
represented above
or
below
the
l e v e l
surface they are on. This i s evinced
in
the s c a l e of birds
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FIGURE 117 CONTINUED.
89
h
. ,
*
V
. . - ' j r
\—
— * *
. , . . - .
i \
~T~-A
'
. - ;
~r
^
i f - \
*
. . . -
* . .
. , , .
, . . ' . — - —
i * :
i
I \
. -
' . , . .
vp^£--''
HORIZON
I
i -
—
*
\ _
I V
r : - ^ ^ :
- - - ' ; ' .
...^^r^
.
i L
\
A
—
Base
l i n o .
.'..-h^z^z:
. s * ^ : :
\
117.
The s e c t i o n l i n e represents the s u r f a c e of the p i c t u r e—he l i n e marked
PVR i n
t h i s
ground plan i s
the p r i n c i p a l
v i s u a l
r a y ,
an d i s always
a t a r i g h t
angle
with the s u r f a c e o f the p i c t u r e .
example will do. Now draw
rays
from
the
other three
corners
of
the ground
plan to
the point marked
eye and number
them
1 ,
2 ,
3,4; then
divide the v i s i b l e
end
of the
plan 2 , 3 ,
a t
h ,
and
draw
a
ray to
the eye-point.
You have
now only
to find
the two vanishing p o i n t s , which i s always done bydrawing l i n e s ,
.
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90 FIGURE 117 CONTINUED.
or r a y s , from the point or s t a t i o n of the e y e , parallel t o t h e two
v i s i b l e and hithermost s i d e s of t h e plan, t i l l
they
c r o s s or touch
the
section
l i n e ,
and
thus
such
vanishing
points
are
always
found.
This completes
the
preparation
o f the
plan
f o r
our perspective
elevation.
Ann.
Pray, brother, t e l l me why the vanishing poi nts are
thus determined?
George. Because they t a l l y with
their
r e t i r i n g guides,
the
v i s i b l e s i d e s of t h e f i g u r e ; and you have
a
rule already that de
termines a l l r e t i r i n g p a r a l l e l s t o converge in one point, and
i f
that
point
i s
l e v e l ,
i t
must
be
in
the
horizontal
l i n e .
Now
consider attentively what
the change
would be, were you to
direct
your eye
along
either
of t h e s e
two
l i n e s
which
are drawn
from the word e y e , p a r a l l e l t o the v i s i b l e s i d e s of the plan;
either
V.
P. in
the perspective drawing
would
then become
the point of s i g h t , and the
s i d e s
of the
building
would
s t i l l c on
verge t o the same : because such l i n e would thus become the
principal v i s u a l r a y , and eveiy l i n e
that i s geometrically
p a r a l l e l
t o
i t
must
converge
t o
the
point of
s i g h t . Now
suppose
one
of the v i s i b l e s i d e s of the bu ildi ng t o form a
part
of a s t r e e t ,
you know
t h a t , when looking
directly along
the centre
of
a
s t r e e t ,
the
s i d e s converge to
the centre
or
point opposite your
eye, exactly a s the posts ( f i g .
113);
and
admitting
the station
to be a s we have determined, i t would only require you to
change the position of the section l i n e
to
make the V. P .
ray
(that
i t
would
c r o s s a t right
angles)
the principal v i s u a l ray;
but then
the
distance
of the
eye
would
be
too small
from
t h i s
removed s e c t i o n
l i n e ,
which
by t h i s
time you would know how
t o remedy, namely, by taking a
greater d i s t a n c e .
Eliza. I should l i k e t o draw that perspective elevation, i f
John w i l l give
i t
up?
John. If you p l e a s e , s i s t e r .
Eliza. Where s h a l l I begin?
George. Draw a base l i n e , just clear above the plan we have
finished; then a horizontal
l i n e ,
f i v e f e e t (by
the
s c a l e ) above
the base; and ( f o r the sake
of
convenience) make the hither-
most
perpendicular r i s i n g
from the base l i n e , a
continuance of
the
principal visual
ray
of
the
plan below, and
number i t
2 at
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92 PROCESS OF INKING IN PERSPECTIVE.
from the section of the ground plan t o the horizontal l i n e on
the
elevation (or p i c t u r e ) , according t o
the
methods given in
the
outline before you
;
and
their
various h e i g h t s , on
the
h i t h e r -
most perpendicular a n g l e , when i t touches the base l i n e , a s in the
present example ;
—
nd a s you
found the
height
of the
wall
to
be
twelve
f e e t , and the
height
of the
roof to
be four f e e t more,
a l l other measures
of heights
must
be bythese
determined.
But
when
the
hithermost
angle
of
a
building
does
not come t o the
base
l i n e , a perpendicular section
erected
on the b ase
l i n e must
be resorted
t o
f o r
the
perpendicular measures
;
which you will
see
i s
done
t o
find
the
perspective
height
of
the
c h a i r .
You may
turn forward t o
i t
( f i g . 119), that you
may
clearly
understand
me.
To avoid the
intricacy
of too many pencil
l i n e s
and
rays on
your drawing a t once, i t i s advisable to secure them ( i n pale
Indian Ink) by
degrees or c l a s s e s , descending from general to
p a r t i c u l a r , methodically: rubbing away
the
pencil l i n e s of
what you have
secured,
to
make clear
f o r
the
next
c l a s s .
The
f i r s t
c l a s s
should
comprehend
the general
outline
of
a l l
e x t e r i o r
angles;
thereby
securing those points whi ch mu st govern the
i n t e r i o r o n e s , which in du e order become the next c l a s s t o be
inked
i n .
The reason
f o r making
the outlines of your
object
with a pale t i n t
must
be obvious, since the v i s i b l e evidence
of
a l l
angles i s the
meeting
of
two
masses, the
one whole
mass
darker than
the
other, and not merely blacker a t
the
edge, as
too black an
outline would
make
i t .
This
can
instantly be
proved
by
observation
on
any
architectural
o b j e c t ,
and
i s
one
of the elegant accomplishments of a draftsman, because i t
imitates a natural
e f f e c t .
ACCIDENTAL
SURFACES AND POINTS.
Ann. The folding doors that divide the two parlours, some
times stand open promiscuously,
one
more
than
the other ; will
you teach us how t o draw
them properly ?
John.
All
the doors are open sometimes ; t h i s w i l l be a good
lesson f o r u s .
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94
OPEN DOORS
EXPLAINED.
Eliza.
I s e e the ground
plan
must f i r s t be
completely
drawn,
and the s t a t i o n of the eye determined, for
from
thence, of course,
a l l the rays of
sight
must be drawn,
one
to
each
terminal point
of the
plan
: indeed the whole of the plain part of both
plan
and perspective view, i s c l e a r t o me by
f i g .
117;
but I
doubt
my
being able to proceed t o the additional matter.
Ann. Then, s i s t e r , do a s much a s you understand ; copy
the
plan
e n t i r e l y ,
and draw the plain walls and the
spaces
f o r
the
elevation
;
and then ink
them
i n , and I w i l l try my s k i l l
with
the doors and
c i r c l e s ,
i f you w i l l
permit
me .
George.
I
s h a l l
be
very
proud
of
my
p u p i l s ,
i f
you
complete
the work between you.
John. What are these half c i r c l e s f o r
?
and
why
are
they put
in perspective a s you drew the perspective of the o v a l , instead of
by the
method in which you have taught us t o draw
c i r c l e s
in
perspective?
( f i g .
111.)
George. The d i f f e r e n t
manner
of putting them
in
perspective
i s only
t o
show
you that e i t h e r mode produces
the e f f e c t .
I hope
your
s i s t e r
w i l l
answer
your
question
clearly
a s
she
proceeds.
Ann. I
observe by the ground
plan
that each
door converges
t o a
different
vanishing p o i n t .
These
I must mark on the hori
zontal
l i n e
of the
picture, according
t o the method
f o r
setting
off
the
principal vanishing points
;
which
i s
c l e a r l y provided for
in
the ground plan, because the l i n e s that are
drawn
p a r a l l e l
to
each door, a s a l s o t o the
s i d e s
of the
room on
the ground
plan, furnish the V.
P.
of each on the section
l i n e ,
where each
of
those
p a r a l l e l s
touch
or
c r o s s
i t
;
according
to
our
general
r u l e . *
The geometrical
semicircles
a t the base l i n e , must be drawn
a s guides
t o
the perspective ones in the picture-
Nowyou w i l l
s e e ,
John, that the
plan
shews
very
plainly that these semicircles are
supposed
t o be produced on the f l o o r by the track of the
outer
edges of the doors, a s they move on their centres (the hinges) ; so
i f I take the width of a
door
f o r a radius, and s e t
one foot
of
the
compasses
on
the point over which
the
centre
of
the hinges
i s ,
and
* Page 89, second l i n e from bottom.
fThe respective V.P.s of the
doors determine
the perspective
l i n e s
for the
t o p s , bottoms, and panels
of them
; and t h e i r apparent widths are found on
the
section
l i n e
; i t
i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , not a b s o l u t e l y necessary
t o
draw the circular track
of
the doors
i n
perspective,
although a proper rudiment i n
the a r t .
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OPEN DOORS
EXPLAINED.
95
describe
a half c i r c l e ( a s on the plan),
I
may mark the proper
width
of the
door a t any
degree of opening.
John.
But
how
do
you
determine
the
right
s i z e
of
those
c i r c l e s
at the base l i n e ? they are
much
larger than those on the plan.
Ann. I draw l i n e s
from the V.
P .
of the
s i d e B, one
through
each point of the s i d e A, where the doors hang, t i l l they touch
the
base l i n e
;
and a s
the
space between
them
on
the base
l i n e
represents the
whole
opening
proportionately,
I
divide
t h i s
space
in
h a l f ,
according t o my
example,
and
take i t a s
a
width
of a door, or radius f o r the geometrical half c i r c l e s below the
base
l i n e
;
and
the quarter
of
a
c i r c l e
a t
the
beginning
of
the
side A, d i r e c t s us t o the perspective width of each door, by the
ordinates O, O,
fixing
the perspective extent from the s i d e A,
of the
c i r c l e s
on which the
outer
edges of the doors must move.
Now,
George, I must beg you
t o
explain
the
l i n e s and angles
that
are in and
about these
s e m i c i r c l e s .
George. You are t o observe, that the geometrical semicircles
on
the base l i n e are t o lead you t o a correct formation of the per
spective
ones
on
the
f l o o r
in
the
picture
;
we
therefore
thus
produce some few correct
points
( a s
ordinates) t o
guide
us
; you
did i t ( f i g .
112) f o r
the
o v a l s .
Ann.
Thank
you, brother ;
I
s e e that
I can
complete i t
now.
I must draw the straight
l i n e
that touches the lower extent of
the
s e m i c i r c l e s ,
then the
perpendiculars a t
the
centres and
out
side
points of each of
them, then
the diagonals from the
centres to
the right angles,
crossing the s e m i c i r c l e ,
and whe re
these cross
I
have
points
t o
draw
the other
l e v e l
l i n e
and
a l l
the
remaining
perpendiculars ; and where those
in
the two half c i r c l e s
touch
the
base l i n e
I
draw
l i n e s t o the
V. P.
of the side
B
; and
where the
two perpendiculars in
the quarter of the
c i r c l e touch
the base
line a t O, O, I draw l i n e s
to
the V.
P.
of A, obtaining a per
spective representation of the
oblong
square
which
the original
semicircles produced
; and by
the guidance of the points
which
correspond
with those on the original half c i r c l e I am enabled to
draw the perspective semicircles ; and from these I
draw
the per
pendicular l i n e s
that represent the outer
edges
of the doors,
and draw the bottoms and top extremes of the doors to their
proper
V. P . s , a s marked on the
horizontal l i n e
of the example.
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96
^
/
/
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97
THE CHAIR. (FIGURE 119).
This
i s
drawn
on
the
principle
of
Figure
1 1 7 ,
only
with
more
l i n e s
and
p o i n t s .
John. Now, brother, as we have learned to
set
the doors open,
we
shall
want some furniture
for
the
rooms.
George.
Achair,
well
understood,
will give you a u ni vers al
rule, i t being
an
irregular figure.
The
example ( f i g . 119), with
what youought to know of the principles of f i g . 1 17,
will
s u f f i c i
ently
e xp lai n t he process of drawing i t . Come, s i s t e r Ann, you
will
begin
this
drawing,
and
explain
what you
do .
Ann. I
think I must
f i r s t
draw the
ground
plan
according
to a scale properly calculated, to admit the whole drawing
within the compass of my
paper.
John.
And
what rule
will you calculate by?
Ann. As I perceive the station of the eye i s c ut o f f ' in this
drawing, I
must find i t by c ontinu ing
the
rays
tending
towards
i t
until
they
meet
in
that
point
which
will shew the
length
of
the
example
to
be about
eighteen
f e e t ,
and
the
width
four
teen feet ;
now as mypaper
i s much larger
than the
print,
I may
make myscale so that one foot
maybe
somewhat l e s s
than
one
eighteenth part of the length of my paper.
George.
I hope,
John,
you will remember this
very
essential
point,
of calculating the
extent
of the
space
you are drawing
on
;
and
make
i t
a general
rule
to do a s .
your s i s t e r
has done.
Ann. I shall f i r s t
draw
the section
line,
and the
principal
visual ray, and
then
determine
the
P. D.
:
then
begin
the
ground
plan of the chair
by
drawing the lines that form i t s front
and
back, marking their lengths
by
the
scale
; but as the back part
i s
not
so wide as the front, the
central line c c
must
be
made to
mark
the width at the back
part equal,
which
enables
me to
draw
the
two
sides, a and b ,
and completes
t he ge ome tri cal
outline
of the
s e a t .
Now
I
must
find
the place of the
back
f e e t ,
and the top r a i l of the back over them, beyond the back line of
the s e a t .
George. Which you may observe, you might as easi ly do
by measurement
from a real chair, as
from
the problem
before
vou.
.
7
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THE CHAIR EXPLAINED. 99
repeat them on the s i d e b t o the proper V. P.s of s e a t and f e e t ;
next I
take the
space on
the section
l i n e from P. V.
R.
to
the
ray
that
goes
t o
the
back
corner
of
the
s e a t ,
s i d e
b ,
and
mark
i t
on
the
elevation from
the central perpendicular
t o
the right
on
the
retiring s e a t and f e e t l i n e s
: from the
points
thus
obtained
I draw
the
two
back l i n e s of the s e a t
and
f e e t e , e ,
(that
corre
spond with
the
front)
t o the
V.
P. of front
;
then
I
apply t o the
section l i n e f o r the width of the front of the s e a t ,
mark
i t from
the central
perpendicular,
and
draw
the
outside
angle of the l e f t
front l e g ,
from
d 3 ,
to d 1 ; then I repeat
the
l i n e s
of the 3
d
e ,
back
to
the
V.
P.
of
the
s i d e
a
f o r
the
l e f t
side
of
the
c h a i r .
To
obtain the
height
of the chair-back,
I continue
the
lower
l i n e e down t o the base l i n e , and there s e t u p a perpendicular
the measured height of the s i d e s of the back, when a l i n e t o
V. P. of front
determines
the
perspective
height.—he width I
gain by
2 ,
2 , on the section; then
I sketch
the
l i n e
of the top
and
the middle p a r t ,
t o complete
the skeleton
of
the
e l e
vation.
George.
When
you draw
the
two
r a i l s
under
the
s e a t
on
the
s i d e s
a and b ,
you
will find that they must not converge t o
either the
V. P.
of the
s e a t or
f e e t ,
but
t o an
intermediate point,
because
they
l i e
between a greater and l e s s e r angle. To
be
ex
tremely n i c e , their
V.
P.s should be
given.
Eliza. I think, brother, that
would
be clipping the wings of
genius too c l o s e ; f o r surely
i f many
will try
to draw
a whole
chair without any other rule than
their eyes, we may
venture t o
draw one intermediate l i n e
by the guidance of a s c i e n t i f i c
one
on each side of i t .
John. Oh, any body
that
can draw could e a s i l y f i n i s h the
chair
now, without
any
more perspective
r u l e s . I
never
thought
of the
learning whi c h was requisite t o
produce the
o r i g i n a l s from
which I
used
t o copy.
George. Now, John, you may furnish the rooms we have
drawn
to
your
own
t a s t e ,
a s
soon
a s
you
p l e a s e .
Ann. Only l e t me have
the
pleasure
of finishing the f i r s t
c h a i r ,
a s
I have
begun
i t .
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100
THE DOUBLE CROSS.—
FIGURE 120.)
Eliza. This
lesson
f a l l s
to my
l o t .
John. I think i t i s
l i k e
f i g . 117.
George.
Not
entirely, John.
The
p lan o f the cross i s equi-angular
to
the
base line, and
the
point of
i ;
sight i s
to the right of the figure.
John.
I
did not perceive a l l
this
difference, at f i r s t sight
—
ome, be
gin, s i s t e r .
Eliza.
I f i r s t
draw the ground
plan to touch the base
line at
the
uppermost
angle; but I suppose
I am not confined to the very
same
distance from the P. S .
?
George.
Not
if you can gi ve
a
good
reason
for
deviating.
Eliza. I only think the per-
>.
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THE DOUBLE CROSS. 101
s p e c t i v e r u l e s of t h i s problem would not require one
particular
s i t u a t i o n of
the
o b j e c t .
George.
You
are
so
f a r
right
;
but
you
must
bear
in
mind
the
rule you have
received
f o r viewing objects
under a
convenient
a n g l e , s o a s t o avoid the appearance of d i s t o r t i o n , and t o produce
the most
agreeable
view.
Suppose
you
do
take a
d i f f e r e n t
angle,—hich would you choose, a greater or a l e s s ?—hat i s ,
would you place
the
plan nearer,
or fu rther from the
point
of
sight ?
Eliza. I have not
considered t h a t ,
so I w i l l follow
the ex
ample,
i f
you p l e a s e .
As
soon a s I have made the two perpendiculars from the
right
and l e f t angles of the plan to touch the base l i n e , I draw the
horizontal l i n e , and
mark
the P. S . in the centre, between the
two
V.
P . s ; and
a s
these are equidistant from
the centre
P. S .
of
the
p i c t u r e ,
each V.
P.
represents the
distance
of the
eye
from
the
surface of
the
drawing ( s e e
f i g . 104).
Now I
continue the
three
points of
the
plan
that
touch
the base
l i n e ,
up
to
the
P.S.
:
then
I
carry
on
the
l i n e s
1 ,
2 , 3 ,
4 ,
5 ,
of
the
plan, up
t o
the base
l i n e , and from thence up to the l e f t V. P. ; the sixth l i n e i s done
from
the
uppermost
angle of the
plan. I perceive
i t i s
t h a t
hori
zontal l i n e
which
c r o s s e s the centre of the perspective plan, that
gives
me the points
from
which I draw the remaining perspective
l i n e s
of i t
to
the right hand V. P.—ow I s e t up the central post
on i t s
proper
central square
on
the
perspective plan, and
the
arms
of the c r o s s over
their respective
squares,
according
t o the example.
George.
You will
find that the
perpendicular which
i s
raised
on the base l i n e a t 2 , will enable you
to mark
the top and bot
tom l i n e s , 2,2, of
the cross
arms equal to their
width, by
taking
their absolute wi dt h f ro m the di agonal of the centre of the plan
with the
d i v i d e r s , and marking both
points a s high upon the
perpendicular
a s
in
the example, according t o the proportion of
your drawing.
/
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102
A DIRECT
VIEW,
INTERIOR.
. *:SE0T1QN :
?LINB . ' / / - ' ;
/. '
i : - I ; ' / , . ' / . * ' *
. '
\
- v ' .
\
-(figure 121.)
JoAn. I wantto know,
brother,
whether I
might draw a d i r e c t view
of the drawing
room
by
any other means than
those we
used whenwe
drew the perspective
view
of the p o s t s , f i g .
113?
because
I l i k e
the
way you
taught us to
describe
the
angular
view
of the
room with
t h e open doors bygiving
an
absolute
groundplan,
a s
a l s o with the
chair,
f i g . 119, a s well a s the
angular
view
of the
house, f i g . 117.
George. I was
in
hopes that the several
instancesyou have men
tioned would be s u f f i
cient
assurance to
you
that
you not
only
might
but
must
draw
the
geometrical plan
when
youwant
the per-
spectiveof awhole room
according
t o the method
you have required.
Ann. What
must
we draw such a plan as
an
architect
does to ex
plain a
building?
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104 THE PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A ROOM.
each s i d e , t o give the width of the ground plan, and, a t the
same
time,
that of the
elevation,
or view
to be
drawn.
Nowmeasure
the width o f the two doors and the remaining spaces on the
right
side
of
the
room,
and
mark
each
correctly
on your
ground
plan
according t o
your s c a l e , and
the same
on
the other
s i d e f o r
the win
dows, a s in your example ; s o a l s o you will proceed with projec
tions of the f i r e - p l a c e ,
which
w i l l s t r i c t l y correspond with the
ex
ample
;
wherein I
have
given you the fewest angles p o s s i b l e , that
you may
not
b e b urthened with a multiplicity of r a y s , while
learning the p r i n c i p l e s .
Ann. Thank you, brother; I think we
can
f i n i s h the r e s t
without
giving
you
the
trouble
of
drawing
a l l
the
r a y s ,
and
of
referring their marks from the section l i n e to the horizontal line
of
the perspective
view.
John.
But you must draw
the
horizontal l i n e
f i r s t
—hat
height must
i t
be?
George.
Draw
the horizontal l i n e on the elevation, f i v e f e e t
above the
base
l i n e ;
and
when
you
have
drawn rays from a l l
the v i s i b l e angles of the ground
plan to
the point of v iew, you
may
mark them
o f f
from
the section l i n e , on the
horizontal
l i n e ,
very correctly and expeditiously, byfolding the plan outward on
the section l i n e ; and carry t h i s edge
up
t o the horizontal l i n e ,
placing them correctly together, and touch the end
of
eac h ray
o f f
on
the horizontal l i n e a t once.
Eliza. But I f e a r
the c r e a s e , or f o l d ,
would hurt
the
surface of
the paper.
George.
That
i s
not
ofmuch consequence,
because
a r t i s t s
only
draw the
ground plan
a s a
means
or material
towards
their
o b j e c t ,
which
i s the perspective of the
room;
but,
to avoid
the
f o l d ,
take the straight edge of a s l i p of drawing paper, and lay i t to
the section l i n e , and mark a l l the rays on the edge of the paper,
which you
c an the n
carry
up
t o the
horizontal
l i n e and repeat a s
before proposed.
Ann. This i s a much more expeditious way of working than
doing
i t
with
the
d i v i d e r s ,
a
ray
a t
a time,
a s
we did
in
the
other
drawings.
George. But expedition t o o e a r l y , weakens both roots and
f r u i t . Now mark
the
heights
of the doors
and of
the
plinth on
the perpendicular
marginal
or section l i n e ,
and rule
towards
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106
ON
THE
VANISHING
POINT.
the front s i d e s of the plinths are
parallel to
the base
l i n e of
the
p i c t u r e .
George. Yet
there
i s a certain c l a s s of great geniuses (whose
meritorious
beginnings
f i l l
them
with
great
commissions
before
they are s c i e n t i f i c a l l y qualified) who succeed just well enough
t o sustain their popularity, and
increase
the number of their
employers to their disadvantage as a r t i s t s . Gainsborough was
of t h i s c l a s s : his genius was g r e a t , and his works evince a f i n e
conception
of the
truly
picturesque,
chiefly i n his land
scapes; but
the
instance
before us
i s an
evidence
that
he
had
not
a
mathematical knowledge
of perspective;
or was unpar-
donably negligent, where one
should
suppose he would have
put
forth
a l l
his diligence
and
knowledge : and
had
he only
been
s o f a r attentive t o the
architectural part
of
the
picture, as
to have evinced any point of sight f o r the whole, I should have
t r i e d t o apologise f o r
the digression, by
allowing him to f i x the
point of sight out of the picture, with an
ingenious
intention
of
holding
the spectators
to one s i d e ,
that
His Majesty might ap
pear
to
have
room
to
pass
on
out of the
picture,
without
coming
into d i r e c t contact w ith them.
Ann. Yes,
that
indeed would have
been
a t l e a s t
aiming
a t
a grace,
beyond
the
rules
of a r t .
George. Few, very
few, succeed
in
the attempt,
s i s t e r , f o r I
believe science t o be s o extensive that no f l i g h t of
mere
genius
can
go
beyond
i t ; the f a c t i s
that the mathematical intricacy
which has enveloped the beautiful handmaid of truth (per
s p e c t i v e )
hitherto,
has obtained
her
but
t o o
few
sincere votaries
;
s t i l l , many have gained very distinguished fame f o r their works,
who
appear
t o
have
been
either
indifferent
t o , or
ignorant
o f ,
the integrity of perspective, and I know
not
what reasons they
could advance f o r
the
e r r o r .
Eliza. Are
we
quite certain that their digressions are
errors ? May we
not
admit that what we find contradictory
to
the
knowledge we have attained'might possibly be
proved
to
be
preferable
t o
i t ?
George. I admire the l i b e r a l i t y of your
query;
but i f a
whole subject
i s
t o be
described,
a s
one
eye
conveys i t
t o per
ception a l l
a t
o n c e ,
there
cannot possibly be two points of sight
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OF ARCHITECTURAL
BACK
GROUNDS.
107
for what i s fully and entirely comprehended under one; and
as for allowing that point to
be
so
stationed
as to make all
the
visual rays f a l l obliquely on the
surface
of the picture, whatever
may
have
induced
the
practice, we
must
decide
that
i t i s
not
within the mathematical
bounds
of
perspective
as
a practical
art ; and i t has not appeared
quite certain to
me
that
any real
advantage
c an
arise through
a
departure from
i t s
established
laws.
John.
I really believe
that the print of the Duke
of
York
by
Jones,
after
the
original by
Sir JOSHUA
Eetnolds, i s liable
to
the same considerations
as Gainsborough's
King
George the
Third
;
for the
point of sight to the archi
tectural
part, must be far
to
the
l e f t
of
the
spectator,
when viewing the picture
perpendicularly (see f i g .
123).
George.
Your
remark
i s just; and such an in
stance
of deviation from
rule,
by
so eminent a
master,
c an
only
be
ac
counted
f o r , by
me,
ac
cording
to
what I have
already
explained, which,
I fear, i s not sound enough
to
legalise i t into a scientific
form
; because the very same sort
of deviation
i s
in the back ground
of Si r Joshua's
fine picture
of the Infant Academy, as you
have
remarked in the two
preceding
instances,
the licence for which
i s beyond
the bounds
of
mathematical
integrity.
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110
EXAMPLES
ON REFLECTION.
examples before
you
are
very
unlike t o
each
other,
from
the
single
circumstance of
being
viewed
from various
heights.
John. I am very impatient t o hear the
explanation of
figure 128.
George. That i s contrary to a piece of advice I gave you
a t
the
commencement
of
our studies
;
but I am ready, i f
you
clearly understand figures 124
—
27.
George. Figure 128
i s a
p r o f i l e
intended
to shew
you
geometrically the
precise
situation
of
the
colours
of the sky,
when
reflected
on
smooth water. You are
to admit that the
curved l i n e
i s t o represent the sky,
apparently meeting
the water ;
i t i s
divided into
three
equal
portions of
colour
—
ellow,
green,
and blue, according t o the
example.
Agreeably
to
t h i s , the
figure on
the
opposite s i d e would s e e blue on
the water,
in the
space 1 ,
green in
space
2 , and
yellow from space 2 t o the bottom
of the curved l i n e of colours,
which
i s marked 3 , and t o the
f i g u r e ,
appears
( I presume) to be
the
horizon. Although
these
three
spaces
are s o unequal
to
us
when
viewing the p r o f i l e ,
they
must appear equal t o the eye of the observer. In the lower
part of the
figure I have shewn t h i s a s your v i ew
of the
scene.
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EXAMPLES
ON
REFLECTION. Ill
The
Rule, That
the
ray
of
r e f l e c t i o n , and
the
ray of incidence,
always form
equal angles
from the
surface
reflected
on, has
been
found invariable.
Eliza. Will you please, brother, to favour us with some
further explanation of this rule ?
George. If
you will
pay
due attention to f i g . 129, you can
not f a i l
of
comprehending the
rule.
Imagine a l l the shaded part
129.
to be
the
ground
plan of a
wall or
side of a
room, against which
i s a looking-glass (A B), and a l l the
rest of
the space
i s consi
dered the floor of the room; the small circles are stations,
marked 1
a ,
2
a ,
and
1
e ,
2
e ,
where
you are
to
place yourselves
according to your i n i t i a l s , that
I may
explain this matter.
Ann. 1 a signifies my
f i r s t position,
so
I shall
go and stand
directly opposite the glass.
George. And pray what do you see in the glass?
Ann. Myself, , t o
be sure, brother.
George.
And
you
think,
I
presume,
that
the
reflection
of
your
person i s as
far
beyond or
within
the surface of the glass, as
your
distance
from it?
Ann. I t appears s o .
George. Now
consider,
the
glass
i s about one-eighth
part of
an inch i n thi cknes s, on which
i s
an opaque body of quicksilver,
through which nothing can
be
seen; and i f i t were not s o , the
glass hangs close to a solid wall : but this we need not endeavour to
penetrate,
as
I
see
you
are
already
convinced
that
the
subject
of
our inquiry i s
to
be found on the surface of the glass.
Eliza.
Pray,
brother, i s
i t the
inner
or outer surface
of
the
glass
that reflects t he o bje ct ?
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112 REFLECTION CONTINUED.
George. Waiving
(in our
present
pursuit)
the
laws
of refrac
t i o n , you are to
understand that i t i s
the inner surface which,
forming
a
perfect polish
to
the
coat
of
quicksilver,
makes
that,
rather than the glass, perform the
office
of a mirror, the glass
only serving as a
proper
surface or varnish
to
the
metallic
body.
John.
Then i t i s in
the
glass we
see
ourselves? Pray i s
i t
proper to
say,
reflections in the water ?
George. No: reflection i s returned or conveyed to
the
eye
from the surface of the water; you must therefore say, reflections
on the water.
Eliza.
What
i s
Ann
standing
opposite
the
glass
for
?
George. In
order
to be
convinced how the ray of
reflection
and
that
of
incidence always form equal angles from the
surface
on which the object
i s reflected. You
must
observe, Ann, that
while
you are viewing yourself in the glass the ray of
incidence
and that of reflection are one and the same ray, passing f i r s t
from
your eye
to
the mirror,
and
back
again
to your eye by the
self-same ray : therefore, both are at equal angles, that of ninety
degrees
from
the
surface
of
the
glass.
Ann. Then this
corresponds
with the
central
or
principal
visual ray in perspective ?
George. Prec isely the same in this particular
instance.
Now,
Ann, take a station, so far
to
the
l e f t
as not to see your own
re
flection on the glass, as at 2 a ; and Eliza, take a similar opposite
station
as
at
1
e ;
now
direct your sight towards the glass,
and
you wi ll see each other's reflection on t he p oi nt A,
and
your rays
will
be at
equal
angles
from
the
plate
or
surface
of
the
glass.
—
Now, Eliza,
change
your station
to any
other
part of
the room,
so that you
can
s t i l l see Ann's reflection. Suppose
you
move
to
2 e ,
you will then
find the
point
of mutual reflection removed
on
to B ;
but
the
angles
of the visual
rays are
as
equal to
each
other as when you stood at equal distances from the glass, as you
may
prove with
the protractor.
Ann. I
clearly
perceive,
and
doubt not, when we have made
more
experiments, we shall find i t a general rule.
John. Now,
brother,
you have
certainly
explained the laws
of reflection on f l a t surfaces, but c an you shew us how to find
the glittering
points
of waves ?
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REFLECTION
CONTINUED.
113
George. I
am prepared
here with a gentle uniform wave, for
the convenience of making the diagram as intelligible as possible ;
and
l e t
us
presume
that
every
wave
i s
a
segment
of
some
circle
;
which admitted, you have only to
study
the profile
( f i g .
130).
Eliza. I think I c an explain i t .
George. Please to proceed,
then,
s i s t e r .
Eliza.
The
level line i s to represent the medium of the
surface
when
perfectly
calm,
above
and
below
which
you
pro
duce the curved
lines
as the waves, and form complete
circles
ou t of the two extreme waves.
John.
I know
how to do the r e s t .
Ann. Come, shew us.
John.
In our
Fifteenth
Problem of
Practical
Geometry, we
learn
how to bisect an angle.
—
ut I interrupt you, Eliza;
go
on.
Eliza. Then you draw rays from the centre of the
circles
to
the eye of the figure, and also towards the luminary. These
rays form certain angles, which are bisected, and where the bi
section crosses the
wave,
i s the
glittering
point of each wave, as
supposed to be
seen by
the
figure
on the
bank.
Ann. And would that certainly be the glittering point to
nature ?
George. Yes, as a general rule; but there are exceptions
which,
to demonstrate exactly, would (as regards perspective)
give
us more trouble than benefit. You may
prove
the cer
tainty of my scheme by a very simple experiment with a
8
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114 PERSPECTIVE OF SHADOWS.
shining cylinder, a lighted candle, and a square t a b l e .
John's
l i t t l e mug there will serve
f o r
the cylinder.
Draw a pencil l i n e correctly across i t s centre a t bottom, and
mark
each
end
of the
l i n e up
the s i d e s , a s a
guide t o place
i t
diametrically
even on a l i n e
which
you
must
make precisely
across
the middle of the
t a b l e ,
by
chalking
a
strong thread, and
snapping i t
to
leave a mark. Place the marks of the mug on
t h i s l i n e ,
and l e t some one
hold a candle
to one
corner of
the
table whilst you place your eye t o the other on the same s i d e ,
which must be
that
which
would
have one end of
the
chalk
l i n e
between
the
two
corners
thus occupied;
then
direct
your
eye to the mug or shining cylinder, and you will find the g l i t
tering point
exactly
over
the
l i n e
i t i s
placed
on;
then move
the mug
to
any part of the l i n e , making a greater or
a
l e s s
angle between
the
eye and
the
candle, and you w i l l s t i l l find
the glittering point directly over the
l i n e .
Ann. Oh, t h i s
i s
very
s a t i s f a c t o r y :
you s e e , E l i z a , i f rays
were drawn
from the
two corners of
the table
to meet
in
any
part
of
the
chalked
l i n e ,
they
must
form
equal
angles,
and
we
have
proved
that the
glittering
point
was always
on the
l i n e—
nothing can
be c l e a r e r .
Eliza. And, a s a confirmation, we
find
that t h i s central line
of chalk i s the bisecting l i n e of
a l l
the angles that the shining
part
of the mug
formed,
with the
two
corners of the t a b l e ,
as
we moved the centre
of
the mug along that
l i n e .
John. Would
not
t h i s give a rule f o r painting the shining
parts
of
columns?
George.
Yes.
THE
PERSPECTIVE OP SHADOWS
EXPLAINED.
John.
What
are the rules
f o r drawing shadows?
George.
The
rays that determine
the
forms of such shadows
a s are
produced
by the
obstruction of
c a n d l e , lamp,
or t o r c h - l i g h t ,
diverge in right l i n e s
from the luminary.
But
shadows
that
are produced by
the
interception
of
SUN RAYS are
treated
as
parallel.
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TREATMENT
OF SUN
SHADOWS.
117
draw the furthest shadow line parallel to
E
G S,
and
you will
find
that the second or under ray r , by
passing
parallel
to
the
f i r s t
r
ray,
and
touching
the
fu rthermost corner of
the
top
of
the
panel, will terminate at the second
S,
and
complete
the work according to the presumed position of the sun, which
i s vertical in the direction of E G S, as perpendicular to E :
yet the
sun i t s e l f i s
not
absolutely vert ical to E, but
at i t s proper
distance to the l e f t hand,
and
at the height
to
which the ray r
would
ascend,
were i t continued in i t s present
direction
t i l l i t
reached
the
sun
;
and
because a l l
perpendiculars
that
could
drop
from
the
ray
r
would
f a l l
on
the base
line
E
G
S,
a l l
forming
right-angled triangles with the base
E
G S
and
the original
ray r ,
proportionate to each other,
we shall find our
work correct,
by
considering the sun perpendicular to E.
Ann. Why
must
the
end
of the
shadow
tend to the
point
of sight ?
, George. Because the top of the
panel
being level and par
a l l e l with the surface on which i t s shadow f a l l s , they must both
converge
to
one
V.
P.
(according
to
the
rule
you
have
already
received), which V. P. i s
here
the P. S .
John. Next comes
C, f i g .
131.
Shall I draw the post in per
spective, for you to explain the shadow ?
George. Follow the example, and then observe that the sun
i s
here
apparently
perpendicular to the P. S .
We have nothing to do with that part of the perpendicular
that f a l l s from
P.
S .
to
E,
in
t h i s
lesson.
Eliza. And
i s not
the sun
in
the example really perpen
dicular
to
the P. S . ,
brother
?
George. If
i t were, the sun woul4 appear to
be
directly
over
the spectator's head, or the station of view ; for the distance
between that and a
v i s i b l e
horizon would
be
too
small
to
make
any deviation
from such
conclusion
when we c onsi der the
immense
height of the
sun
;
and, besides, then there could be
no
shadow
to
the
post,
whereas
the
length
of
shadow
exhibited
by
the example, proves the
sun
to be but few degrees
above
the horizon.
John. Then what i s the u se of the perpendicular line from
the su n to the P. S . ?
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CANDLe, TOUCH,
OB
LAMP SHADOWS.
119
L<
, ,
/ /
WVsv
.
//'
\
i h ' |
^
'
c
v ' r
1 f l l
'
y j i f - ' . .
George. Yes
—nd,
a s I
explained before, a t i t s
proper
distance. This, I think,
completes our
present remarks on
sun
shadows
of
single o b j e c t s , and
we
will next proceed t o
CANDLE
shadows, a s
in
A
BC, f i g .
132, which are represented a s
receiving
their light from
a
candle
a t L.
From t h i s candle
flame
l e t f a l l
a perpendicular t o F, which
i s
termed the foot of the luminary;
then
draw
rays
from the
point
L through
a l l
the
uppermost
angles of the
three
panels, continuing them f a r enough t o meet
the corresponding
rays
that are drawn
from
F, through a l l the
lower angles of the panels, a s a t m m, in each example ; then
l i n e s drawn from
m
t o
m,
form the
ends
of the shadows.
Ann.
How
did
you
determine
F
(the
foot
of
the
luminary)
t o
be exactly where you placed i t ?
George. In order to bring one
edge
of the shadow of A
p a r a l l e l with the horizon, a s F a m, the more conveniently
t o compare
the
difference between
i t
and
the
sun
shadow,
f i g .
131,
B; and F
being
thus
s e t t l e d ,
B and C become subject t o
i t .
Now,
I
believe, we may go on
t o f i g . 133.
Eliza.
This appears
to
be very
i n t r i c a t e .
George.
I t
w i l l
not
be found
d i f f i c u l t
i f
you
proceed
methodi
c a l l y , e s p e c i a l l y
i f
you have thoroughly understood a l l
that has
been previously explained.
The perspective
of the whole f i g u r e ,
which i s t o be completed before we give any consideration t o
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PROCESS OF
DRAWING. 121
Then settle their proper lengths above and below t he ho ri zo n
by t r i p l e measures; f i r s t the line L W, from which draw the
rays retiring to their respective V. P.s, which will produce the
bottom
and
top
lines
of
the
wall,
and
height
of
shed L 7 ,
and
you
will
find
the poi nt
r for
the angular line of the
house
L r
on the
ground line;
from
r draw
the
retiring line r v s , and at
the L, which i s over r , draw the line L L, both toward the l e f t
hand
V. P. ; this gives
L S
i t s proper length.
Now find the he ight o f the hithermost angle of the shed
( a l l
below the horizon), and mark / ; from which draw the retiring
lines /
3 and
/
A
2
Z ,
then
take
the height, and draw the
per
pendiculars of the right-hand wall at El, draw the top R T
and the bottom I Z to their proper V. P. ; next draw the per
pendicular v L i t s proper length.
Now raise a perpendicular line over the l e f t V. P., and draw
the
front
slope of the roof
La L/on t i l l
t he p oi nt
c
i s
produced
on the perpendicular V. P. c ; then c wi ll be the V.
P.
of the
other
end of
the roof, and
of
the diagonally ascending sides of the
chimney,
as
well
as
a l l
other
ascending
lines
that
would
be
par
a l l e l to
the
surface of
the
roof;
such
as rows of
pantiles, and
the
ascending
sides
of slates
or t i l e s ,
and
the visible sides of
other
roofs similar
to the example.
In
like
manner find the V. P. of the shed,
by drawing
the
line
L
5,
from the top of the hithermost c orner of the s hed, o n,
t i l l
i t touches the perpendicular
over
the l e f t V.
P., which (as
in
the roof above)
will be
the
V. P.
of the o ther
end
of the roof
of
the
shed ;
now
draw
the
ridge
of
the hou se,
and
the
lower
edge of the roof, in the direction of the right-hand V. P., and
the top as well as the bottom end of the
right-hand
wall in the
same
direction, and
pencil the
arch
of the
door according
to the
example, and
the perspective
of
the whole may
be inked in,
e xcept the ridge.
John. Ay, that i s l e f t that the chimney may be drawn f i r s t .
George. Yes. Now to draw a chimney, we must f i r s t de
scribe
the
line
a b
from
a ,
towards
the
right-hand
V.
P.,
and on
this
l i n e , at
d and 8,
erect the two perpendicular
lines
of the
chimney, and
mark the
height
of the d
line
at g ; and from g
in
the retiring
direc ti on, to
the right
V. P., draw
the top line
S
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PROCESS
OF DRAWING SHADOWS. 123
diculars form. The top of the sloping pole has the base of i t s
perpendicular a t
Z,
from which draw a horizontal l i n e t i l l i t
meets
that L
l i n e which
passes
down to y
from the top
end of
the pole,
which
would make
y
the terminal point of the
shadow
of the pole, were
i t
not f o r the interception of the s h e d , which,
in t h i s instance, stops the shadow a t B. But of t h i s l a t t e r point
we s h a l l
t r e a t in
i t s
p l a c e ,
a s the triangle Z y L t o
find y
i s the
object of
t h i s
proposition.
Eliza. I think I may begin t o draw
the shadow
l i n e s now;
but you must
direct
me.
George. You
s e e
that the
explanatory marks c o n s i s t of num
bers and l e t t e r s , and
i t i s
very reasonable to conclude, that
the
authors of such
drawings
begin with
1 ,
2 , 3 ,
or a , b , c , &c,
or
the
i n i t i a l of
the
proper
name of the
point,
a s
P.
S .
f o r
point of
s i g h t , &c. ;
and i f
the
work
i s
s o f u l l
a s
to
exhaust the
small
alphabet, recourse i s generally had t o c a p i t a l s . Will t h i s general
information enable you t o
proceed?
Eliza. I
will t r y :
here
i s the horizontal
l i n e 1 ,
2 , 3 ,
I
f i r s t
draw
that;
then
2 ,
4;
and
next
3 ,
5;
and
then
a
l i n e
from
4 to 5 .
George. Now ink
in
the
l i n e s
you have drawn, and
observe
they cut off a s
much
of the shed a s the
shadow
of the wall
would i f
i t
were
high
enough
;
but you
perceive that the shadow
of the top corner
of
the
wall reaches
no
further
up the
l i n e 4,
5 ,
than the point
6 , which
i s found by—
Eliza.
Drawing the
L
l i n e
t i l l
i t
touches
the
l i n e 4
5
a t
6 ,
draw
T
x ,
x
6 ,
and
T
7 ,
according
t o
the
example,
t h i s marks
the
shadow
on the top of the
w a l l .
George. And completes
the whole o u t l i n e
of
i t s
shadow;
which you may render more evident by washing, according t o
the finished example, a t i n t over the space that i s bounded by
1 2 4
6 7
T and E. Now proceed to draw
the
outline of
the
shadow
a t the
end
of the
shed.
Eliza.
This
begins a t
I , and
horizontally
on to m
the L
l i n e
f i n d s
the
point
m
;
now
I draw
from
o t o
n
horizontally,
—
i s
found by drawing the L l i n e ,
which
descends from the top of
that perpendicular of which o i s the bottom t i l l i t meets the
horizontal l i n e from o a t n ,
then
the l i n e from m to n i s the
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THE
SHADOWS CONTINUED.
125
the
ground
draw horizontal
lines
to the l e f t ,
and
from every
point on the arc h draw L
l i n e s ,
and where each pair of lines
would meet, would be points through which the curve of the
shadow must be traced.
Eliza. Now the lines for the shade at the left-hand end of
the
house
may
be
easily
done:
f i r s t , the
three
horizontals
r t , v V, and * u,
and their correspondent diagonals from the
three angles of the roof
L
t , LV, and L u , uniting at t , V, and
u , form the
terminal points of
the
shadow,
and the line that
retires from u towards the right-band V. P., marks the shadow
of t he
furthermost
eaves
of
the
house.
John.
Now
you must draw the shadow
lines to
the chimney,
s i s t e r .
Eliza.
I shall
f i r s t draw the ray from a
by e
to the l e f t -
hand V. P. ; then the horizontal line from d to e ,
and
from e I
raise the perpendicular e f; then the line
df
will
be
the shadow
line of d g, therefore lines drawn parallel to df from those
angles
of
the chimney
that touch
the
roof, will give
the
proper
width
of
the
shadow
of
the
chimney.
Now
having
these
three
shadow lines
of the chimney in their
proper
directions, the
three L
l i n e s , g,
h ,
and i , will meet
them at the
proper points
to determine the length
and
shape of the shadow of the
chimney-top.
To draw the pole that leans against the corner of the wall,
and
i t s
shadow, I
must
f i r s t draw the ground fine
F 1 z
to the
bottom of the wall, and
in
the same direction, that i s , towards
the
left-hand
V.
P., and then
mark
the space
from
1
to
F
for
the foot of
the pole :
I then draw the
pole
(to u ching 1 1 )
i t s
proper length, this completes the pole. Now I proceed
to
the
shadow.
Let f a l l a
perpendicular
from the top
of
the
pole
to z , from which draw a level
line
to the l e f t , long enough to
receive the L line from the top of the pole down to
y,
which
would be the termi nal poi nt of the shadow of the pole, were
i t not for the interception of the shed roof, which receives the
shadow
at
B. To
find
B, I must draw the line D parallel
to
the L 6 ray;
and from
i t s lower
point,
on the shadow line
6 7, draw a line parallel to 5 6 , t i l l the point B i s found on
the
ray
L
y
;
now
I draw so much of the shade
of
the pole
as
f a l l s on the
roof
of the
shed
from B,
through
6 to the edge,
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126 THE SHADOWS CONCLUDED.
which gives
G
;
then
the shadow on the ground from F toward
y
t i l l i t
touches
the
s i d e of
the
shed a t A, and
the
shadow from
A
to G,
f i n i s h e s .
Ann.
And will these
specimens
teach us how
t o
draw
the
shadows of
a l l
objects?
George.
They
comprehend
principles f o r a l l : and
i f you
will practise accordingly, you w i l l be convinced of their com
prehensiveness.
Should
you
require
more
examples,
the au
thors I hav e me nt io ne d abound in d e t a i l ; bu t I have learnt,
that endeavour, upon true p r i n c i p l e s , invigorates genius, whilst
an
example
f o r
every
circumstance
weakens
i t .
Yet
because
l i f e i s s o d e f i n i t e , and a r t without any apparent conclusion,
we must make the most judicious use of those discoveries
which
time
and
genius
have provided f o r u s ,
avoiding the
prodigal and vain conceit of i nv enti ng our own eminence.
For
although the kind
dispenses of
benefits may
hav e c on
ferred
on us
f a c u l t i e s
of the highest order, we
must
be
as
much beholden t o those who have gone
before
us f o r
any
permanent
height,
a s
the
upper
s t r a t a
of
a
building
are to
the
preceding
courses or foundation; and s o sensible are great
and
l i b e r a l geniuses of t h i s ,
that
they gratefully and justly acknow
ledge the grounds and b a s i n of whatev er emi n en c e they arrive
a t , t o have
been the
learning of
their predecessors
;
and,
gra
t i f i e d a s our Father was, when he discovered
the
ultimate
diagram
of colours ( s e e Letter XVI.),
he acknowledged
that
he
believed
he
s ho uld n ev er have
brought i t
to
i t s
high
t i t l e
had
not
the
b e a u t i f u l
antique
datum,
t h e
t h r e e
e q u i l a t e r a l
t i n -
a n g l e s , l a i d the foundation f o r him.
CONCLUDING DIALOGUE.
Ann. Permit
me,
brother, t o
c a l l your
attention
once
more
to
the evident variations of the
s i z e
of separate
o b j e c t s , accord
ing to
their distances from the eye ;
which
inclines
me to think
that
a
s i n g l e
figure
would
be
affected by
the
rule
you
have
given v i s , i f one part of
i t
were t o be much nearer my eye than
another;
please to help me
c l e a r l y through t h i s
i d e a .
George. Inconsiderate
a r t i s t s , before they have
learned
the
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IMPORTANCE OF
PERSPECTIVE.
127
great importance and usefulness of perspective, f a l l into great
errors f o r want of the
thought
you
have given
the subject,
and
t h i s
most
frequently
in
portrait
painting.
Although
many
take a real measure of the
f a c e and f e a t u r e s , which may an
swer a
good
purpose
when
a head only i s
to
be painted, yet
in half
lengths,
or
more, where some
variety of
attitude
should
be an
object of
equal
importance with the
resemblance,
the
perspective
or
apparent
s i z e
of each
p a r t , must
supersede the
absolute measurement.
Attend to
the
position
of the
lady,
f i g . 134, s i t t i n g opposite the eye
which
i s represented a s view-
134.
ing he r through
the aperture
of
the
frame
F
F, which
i s
to
contain the picture when
f i n i s h e d . Suppose
the surface t o be
glass instead of
canvass,
and that a
r e a l figure s a t
behind i t ,
as
the drawing represents,—he rays from the eye to her head
must
pass
through
the
g l a s s
a t a
and
s ,
which would give
the
proper
s i z e
the
head
should
be
drawn.
The
same
rule
will
de
termine
the
s i z e
the hands should be
in
the
p i c t u r e .
Elisa.
But the right hand i s s o near the sectional plane or
supposed g l a s s , and
the
l e f t
a t equal distance
with
the
head,
that there must
be
considerable difference
in their
s i z e , when
painted by
the
rule you have given.
John. And would
not
that make the right-hand look too
large f o r the head and the left-hand?
George.
This
question
passes
a s a
reasonable
one,
with older
a r t i s t s than you, John. Perhaps you have
not
observed that
the
man on horseback, including both ( f i g .
115),
are
not higher
than the
elbow
of the military figure in front; and
in
the
chess
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128 IMPORTANCE
OF PERSPECTIVE.
board
( f i g .
101), the
furthermost row
of
squares i s
not
one-third
the width of the
front row. You must look back to our
con
versations
on the subject of fore-shortening and proper point of
distance, which, with the other
explanations I have given
you,
will make you the best answer possible: you should a l l ob
serve, that one perfection in a
picture
demands the society
of
others. The truth
of
perspective
alone
would not establish the
excellence of the picture—i t i s of so eminent a c l a s s , that a l l the
perfections of art must unite
therewith
to evince i t s import
ance, and confirm their own.—hat would a scientific
general
be
without
an
i n t e l l i g e n t ,
as
well
as
a
brave
staff?
and
what
either, without as brave an army,
a l l
subordinate
members
of
one
body?
Ann. Then we are to consider
perspective as the
gene
ralissimo
of painting, I presume?
George.
Whether
our comparisons
be
strictly parallel or
not, t h i s I may repeat, THAT EVERY MOTION OF THE pencil
must be liable TO
error,
unless
directed by
the eye ; and
the
art
of
perspective
i s
absolutely
necessary
to
convey
to
a
fiat
surface
a
true
description
of
what
i s
seen on t he v ar ie gat ed
surface
of
nature.
Faulty perspective
in
pictures,
bears an
exact
comparison with faulty grammar in language;
and
a s t r i c t
grammarian may
prove
the
insufficiency
of mere
grammar, by
writing grammatical nonsense,
as a correct perspective
may
be
found in a very nonsensical picture; but the fault would not
be
owing to
the perspective
truth
; therefore,
as
the ingenious
and
learned
Du
Fresnoy,
in
hi s
Verse
on
Perspective
could
never intend to e x c u s e a
painter for
hi s
ignorance
of as
abso
lute an
essential
throughout every
part
of a
picture
as cor
rect grammar i s throughout
every
part of language, I would
seriously advise
those who have advanced in the practice
of
painting,
under
the flattering
and
deceiving impulse of intui
t i v e i n f a l l i b i l i t y , to relinquish the delusion; and learn, from
the
knowledge
of perspective, and her attendant elements,
how
TO BEGIN,
PROCEED,
AND
FINISH
A PICTURE.
END
OF INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE.
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^
\
- . . 5
x
\
LETTERS
ON
DRAWING
AND PAINTING.
f i l l
283
LETTER I .
epistolary instruction proposed.
Madam,
When
I proposed a s s i s t i n g you
by
l i t e r a r y
correspond
ence
in
the
Art
of
Drawing
and
Painting,
with
the
best instruc
tion I could possibly convey, I
di d not
expect you would have
been so very d i f f i d e n t , a s to make your f i r s t question s o general and
comprehensive. Your humility
in
professing to know
nothing,
not
even
what t o ask, and your desire
t o know a l l I
can
teach you, have involved me in an undertaking in which my
success can only be comparative. The pleasure
to
be
derived
from the practice of t h i s most rational and delightful
a r t , must
be
proportionate
to
the refi ne men t of
that
t a s t e
and
judgment
which i s founded,
or
a t l e a s t
matured,
by a
knowledge
of what
i s good. To possess s o
great
an enjoyment,
i s
well worthy the
most earnest and arduous application,—
a
work of
merit
must
always
be
a d i f f i c u l t work ;
but
i t i s that s o r t of d i f f i c u l t y
which
i s a s opposite to
t r o u b l e ,
a s pleasure i s
to
pain.
The d i f f i c u l t y
of the work in which I have volunteered my a s s i s t a n c e , i s
greatly increased by your demand f o r all I can t e l l you,
because
i t
comprehends
a
d e s i r e t o
be
informed
of
a l l
that
i s
necessary t o
be
known
on t h e
s u b j e c t
. - to qualify
t h i s ,
w i l l only
require
du e candour
on
both
s i d e s . What
I cannot
teach
you
from my
own acquired
s t o c k ,
s h a l l
be given
by r e f e r e n c e s , on
9
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132 AIDS ENUMERATED.
prehends the produ cti on of every variety o f f orm, may very
fairly be termed the
a r t i s t ' s
mechanical alphabet), you are in
capable of drawing or proving the truth of the parallelogram or
oval, which i s
generally
the
boundary
l i n e of a
picture
; and as
for perspective, I have
t he hi ghe st authority,
as well as my
own positive
conviction,
to
assure you,
that the grammatical
rules of
language are not
more
essential to
writing and speaking
correctly, than the rules of perspective are to painting : f o r , as
the elegant
language
from the tongue of
a
scholar conveys clear
and simple ideas
to
the mind of the
uneducated, by
the natural
power
of
the
ear,
yet,
while
he
hears,
understands,
and
wonders,
he cannot
repeat
what he has
heard, for want
of a
rudimental
acquaintance with the mechanism of the language which con
veyed i t ;
so
the various objects of nature and art are conveyed
to the mind,
through
the organ
of
sight,
but cannot
be scienti
fically described, without
the
mechanism of
perspective, without
which,
you are
liable
to make as many errors as touches: as
much so (although not always so perceivable) when the subject
of
study
i s
an
animal,
or a
group
of
flowers,
as
when
i t i s
from
geometrical forms.
Next, how c an you sketch
any
design, where architecture i s
required, unless you know
i t s
general characters at
least?
And
if your subject should be landscape, sketch you may, but i t
will
be impossible to
finish
without a thorough
acquaintance with
the detail of natural scenery, by study of i t s characters. Now,
Madam, we come
to the actors, or animated part of the picture,
which
(do not
think
me
severe)
must
a l l
be
crippled
and
di s
proportionate, by
the
best aid
of
mere
genius, unassisted by
practical knowledge of proportion
and
anatomy ; and without
that
expression
and
character, which can only
be
acquired
by
studying
the
physiognomy
of the
passions,
nothing
worth
the
labour can
be expected.
Costume, well
attended
t o ,
strengthens
the
great
end
of historic painting,
and i s
indispensable. These
a l l will require the embodying powers of LIGHT, SHADe,
and
reflection
;
and
the
art of mixing paints
consonant
with
the
arbitrary
power of light, will
demand
a knowledge of optics
and the science of COLOURS, to determinate into pictures.
Now, to
prevent
delay in s pe aki ng o f the merits of these pro
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PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE INDISPENSABLE. 133
posed
a u x i l i a r i e s ,
or elementary help-mates,
l e t
us suppose you
to
obtain a tracing from
some
masterly picture,
whereby
you
would
become
possessed of
a
perfect
outline:
then
l e t
us
s e t
aside
the
o r i g i n a l p i c t u r e , and see what you will
make
of
the
outline thus obtained, proceeding entirely on your own s k i l l ,
in the department
of l i g h t , shade,
r e f l e c t i o n ,
and
colour; even
aided
by a recollection of
what
you saw of t h i s
in
the
original
:
and from a l l I have ever seen of the genu ine produ cti ons of
unelementary
amateurs,
I should expect
the picture
when
f i n i s h e d , notwithstanding
i t s f i n e correct o u t l i n e , t o be, in
a l l
other
r e s p e c t s ,
one
e n t i r e
mass
of
e r r o r s
I t
may
(by
a s u p e r f i c i a l
glance a t
the
subject) appear to
be a
want
of t a s t e
in
me, when I assure you that an inexperienced
a r t i s f s reliance on
what i s t o be acquired by frequenting exhi
bitions of painting and sculpture, can only be reckoned on a
p a r a l l e l with the knowledge that i s to
be obtained
by
thus
viewing other
pieces
of
elegant workmanship, while unac
quainted with the mechanical means by which such works were
produced.
The
a r t of making a
good picture
depends
on
a mechanical
knowledge of the formation or
( s h a l l I
say)
anatomy of a l l
the
objects in such
picture;
and of an
experimental
process f o r
the whole operation:
—
herefore, the
f i r s t
necessary knowledge
of a student must be how to perform the work, leaving the
choice of what i s t o be performed t o a judicious and s k i l f u l
director;
should natural
genius
not
supply that
desideratum.
Any
lady
or
gentleman
of
good t a s t e
and
judgment
might
decide on the
most elegant carriage
in
Long-acre, or
the
most
elegant piece of furniture or apparel, by inspecting
the
numer
ous marts
f o r
such
commodities—s a l s o the most interesting
and (perhaps) meritorious picture in an exhibition; but t h i s
s o r t of
accomplishment in them would not advance
them
one
step in
the
manufacturing
part
of
the
a r t or t r a d e , by which
such object of their choice was produced. The only advantage,
therefore, to be gained
by
viewing finished
works, i s
(according
to
their
goodness), to improve
your t a s t e
and
choice,
which,
a s
f a r a s that may be accomplished with purity, may be a very
necessary
part of a
student's general
attention,
a s teaching
what
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ADVANTAGES OF INQUIRY. 135
clue
w i l l never
tighten
t i l l
you
wander
into
the wild regions of
absurdity.
Were you t o
content
yourself with copying only, which, i n
a
moral point of
view,
i s blameless;
and must
certainly be
con
sidered a s an amiable and elegant, a s well a s rational occupation,
when chosen
a s a
means o f i nno cent
amusement, or honest
livelihood, in
humble preference
t o any
other
trade or c a l l i n g ;
a correct
eye,
and practical command of hand i n the use of the
materials,
would
be almost a l l
that
a copyist could
require;
because
forms,
characters,
l i g h t s , shades, and
c o l o u r s , would be
a l l
before
him,
demanding
only
attentive
imitation.
And
I
am
not
backward t o allow, that a
very
correct copyist must be con
sidered a s
a
genius
of
a
certain c l a s s , and, by s u f f i c i e n t applica
t i o n ,
may
seem to ascend a s t e p higher on the s c a l e of merit.
For
i f such an a r t i s t has a
good memory, and some t a s t e ,
he
w i l l draw or
paint
what he b e l i e v e s to be o r i g i n a l ;
taking
a new
subject,
and treating
i t according t o
what he
has copied from,
or observed in others:—obtaining thus a s o r t of relationship
with
the
great
names
of
those
whose
works
had
furnished
him
with
a l l the
science and t a s t e that such productions
generally
p o s s e s s :
a s we
find in many catalogues
of
s a l e s—School
of
Rubens,
e t c . e t c ) .—t
i s surely
to such a r t i s t s
the
proverbial
conclusion i s
applicable,
that
t h o s e
who
follow must go
behind;
taking example upon
t r u s t , and rather
shunning
than seeking
the reasons
and causes of
e f f e c t s . Or, i f by
misconstruction
they are alarmed a t the above predicament of
t h o s e
who
follow,
they
blunder
on
in
t h e i r
own uncultivated
c o n c e i t s ,
a s
i f
hasten
ing
to the summit of perfection, dreading alike precept, system,
and
example;
and fondly hope, that by the
vehemence
of an
e f f o r t ,
the
palm
of originality and of
fame
must certainly
be
secured.
Too
many
young
masters
are content
with
t h i s
degree
of
originality
; but
i t
can
only obtain that s o r t
of rank
a s a r t i s t s
that
musical
geniuses
acquire by ear; who, f o r want
of s c i e n t i f i c
knowledge,
must
ever
remain
ignorant of the
a r t f o r which
nature
particularly
qualified
them.
You w i l l
plainly
perceive the course I think you should
adopt, that o f s tu dyi ng to qualify
your
mind with c l e a r and
decisive reasons f o r your
proceedings;
observing always, that
s
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136 ADVANTAGES OF INQUIRY.
although
bad examples may be blamed a s the cause of
your
e r r o r s , they are never to b e admi tt ed a s valid excuses : and you
w i l l make but slow advances
in
what i s r e q u i s i t e
to
be known
by those
who
are ambi ti ou s of improving
the f i n e
a r t s , while
you
s i t
down contented with an example s e t before you (how
ever
highly esteemed),
without
investigating
the
primitive
c a u s e s , which must
have directed the
mind
and hand
of i t s
author. For
r a r e l y , very rarely
indeed, has i t
happened,
that
genius
has
been
so
great a s
to
arrive
a t
eminence,
without
s c i e n t i f i c
aid;
or become able
to
perform a work, according
with
r u l e s ,
without
an
acquired
knowledge
of
them.
Sir
Joshua
Reynolds has
s a i d ,
that rules are
not
the f e t t e r s of
genius, but fetters only to those who have no genius: admit
t i n g , therefore, that there have been such geniuses a s f i r s t
bisected
the
angle,
found
the
centre and two diameters of
an e l l i p s i s , and discov ered the trammel, e t c . e t c . ; yet i t i s
s t i l l uncertain
whether
t h e s e , and
such
l i k e s t e p s
in science,
were the g i f t s of accident
to i n t u i t i v e
genius, or the regular
f r u i t s
of
s c i e n t i f i c
application.
Be
t h i s
a s
i t
may,
we
are
now,
by
various means,
in
possession
of such
perfect rules f o r
most
of
the
mechanical
parts
of
the
f i n e a r t s ,
that instead
of
a
genius,
he mu st be a blockhead, who will not try to
avail
himself of
them. I
hope
you
w i l l , therefore,
agree
with the conclusion
whi ch mu st follow,
that
s c i e n t i f i c
rules
are
the
only
sure
and
easy, though
deliberate conductors
of true
genius to
the
TEMPLE
OF FAME.
LETTER I I .
materials
and position.
Madam,
It
gives
me
great s a t i s f a c t i o n
to
find that you are r e
solved to follow the s t r i c t e s t d i s c i p l i n e of
rudimental inquiry,
a s by
such
means alone
can
your genius receive a f a i r t r i a l .
Let
perseverance
be your motto, and you s h a l l have success f o r
your
c r e s t .
Having required
the
whole
of the
system, you w i l l of course
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ATTEND
STRICTLY TO THIS PAGE. 139
which, i f you have not ingenuity enough to contrive, and that
in
a
c o mp le t ely c o nv e ni e nt manner, you may assure
yourself
that
you
have
not
yet
equalled
Archimedes as
a
contriver.
Indeed,
i t
i s a l l
contrived
to your
hands
in a
frame
called an
easel, to
be
had
at
any of
the
colour-shops (see
f i g . 140).
But the contrivance
I
alluded to was, that the desk might
be
very conveniently
raised
to a p ro pe r he ight by a b o x , or the
like, when you have no e a s e l . There cannot be a greater proof
of unfitness for the fine a r t s , than aspiring to the
end,
without
due
attention
to
the means ; I
therefore
seriously advise you
never
to
begin
t i l l
you are
well provided,
and
prepared
with
SUITABLE
MATERIALS
IN ALL
RESPECTS.
Here observe,
that a d ull- e dg ed knife will
waste
both time
and
pencil,
and
i s
a certain proof of great laziness, or
some equally improper
di s
position for the pursuit of excellence. If you pay due attention
to
prehminaries, you
will
study
with much
greater chance of
improvement, than
by
any irregular mode ;
and
by practice
you
will almost forget
that any system ha s
been
required.
The
proper
manual
of the
art
will become
natural
to
you
;
and
you
will f e e l the
benefit
of that l i b e r t y , which some shallow
thinkers
imagine should be granted from the f i r s t : but, perhaps,
I
c an
convince
you of their
mistake
by
the
following
observation :—
Suppose two natural geniuses o f e qu al capacities were to com
mence
the study
of instrumental
music at the
same time;
one
having
the
best theoretic
explanation
of
the science
that could
be written,
and
I would also
grant
full
and
clear
methods for
the application of the music to t he i n st ru me nt ,
—ut
no
master.
To the other genius, I would allow
and recommend,
a l l the
above, under the government and tuition of a judiciousperformer,
who should strictly enforce and explain a l l the nice
punctilios
of time,
a i r , chords, tones,
half-tones,
e t c . ,
e t c . Can i t be
a
question which would become
the
best
performer ?
It may
not be irrelevant to the
subject, if
I assure
you,
that
the
dexterous
art
of
rolling
on
a
drum
cannot
be
acquired
without
some weeks' hard
exercise; and
easily as
i t appears
to
be performed, i t i s
only
attainable by one
certain
method. I t
i s the same with dancing, be the taste
for
that
accomplishment
ever s o great.
And,
in de ed, rudime ntal tuition i s submitted to
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EARLY EXAMPLES. 141
of your p e n c i l , paper, and example, any endeavour to amuse
your fancy, by
even the s l i g h t e s t
association of l i n e s , which
could
divert the mind
from t h i s
f i r s t object, would have
been
premature.
I
now
wish t o impress
on
your mind what I
mean by
c om
mand of hand.
When
you
can
e a s i l y
mark
the form you previously
intended,
not by
putting your pencil to
the
paper, and l e t t i n g
i t
f l y pro
miscuously,
almost where i t
might
hap pe n, b ut with a governed,
steady,
easy
hand,
obedient
in
every part of the
whole
l i n e
to
your
well-convinced
mind
a s
to
what
i s
r e q u i s i t e ,
—
o
that
you
may take off your pencil precisely where you intended, and
s l o p e , or curve, t o
the
right or
l e f t ,
whenever
the
subject dic
t a t e s
;
—imilarly to that
s o r t
of command of hand which enables
you to
write
any
word
you choose, you have attained
t h i s
c om
mand
of
hand.
You
w i l l
r e c o l l e c t the
labour
of
your f i r s t e s s a y s ,
in
forming the
writing alphabet, and consider
the
ease
with
which
you
now
express
your
thoughts in good
writing;
s o you
may
depend
on
equal
success
in
drawing
by
equal
attention;
and i t
would
be unreasonable
to expect
that
good drawing
might be acquired by l e s s
study and
application than
good
writing ; f o r
which
there are few children allowed t o be wanting
a capacity.
Do
not
make a compound l i n e by one motion of the pencil
until you have a
thorough command
of i t .
Suppose
two l i n e s
forming a figure l i k e the
l e t t e r
A or V;
draw one
s i d e , then
take
your
pencil
o f f ,
and
draw
the
o t h e r .
Take great care that a l l l i n e s
which
are perpendicular, or
l e v e l , in
the
o r i g i n a l , are s t r i c t l y s o in your
copy, a s otherwise
your
representations
of
buildings w i l l appear in danger
of
f a l l i n g
down
: t h i s
must
be
studiously observed, and no exception can
be admitted.
I
have
proved
i t
to
be a
very good
gradation
of practice f o r
young
beginners
to
make
simple
compositions
with
the
radical
l i n e s , a s
the
f i r s t
advance
towards
the
great
object; a t
the
same
time
continuing the exercise of the pencil more
than
that of the
mind.
To
s u c h , in p a r t i c u l a r ,
i t
w i l l be a pleasing and very
easy undertaking to draw two or
three
horizontal l i n e s ,
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RUDIMENTAL SUBJECTS RECOMMENDED.
143
To produce the
bridge ( f i g . 143),
f i r s t
draw
the water-line
straight and
l e v e l
( l i g h t l y ) ;
then
a central perpendicular
l i n e , as
a
guide
to equality ; then
touch
on the water-line f o r the span
or width of
the
arch, and on the central perpendicular f o r i t s
height, and draw the curve of the arch;—hen sketch the l i n e s
of
the
two
banks,
and draw
the
second
curve
of
the
arch
(the
top
l i n e
of the
bridge which r i s e s
from each
bank,
must
be s e t
o f f
with
care
and
t a s t e ,
and
drawn
firm
and
f r e e ,
and
s o
uniform
a s to appear to hav e been geometrically produced) : you must
then f i n i s h the centre p o s t , and
draw
the
hand-rail
p a r a l l e l t o
the top
curve
of the
bridge—
he arcade must
be
a s
equally
divided a s i s possible t o be done without compasses, and the
s i d e s
a l l
t o point t o
the same
centre
that
would
have struck the
arch
of the
bridge.
This i s a l l
t o be done without geometrical
a i d ,
in
order
to
exercise the
eye and hand in
the accomplish
ment
of
uniformity and
composition.
You
may thus e a s i l y invent, or copy, many l e s s o n s , proper
f o r
the accomplishment
of
handling the pencil f r e e l y ,
such a s
o u t l i n e s of
a l c o v e s ,
bridges, temples, or any uniform figures
which
may tend t o produce a correct
eye, and good t a s t e , while
the hand i s f orming; taking care
not
t o enter too deeply on
very
f u l l
s u b j e c t s , t i l l your pencil w i l l
readily
o be y yo ur i d e a s ,
a s
well
in
drawing
oblique
or
curved
l i n e s ,
a s
perpendiculars
and
l e v e l s :
f o r (speaking figuratively) you must
agree that
genius should f i r s t learn to
walk before i t
takes
wing.
The curve
i s that which w i l l occur throughout the whole of
animal drawing; indeed,
i t i s
considered
the
radical source of
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144
DIRECTIONS FOB
COPYING.
beauty
in general, according
t o
Hogarth's Analysis of
the
Line
of
Beauty, a work
you
should
read
with
that
attention
which i t s
importance demands.
I
would
advise
you
now
to
procure
(either
by
hire
or
pu r
chase) a few of the best rudimental specimens of
such
subjects
as you find
the particular
objects of your choice. Guided by
the judgment of a good connoisseur in t h i s matter, your
own
choice
may,
in
a
du e degree,
be
consulted, taking
care
not to
s u f f e r your enthusiasm, or
want
of judgment, t o overstep
your
tender experience; and
taking
care
to obtain
proof that
the
examples which your teacher lays before you, are a s good a s
they should b e .
If
his own
original designs
are not s o , prefer
good prints ;
—
ithography
has
produced such in
great
profusion
and p e r f e c t i o n . A
l i t t l e
p r a c t i c e , every day, w i l l give your
powers
increasing strength;
and
the
f i n e s t subject
you
can
d e s i r e , may be
either purchased
or hired, t o
put your talents
afterwards t o the
t e s t .
Pe rf orm what ev er
you undertake
with
d e l i b e r a t e
care and
peeseveeance
;
and
when
you
have
chosen
a piece
to
copy,
do not, on any s l i g h t ex cu se, leav e i t f o r a new subject until
completed. This
may
lead to a proper caution not to under
take any great work a t the f i r s t ; a simple cottage, or plain
building, with
the
l i t t l e accompaniments
natural
to them, will
be s u f f i c i e n t . Kenyon on Trees 4 t o . ,
i s a
costly book to
purchase ; but i f you can make i t your own, you w i l l be the
gainer. Nicholson and Harding's
landscapes
( t h e i r own o r i
g i n a l s ) ,
in
lithography, are
e x c e l l e n t .
Trees
will
require
study
in the d e t a i l ,
so
that you may learn the
various
touches and
forms peculiar to
their
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
d i s t i n c t i o n s ;
but rely on
i t ,
nothing
but
p r a c t i c e , and i t s consequence, e x p e r i e n c e ,
can render
these
matters easy t o you.
Those whose
t a s t e
i n c l i n e s t o the study of the human figure
and
animals,
should be aware that these must always be repre
sented on some s u i t a b l e ground; s o that i t i s absolutely requisite
f i r s t
to
learn
to
draw
landscape
and
a r c h i t e c t u r e ( e x t e r i o r
and
i n t e r i o r ) , by the s t r i c t laws of perspective,
a s the
only means of
making their work complete; unless the too frequ ent su bter
fuge
of
clouds, smoke,
broken
ground, rocks, bushes, and o t h e r .
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DIRECTIONS
FOK
COPYING. 145
such indeterminate matters,
be
resorted t o , as a
s e t - o f t '
or relievo,
to the figures :
even then,
a statue, or bust, must have a . pedestal,
which
pedestal must stand
on
something, which
ought
to be
properly
represented.
LETTER V.
directions for
copying.
Madam,
It
i s
a
most
grateful
reward
of
my
endeavours
to
find
that you so fu lly approve my methods and remarks ; and I shall
detain
you no
longer in the
confined walk
of an entire
novice,
but immediately proceed to that stage of the
a r t ,
where my
observations may
be more particularly
serviceable.
Let u s suppose you seated before a clear intelligible
subject,
a print, or drawing
(landscape perhaps),
completely provided
with necessary a r t i c l e s , according
to
the instruction already
given.
You
must
f i r s t
make the
boundary
line
of
your
draw
i ng
(see f i g .
1 ) ,
and then
take
a general
and
deliberate observa
tion,
to determine the relative situations of the principal objects
of
the piece
you are about to c opy; su c h as
the
height
of the
ho ri zo n; the nearest
angle of
the most conspicuous building;
the whole width of a building; i t s hei ght; the height of the
largest trees; and their relative distance and inclination from
the
f i r s t or principal
object; as
also
from the margin of the
drawing.
Take
care
to
begin
a l l objects the right
distance
from the
base line,
which i s
the bottom line of the picture;
regarding,
f i r s t ,
the
relative situations
of a l l the conspicuous parts of your
subject: those parts touched lightly, will be sufficient to direct
your
eye
to the situations
of other subordinate
parts
of
your draw
ing,
until
the whole becomes l i g h t l y , but correctly, hinted a t .
You
will
find
i t good to
determine the situation of
those
leading
points, by
observing
whether
they are at
half, one-
third, or one-fourth part, more
or l e s s ,
of the whole length
or
breadth of the picture, or between any
two
principal points:
for example,
examine
what portion of the picture the
land
10
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IMPORTANCE
OF PRECISION. 147
secure
the greater
boundaries c o r r e c t l y , and descend to such
subdivisions
or
prominent marks a s
next
enforce attention;
gradually,
and
in
the
same
order,
f i l l i n g
in
every
part
l i k e
the
example,
both
a s
to e f f e c t ,
texture,
and
true
character,
a s
well
a s to the exac t force of markings, l i g h t s , and shadows.
* Precision
can never be carried t o
too
great an
extreme,
in
the execution
of any subject worthy
the
p e n c i l . Technical
propriety
will always merit s o
much
of your attention, a s t o
secure you from the c r i t i c a l censure of the mechanic: s u f f e r
not
the cobbler
to
find f a u l t with the
shoe. Many
objects
in
landscape
are
of
fixed
dimensions,
and
should
never
be
given
contrary to their proportion; f o r instance: a brick, and i t s
stratum
of mortar, always meas u res three
inches;
t h i s must
make four c ou rses i n the height
of
one f o o t , or
twenty-eight
t o the
height
of a seven-feet
door
frame.
Pan-tiles cover about
seven inches in
width;
therefore, in a roof sixteen f e e t long,
twenty-seven
rows
of t i l e s , a t l e a s t , w i l l be
r e q u i s i t e .
Steps
are generally between the height of f i v e and
eight
inches each ;
then
three
eight-inch
steps
would
r i s e
to
the
height
of
eight
courses of b r i c k s .—heds
and out-houses are covered with
boards (called
weather boards), which
are
seldom above
ten
inches wide, from the edge of one board to the next, and
more frequently six or seven inches;
which
should have du e
attention, when f i n i s h i n g , from memory, sketches w hi c h mi ght
have been hastily outlined
from
nature, or
when
composing
from fancy. But
most inexcusable of a l l are the
absu rd su b
s t i t u t e s f o r
portions
of
what
should
be
Grecian
or
Roman
architecture,
i f any
architectural
parts
are
appropriate to
the
composition. I t would
be
tiresome to give any
further expla
nation of
particular
measurements of t h i s
familiar
kind; and
had I not v ery frequently seen instances of the iU e f f e c t arising
from a t o t a l disregard t o t r u t h , where the a r t i s t evidently
proved, by very
nice
workmanship,
that a
proper
representa
tion of the above-mentioned t r i f l e s was intended, I should
think i t
proper to apologize f o r supposing
i t
necessary t o
*
Although
the
whole
of
t h i s paragraph applies t o
original designing, yet
c o p y i s t s ,
such as
the
f i r s t
ten l e t t e r s are
addressed t o , w i l l find
the
remarks to
be of great advantage i n t h e i r f i r s t essays from incorrect prints or drawings.
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148 PROCESS OF COPYING.
engage your
attention
to them at
a l l
: b ecause
a
good general
effect i s the nec essary aim of such as endeavour after the great
style
of a r t , (which
/
consider to be,
a good
association of
objects, adapted to the subject
of
the picture, and represented
as nearly as
possible
as they would really and naturally
appear,
under
the
influence
of a
well
chosen
light*);
yet the
minute proportions here insisted on are to be rendered pro
perly
subordinate by
art and attention ;
not by
sketching and
careless
imitation.
The subordination
of
those
parts and objects,
which form the
secondary
and
retiring
space
of
the
picture,
must
be
suited
to
their
station by the
finest
c ons iderati ons i n the art; by
a
scientific appeal to the governing principles
(mechanically
considered)
of
light
and vision; and
not by a neglectful
or affected degradation
of
the object, or any careless miscalcu
lation of i t s proportions and
properties. Study
WlLKlE for
this; he
i s
excellent in this
one
of
his many excellencies.
(I
might have quoted more ancient names of high
estimation,
but
am
proud
to find
many
others
of
my
own
time
and
country,
worthy
of the compliment.)
You must accustom yourself
to
touch lightly and tenderly,
that you may,
the more
conveniently, correct and
improve
your
drawing as you proceed.
As soon as
you have
marked
a l l the
general
outline, rub
the
drawing over lightly with some crumb of bread (not damp or
too
new), leaving
the whole barely visible. Having
thus
by
previous
application,
determined
everything
to
be
properly
situated,
your whole attention must now be given to correcting
and completing
the
form
of
each
part,
touching
with due spirit
on shades near the foreground of your drawing, and receding
towards
the horizon, with a
tender
hand
and
perspective
eye,
strictly observing your example.
Begin this stage of your
work
by
drawing
the
principal object
f i r s t , as at the commencement; o bs erv i ng he re the
ease
with
which you may descend to the detail,
after
having
thus
sec ured
a l l the principal points.
* Letter
XIII. w i l l enlarge
yonr
knowledge
of
my
meaning in
du e course.
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THE HUMAN FIGURE. 151
l e t t e r , a s
we
have not yet had occasion to explain more on
that
head.
What
l i g h t s
and
shades
can
correct
b ad d rawi n g?
or
what
i s
the use of
colour to either?
None. First
draw correctly; then
study
l i g h t , shade,
and r e f l e c t i o n ; which,
when
you have ac
complished,
c o l o u r s
remain a vast
t e s t
of genius f o r your
future
investigation.
But,
perhaps,
you
will
be
pleased
to know,
that
when you
have acquired
proficiency in
the
f i r s t
two parts of
your progress,
and can
proceed t o finishing ( i n
o i l - c o l o u r s ) ,
you w i l l then draw
and
shade
with
your
colour,
in
a
certain
proper
degree;
per
forming the
whole,
except the f i r s t
s k e t c h ,
by and under the
comprehensive term
painting in
i t s
manual acceptation.
Before
I
c l o s e t h i s part of
our
s u b j e c t , i t w i l l be
proper to
advise you to
study a second
copy of what you have
in
hand,
especially f i g u r e s , e n t i r e l y
from
memory
: never
look a t the
original f o r t h i s , but t r u s t to your
r e c o l l e c t i o n ,
and try the
strength of your
c r i t i c a l
powers ; and you will find the utmost
advantage
from
such
practice
by
the
improvement
of every
faculty
r e q u i s i t e t o an
a r t i s t ,
and obtain
the
most genuine proof
that
he i s a s i n c e r e
amateur.
LETTER
VI.
the human figure.
Madam,
I
trust the
substance
of the forego ing
Letters
will
conduct you
through an
outline
of
any
plain Subject;
and
when practice
has
given you s u f f i c i e n t confidence, you
will
a t
tend t o the
following observations
on
copying
the forms of
animated f i g u r e s , which are a s e s s e n t i a l t o a picture, a s a c t o r s to
a stage : and, i ndeed, a f t e r the rudimental progress already
pointed
o u t ,
are
the
primary
object
of
study,
and
the
b e s t ,
a s
well a s the s h o r t e s t , road to eminence in the a r t .
I t i s the beauty and superiority of the humanfigure over a l l
other animal
forms,
which constitutes
i t the
chief object of
a
painter's
study. This
i s
because of
the
v a r i e t y of
forms,
a t t i
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156
PROPORTIONS OF THE
good,
a s i s the
pocket volume
by
Tinney.
B e l l ' s Com
parative
Anatomy
of the Bones
and Muscles, and
Moses
Retszch's Outlines, are books a l s o worthy your attention.
Genius may be advantageously relieved a t i n t e r v a l s ,
from
the mechanical construction of
f i g u r e s ,
by the
graceful
out
l i n e s of Flaxman, e t c . , that truth and beauty may keep
hand
in hand, while
i mprov ing you r t a s t e by good speci
mens of heads ( s e e
page
159), hands, and f e e t ; which should
be well understood
before you
make the
whole figure
a regu lar
study. Yet I think i t proper
to
have a sketch-book always
at
hand,
and
to
accustom
yourself
to
sketch
your
own
best
ideas of h i s t o r i c a l and other s u b j e c t s . Raphael, Le Brun, and
Lavater, f o r
c h a r a c t e r , may
be
of
great
a s s i s t a n c e
in these
juve
n i l e exercises; a proportionate study of scenery, and l i v i n g
s u b j e c t s ,
i f only by sketches from nature, should share
your
early
attention, s t r i c t l y applying a l l the science
you
have
acquired.
PROPORTIONS
OP
THE
HUMAN FIGURE.
The whole height of the figure i s , f o r t a l l f i g u r e s , eight
heads.
Figures more robust
are divided by
seven
heads
and
a
half in
height,
which
i s equal
t o
ten f a c e s .
I t
will
be
worth
your
recollection
to know,
that i f the figure
of eight heads be si x f e e t high, the
figure
of ten f a c e s
will mea
sure
f i v e f e e t
seven
inches
and
a
half
i n hei ght.
Perhaps
a l l
the various characters you need design f o r proportion and ana
tomical
information, may be found between
these
two extremes :
genius and good judgment
w i l l ,
however, have
discretionary
liberty on t h i s p o i n t .
The inside l i n e of the legs and thighs of a figure to the be
ginning
of the
b ody, measu res half
i t s
height
: in t a l l f i g u r e s
t h i s i s
sometimes above
one-half,
and in shorter
not
one-half the
figure
—
ou r heads, or f i v e f a c e s .
The
quarter parts
of the height are from the top of the head
t o
the
arm-pits
—
wo
heads, or
two f a c e s and
a
h a l f .
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HUMAN
FIGURE.
157
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HUMAN FIGURE.
159
r- v
manner you
may
rely
on a s a
standard,
from the
book I have
recommended on antique proportions. I have here given
you s u f f i c i e n t t o
enable
you t o
practise composition,
which
i s
one
of the
best
stimulatives
to further
inquiry
and improve
ment.
We can now proceed t o the proportionate divisions of the
head and
f e a t u r e s ,
which you must
learn
to
r e c o l l e c t perfectly
before you can expect to draw
the whole
f i g u r e , even
in a
sketch. And you will presently observe that t h i s cannot be
accomplished
without separate and due
attention
to
each
part
of the
f a c e ;
f o r
i t
would
be
f o l l y
to
attempt
to
draw
a
whole
head,
until
you are
perfect
in
the
general rudimental forms
of
each
f e a t u r e .
The drawing
of the front of the human
head
i s
mechanically
begun,
by
sketching an outline nearly
resembling the shape of
an egg, or somewhat of an e l l i p t i c a l form, in the proportion of
about four in length t o
three
a t the greatest breadth. Thus
i f
you draw an egg-form
four
f u l l inches long, draw the width
nearly
three
inches,
and
l e t
the
upper
half
be
a
half
c i r c l e ,
and
the
lower
parabolic. This
figure
must
be divided in
half by a
perpendicular l i n e ; which divide into four
equal
parts hori
zontally; give one to the top of the head, one t o the forehead,
one to
the length of the nose,
and
the
lower
part divide
into
three equal
portions. The
f i r s t
p a r t , next t o
the nose, i s the
upper l i p , finishing a t the opening of the mouth—he second,
the
under l i p to
the
beginning of
the
chin—nd
the
lower
third
contains
the
chin. Touch
with
your
pencil
a
mark
f o r
the top of the
forehead,
a t the uppermost'
division ;
then sketch
a f a i n t l i n e across the oval a t the top of the nose,
a s
the b ottom
of the forehead;
another
a t the third d i v i s i o n , f o r the bottom of
the nose
; another f o r the meeting of the l i p s , and a mark f o r
the top of the
chin.
Next
di vide the
length
of the
nose into
four equal
p a r t s ;
giving one
part f o r the height of the wing of the
n o s t r i l ,
and
one
from
the top of the
nose f o r
the
l i n e
on
which
the eyes are
to be s i t u a t e d ,
and there w i l l remain two p a r t s ,
or
half
the
length
of the
nose, between
the
eye and
the top of the
n o s t r i l .
Then draw the l i n e f o r the eyes p a r a l l e l t o the centre hori
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PRECAUTION
AND FORECAST.
163
tender
elegant
touch,
and
produce
nearly a s f i n e a drawing a s
with any
other
material.
Proceed
with
your
charcoal
almost
a s
cautiously
a s
though
i t
could not
be
rubbed
out
;
t h i s
must
make slow progress a t f i r s t
;
but
be
assured i f you
make a
hasty,
erroneous outline with the
charcoal,
you
will
have double
the
trouble with
the chalks:
b e s i d e s , i f a t r u e
l i n e must
be
f i n a l l y obtained, can
any material
answer the purpose s o well a s charcoal, which can be cleared
off so e a s i l y until a l l i s correct? You cannot begin your
sketch better than by attending t o the rules I have
given
you
f o r
beginning
in
general,
a s
far
as
r e s p e c t s
t h e
leading
points
of
the
figure
( s e e
Letter
IV);
observing,
f i r s t , the
i n c l i n a t i o n
of
the
head, which, being drawn
tolerably c o r r e c t , will serve a s a
point
from which a l l
the other situations may
be
e a s i l y deter
mined; taking due measure (with your eye) of the whole f i e l d
or surface
which
i s
to
contain the figure or f i g u r e s , i t
being
the
heedless f a u l t of many to
dash
away, without ever considering
where the
f e e t and
hands may extend.
As a
figure
may
be
e i g h t
heads
in
height,
nev er begi n
the
head of a standing figure larger than one-ninth or tenth part
the
length of
the paper,
and
nearly
a f u l l head from
the
t o p .
Observe a t the same
time
the extent of the
limbs,
right and
l e f t , to determine well what situation between the two s i d e s
will best bring in
a l l
the
figure
: t h i s (which may be
termed
surveying your f i e l d , and calculating your extent) w i l l save
the
unnecessary
trouble
and
disagreeable e f f e c t of pasting
and
patching, to accommodate the want of f o r e c a s t .
There are those who value themselves f o r
such
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ,
mistakingly thi nki ng ardo ur a
sign of
genius. Permit me to
say, that genius, t r u l y s o , must be a composition of excellencies;
in which
the
e lement s o f science must unite their powers, per
forming a
work
equal t o the
thought. I
r e f e r
to
the examples
of
the
great
only,
whose patient
perseverance in the execution
of
their
works
was
equal
t o
the
greatness
of
their
conceptions.
Were the
wonderful
statues
of
the Gladiator,
Apollo, or
the
group of Laoc oon and s o n s , produced
by a
f l a s h of
thought?
Or
was S t .
Peter's a t Rome
completed
by
an accidental hit?
No:
neither
had Genius done
he r p a r t ,
when Raphael had
/
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166
AVOID EXTREMES IN MARKING.
white, and should
be
l e f t c l e a r , a s f a r a s
i t s
t i n t answers
the
purpose
; thus
the hand will
obey
the truth and beauty
of your
conceptions
t o
their
utmost
extent.
The
stumps may be useful in diffusing a breadth of shade
t o gain a
speedy
e f f e c t of
back-ground,
or any other
broad
mass
;
take care that the use
of
them
does not
give
you
a
hasty
manner.
The
I t a l i a n chalk, being very compact, flows best
from
rather
a
firm l i g h t t o u c h , than by pressing too hard:
practice and attention w i l l accomplish you in the proper use of
i t .
Always cut your chalk
from
the point, directly the contrary
manner
of
cutting
a
black-lead
p e n c i l .
Crumb
of
bread
i s preferable to
India-rubber, to
clear off any
error on t h i s s o r t of paper.
I may now venture to hope that you will require no further
instructions respecting the
nature of
c h a l k s .
Good examples
may be of material service: there are
very good academy
f i g u r e s , particularly
a s specimens of
the use of the
chalks, after
the French
school,
West, Flaxman,
and other masters, to be
had
a t
the
principal
print-shops.
While studying, rudimentally, f o r a correct eye, l e t no c on
c e i t seduce you into a deviation
from
your s u b j e c t ,
which
should be
imperious, because
i t i s
not
probable that the
small
portion of c r i t i c a l determination yet
acquired, can
be s u f f i c i e n t
t o enable you
to
deviate
from your
example with advantage ;
indeed,
i f
i t be judiciously chosen,
you
will
have
attained
a
glorious height indeed,
when
you
can
deviate from
a proper
example s u c c e s s f u l l y ; l e t t h i s bind you
to
your s u b j e c t , t i l l you
have attained knowledge, and
the
right
use
of
i t ,
by p r a c t i c e .
And, while you
thus
attend s t r i c t l y
to
your example,
great
care should be taken
not
t o s u f f e r yourself
to be
led
into
a very
common e r r o r , that of overstepping extremes. A part may be
well
adapted
by a broad, square, and bold decisive marking, for
i t s
original
purpose
(perhaps
that of
a
great height,
or distance);
and
notwithstanding
the
f o r c i b l e
manner
of
t h i s
may
a f f e c t
your mind, you must be much on yo ur gu ard a s
to
the
extreme,
a t f i r s t
to avoid
destroying the whole
beauty
of your
copy,
by
seizing
( I may say) on those very prominent points
with too
bold a hand.
You
w i l l
have
great occasion f o r t h i s precaution,
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INDIAN
INK. 171
drawing. You w i l l
find
i t require practice
and
study t o make
t h i s information of much s e r v i c e . One cannot write a recipe
f o r producing a fine picture, although i t i s easy
enough to
ex
plain a process: (methods
are
like keys, they
help
TO OPEN DOOKS, AND SERVE NO FURTHER). Be atten
t i v e , and have
s u f f i c i e n t
patience with yourself, and remember
your motto,
Perseverance.
LETTER X.
50 283
indian
ink,
and
rules
eor
light
and
shade.
Madam,
We have hitherto confined
our
proceeding
to
the
black-lead p e n c i l , and t o c h a l k s , but a s your studies produce
good drawings, they w i l l deserve to be finished with more per
manent materials;
therefore,
when
the stu dent
has acquired
a
competent acquaintance with
forms,
and a
thorough command
of
hand
in
expressing
them
—
here
cannot
be
a
more b e n e f i c i a l
practice than
that
of
acquiring a
perfect
acquaintance with the
use
of—
Indian ink, the most
common,
and perhaps the most u s e f u l ,
of a l l
the
water-colour c l a s s ;
being
a f i n e deep black, which can
be varied with water, through every degree of shade, t i l l i t
f a l l s imperceptibly into l i g h t : there
i s
not any composition
equal
to
i t , f o r the general purpose of shading. I t i s much
c o u n t e r f e i t e d ,
but
the
adulteration
may
be
detected.
The
t r u e
China
ink w i l l break
to
almost a polished s u r f a c e , and i s mode
r a t e l y scented with musk. The
counterfeits
generally overdo
t h i s ;
and others
neglect i t altogether. The true
ink
i s the
blackest when
brought to
a deep shade;
but
in the
f a i n t e r
shades i t
i n c l i n e s to
brown.
The counterfeits
have more
sub
stance towards the deep
shades, than
the genuine. The t r u e ,
preserves a greater
degree
of transparency than the o t h e r .
To use
Indi an i nk
conveniently,
you
should provide
yourself
with
a slab*
of earthenware,
or
marble, with several d e l l s , t o
*
MyUltimate Diagbam-Slab i s
the
only a r t i c l e
of the
kind
that has
any
other
use
besides
that of
holding
t i n t s ,
while t h i s
not
only answers that purpose
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INDIAN INK. 173
You
may unite great
amusement
with
improvement
when
practising f o r f a c i l i t y in the use and management of India ink,
which,
however,
I
cannot
advise
you
t o ,
until you
can
outline
correctly
—hen,
i f you are charmed with the
whole e f f e c t
of
any
picture, or
p r i n t ,
and would copy that general e f f e c t only, s e t
your subject
a t
such
a
distance a s to render a l l
the
minute
parts
i n d i s t i n c t ,
s o
that
you
may
only
perceive the
various shapes of
the leading
masses,
l i g h t s ,
and
shades
in
the picture,
which you
had better notice
with
due
correctness by o u t l i n e s ; t h i s
done,
prepare your four degrees of various shades of India ink, and
proceed
to
use
them in
general
shape
and
depth,
a s you s e e
them
in the o r i g i n a l . The se b ro ad productions will increase your
acquaintance
with
e f f e c t
and
the u se
of
the
materials ; and when
you can accomplish
t h i s s u c c e s s f u l l y ,
you must not l e t
i t
gain
an ascendency over
that
r e q u i s i t e
attention
which
i s
du e to
a
perfect c o p y .
The following 5th, 6th,
7th,
8th, and
9th
r u l e s , will help
you in the process of
these
broad experiments, a s well a s
in
more
elaborate
s t u d i e s ,
—ut
I
cannot,
a s
an
honest
preceptor,
encourage much repetition of these s l i g h t and off-hand
e f f e c t s ,
to any but accomplished p r a c t i t i o n e r s , who
no sooner perceive
some picturesque
object
in clouds, stained
or broken
w a l l s ,
or
in
the
various
formations of the
f i r e ,
e t c . , e t c . , than
some
valuable sketch i s
added to
their
stock
; i t i s through previous
application
t o t h e rudiments of t h e i r a r t accompanied with genius
r a r e , that t h i s s o r t of sket chi ng i s availably resorted t o . A
young
and
i ne xperienced gen iu s
might
f e e l
impressed
with
ideas
of
a s
beautiful
imagery a s the
accomplished one—ut
i t
could be only in idea,
he
could
not give
a
l o c a l form
t o
h i s conceptions; therefore, you must not, a s yet, be seduced
from
the attention
due
t o
p r a c t i c a l
knowledge by the
f a s c i
nating
ease
with
which
general e f f e c t s may
be produced,
f o r
be
assured,
that
a f t e r you have
gained f u l l acquaintance
with
the manner of
u si ng Indi an
ink, your best application of i t
will
be
in the
studying
the individual
productions
of
nature,
thereby acquiring a
s u f f i c i e n t
fund, or
stock of
materials,
t o
form
into any picture
that
thought or
accident may
present t o
your imagination.
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RULES
FOR SHADING. 175
shaped drawing ;
always
securing
t h i s natural concave
e f f e c t ,
before you
commence
your work on the d e t a i l of the absolute
scenery; a f t e r which you may proceed
in
the same manner you
would have done, had you not
been
aware of t h i s o p t i c a l pre
paration.
This I learn from
Claude
and a l l
thorough
masters ; i t i s the a e r i a l perspective of the f i r s t
r u l e .
6 .
Always begin the sky and distant masses of shade with the
pale t i n t ; and, a s you
approach
the foreground, increase the
depth
of
the
t i n t ,
observing
to
be
light
enough
a t
f i r s t .
7 .
When the shade requires additional depth, do not
take
a
darker t i n t f o r that purpose, but repeat the use of the original
t i n t ; deepening the shades
of a l l
the
various
degrees
of
distance
with
i t s
own t i n t , or
the
object
will
press too
forward.
Make
a l l
the
instruction given
in t h i s l e t t e r f a m i l i a r , previously t o
the
study
of
the following
r u l e s .
8 .
When f i r s t laying
on
t h e
broad masses
of shade, pay
no
atten
tion
to
the
r e f l e c t e d l i g h t s , which always f a l l
on such parts
a s
are out of the influence of the
principal
l i g h t , a s the
f i r s t
lays
should
not
be darker than those r e f l e c t i o n s : i f t h i s i s properly
observed, you
will produce
a l l your
reflected
l i g h t s by your
next
process;
that
of
increasing the
shade
of
those
parts
which
are more
remote
from the
influence
of both light and r e f l e c t i o n
(in
a l l their
various degrees of
distance) ;
recollecting that
although
no
light
f a l l s on
them,
they
must not be made darker
than
s u i t s
the
distance in which
they l i e
; because
the
law
of the
f i r s t rule given, remains
in
f o r c e .
I t i s the property of light (when considered only a s the
means
of illumining objects)
to
continue s o a t
a l l
d i s t a n c e s , and
in
appearance
to
prevail
over
a l l
such
shades
a s
are
occasioned
by
unevenness of s u r f a c e s ,
in
proportion to
the distance of such
surfaces
from the
eye ; so that
the
c a v i t i e s , or various causes
of
shades,
l o s e
their f o r c e ,
while
the
smooth and
projecting parts
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176
RULES
FOR SHADING.
continue
their
l o c a l l i g h t n e s s ,
and
are (in e f f e c t ) united by d i s
tance into one mass, or
(apparently) smooth
surface ; and, inas
much a s
such mass i s
composed
of
shining materials, will the
r e f l e c t i o n of sky, a t i t s
proper
angle of r e f l e c t i o n , be
apparent
(whatever
i t s
t i n c t u r e ) , instead
of the
known and l o c a l
colour
of the
mass. This with
the
intermediate atmospheric matter,
and
the
decreasing power of
s i g h t ,
according to distance, pre
vents your seeing the dark parts a s dark a s in the foreground,
and accounts f o r
the colour
of distant
land.
(See
an
extract
of
a
l e t t e r t o my
son George,
in my twenty-second l e t t e r . )
9 .
Your next
regard must be
to
those shades
where
l i g h t and
particular r e f l e c t i o n are absent;
but
where
some
general r e f l e c t
ing power
has
influence
enough
to
render the
part
lighter than
those e n t i r e l y
void
of l i g h t . This, with Rule 8 , produces
the
re
f l e c t i o n s
by leaving
them.
1 0 .
Parts which are strongly
reflected on
are very
deceiving
to
young copyists ; they generally mistake su ch r e f l e c t i o n s for
l i g h t s , and leave them much too strong; f o r there i s a great
d i f f e r e n c e
between such
parts a s receive
the
pure l i g h t , and
those
which
are only reflected
on
by a surface which receives
i t s light from the f i r s t c a u s e .
To
prove t h i s—
Make
a cylinder
of white
card,
or paper,
and
lay
one
s i d e
towards
the l i g h t , on a
4 .
I
sheet
of
white
paper;
then i^PW'
wl
\f^>
r a i s e
the sheet
of paper on
Mp«k
yjft
-\%
the shaded s i d e of the
c y l i n -
^ a m
der t i l l i t
makes
the strong-
i « -
e s t r e f l e c t i o n possible ( f i x the
sheet of paper
up by
a book, or the l i k e , while you proceed on
your
experiment),
according
t o
the
annexed
f i g u r e ,
144
:
you
must
then take a card, or
piece
of smooth paper, the colour
of
the cylinder,
and hold
i t s surface f a i r
to
the l i g h t ,
in
a l i n e with
the l i g h t e s t part
of
one end
of
the cylinder, and you will find
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17 8
TRANSPARENCY.
s u r f a c e , must always govern in true degree, and w i l l always
contain a much superior l i g h t ,
except
when the cylinder or
globe
be
of
colourless
g l a s s ,
containing
colourless
matter,
such
a s s p i r i t s or pure water.
I can only r e f e r you to the general, but unvarying prin
c i p l e s o f the
influence which
l i g h t i n s i s t s on, in the department
of
FLOWER painting,
a s
much a s in
the
proper treatment of
any
other object of imitation. I have
never
practised
this
branch of the a r t ;
but
the observations
I have
made on some
of
the
water-colour specimens of f r u i t and
flowers
emboldens
me
to
o f f e r
a
positive rule
—
here
l i g h t
i s
absent,
colour
will
be
absent in equal degree.
When
you mean
to
leave a
white
background, s e t
up
one behi nd
the
object
of your study, in
such an
aspect
a s to appear
white, and,
with
du e consideration
of
transparency
of
o b j e c t s , weigh deliberately
the
advantage of
searching out and expressing, a l l that must b e s hado w ; before
you
s e e , or
rather reckon
on colour
;
t h i s
successfully under
stood, will
give
every part
i t s
proper substance, and r e l i e f ;
approaching
the
e f f e c t
of
r e a l i t y ,
when
properly
finished by
colouring.*
1 2 .
Shadows
of s o l i d objects on level planes, when the light
f a l l s
in
the direction of about
f o r t y - f i v e degrees,
are generally about
the
same degre e o f dep th wi th
the
shaded
side
of
the
object,
except varied by
some
accidental r e f l e c t i o n (or difference of
the
l o c a l
colour
between
the
object
and
the
surface
i t s
shadow
f a l l s
on); but
t h i s l a t t e r part of the
exception must not be
admitted under
the
head to which
the
rule
i s applicable,
namely, l i g h t and shadow independent of colour; but
i t
being
a necessary point of consideration, in distinguishing between
shadow and
colour, i t may be of
due service t o
have made
the
remark.
1 3 .
Respecting
objects a s
they
appear in the
open
a i r ,
without,
*
One of the
very
best
f r u i t and flower painters
of the present
day, who had
learned of Hewlet, assured me that t h i s eleventh
rule
was the best piece of
instruction he
had ever received.
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DISTINCTION OF SHADOWS. 183
one
another, precisely a s the untinted p a r t s ,
having
more the
e f f e c t of
the dirty parts
of
a
half-cleaned
specimen,
such a s
pic
ture-cleaners
exhibit,
than
of the
truth; which cannot be pro
duced
by
such
a
t r i c k
s o a s
to
show
the
t r u e
e f f e c t ,
on
any
part
of a drawing, or picture, whi c h had been previously finished t o
an
unintercepted
l i g h t .
If
you would proceed according t o
the
t r u t h , you
must
over
shadow
such part of
your
s u b j e c t a t the
commencement
of
your
study,
a s
you d e s i r e to be
in shade, and
copy a l l
the
changes
of
the e f f e c t thus produced.
You
w i l l
do well
t o
study
the
d i f f e r
ence of such e f f e c t s , by experimental p r o o f s . Set up some plain
o b j e c t , or a f i g u r e , f a i r t o the l i g h t ;
and
copy
i t
completely a s
you s e e i t , according to the f i r s t directions: then shade over
part of t h i s copy with one t i n t , or according t o what I s h a l l
henceforth
term the false shade : then, without moving the
original
object of
your study, s e t
up
something which
will
c a s t a s much r e a l shadow on i t , a s your false shade pretends t o
hav e done on your f i r s t
drawing.
Copy t h i s
c o r r e c t l y ,
and
then compare
the
overshadowed
parts of
both
drawings
with
t h i s
l a s t e f f e c t produced
by
your model, and you
will
have s a
t i s f a c t o r y proof
why
I
termed the
f i r s t a false
shade ; and,
inas
much a s you become convinced
of the
error of such
thoughtless
dispatch, will your c r i t i c a l judgment be improved. You will
then see one of
the great
causes
of
deficiency in
the works
of
many of our contemporaries, whose eminence, in many other
parts of painting, might vie with the painters of any age.
The
subjugating
or quali fyi ng
impalpable
shading,
taught
by
Rule
5 ,
Letter
X., w i l l always be required f o r
the
whole
picture.
I
will
venture to a f f i r m , that
the
term false shade would not
be improperly applied t o
much
of the
work
that i s done
to
an
o i l picture under
the term glazing. All the e f f e c t
you
wish
to
produce by glazing, should be
r e a l l y
produced on t h e o b j e c t
of your
s t u d y ,
by appropriate overshadowing and reflecting ma
t e r i a l s
previously
s e t
f o r
the purpose.
—
speak
t h i s
to
young
e s s a y i s t s in h i s t o r i c composition c h i e f l y , but the principle must
be s t r i c t l y understood and
observed
by a l l who are ambitious of
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186 THE
ARBITRARY
bine
one
great
and pleasing
e f f e c t without the mechanical
drudgery of
inquiring f o r
the integrity
of
CAUSe,
through
too great a c onc ei t of competency. This pernicious
s o r t
of s e l f -
s u f f i c i e n c y ,
being
the
offspring
of pride,
l a z i n e s s ,
or
impatience,
i f not of a v a r i c e , should
be combated
with
the
most
impartial
self-examination;
f o r although perhaps
a
genius, s t i l l some,
or
a l l ,
of these f r a i l t i e s
may
conspire to mar the success of a picture,
and
destroy the truth
of
half
with
the beauty of the
whole, by
thus substituting f a c t s with unskilful ideas and unharmonising
f a l l a c i e s ,
f o r
which
even poverty dares
not
apologise.
Genius, imagination,
and
s c i e n c e ,
with
thorough
comprehension
of
a l l
that i s r e q u i s i t e t o a whole composition, may express the
i d e a of
a picture
most f o r c i b l y , and
perhaps
beautifully,
in
what i s termed the sketch of the design,
which
( I think) may
be
compared with a
well-digested
architectural design f o r
an
intended e d i f i c e ,
the
a b s o l u t e work
of
whi c h mu st
be the
result
of the
accomplished
mechanic. And t o t h i s s o r t of mechanical
accuracy must
that
a r t i s t submit who proposes to advance
in
painting
beyond
the
reputation
to
be
gained
by
a
good
sketch
of a
s u b j e c t .
LETTER X I I I .
on the arbitrary power op
light.
Madam,
With regard
t o the l i c e n c e s
to be
allowed in paint
ing,
I
s h a l l
give
you
my
opinion
a s
an
adventurer
on high
ground, l i a b l e
to the investigation of
others; but i f
such are
only s p e c u l a t i v e critics,*my
opinion
w i l l remain unanswered.
Should philosophical demonstration prove me
to
be either
e n t i r e l y
mistaken,
or
too confined in
my observations, I
shall
not regret the r e s u l t , because
truth
ought always to triumph
over
e r r o r ;
and I s h a l l have t h i s apology f o r what I advance,
that
my remarks a r i s e from
cool
and
deliberate
experiment,
amounting
to
the conclusion that
l i f e
i s too
short
f o r one to
spend
time in a systematical endeavour
to
make wings, because
of t h e c e r t a i n t y t h e r e i s of t h e i n u t i l i t y of such a r t i f i c i a l
invasions
of n a t u r e . And a s Archimedes saw the l i m i t s t o
mechanical
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190
THE
ARBITRARY
on, and derived from t r u t h , were they not supported by the
more SUCCESSFUL examples of the very same masters; i nso
much
a s
to
embolden
me
to assure
you,
that
much
a s
the
s p i r i t of such e n t e r p r i s e may f a s c i n a t e ; a truly su ccessful
r e s u l t can never be
accomplished,
while the powers of a
painter are confined within the humble l i m i t s of WHITE and
BLACK pigments.
Yet the works I have alluded t o are charming —hey are
captivating
Cool
judgment i s arrested by the glo wi ng har
mony of Claude, the vigour of Eembrandt, and the surprising
e f f e c t s
produced
by
many
other
masters
on
similar s u b j e c t s .
Should
i t be asked,
Are
these
e f f e c t s t r u e ?
i t may
be
answered
by a question,—ho c an ex ceed them? The
answer
to this
may s a f e l y be—No
one can
surpass what
has been
produced
by several great masters in t h i s department ;
but a l l
this
does not overcome my
dogma, It
i s only a b a l l o o n i s t ' s flight
towards the moon.
I t
requires but l i t t l e science to
prove
that
white
i s not
l i g h t ,
but
i t i s
an
e f f e c t
produced
on
a
colourless
object
by light;
and, i f
you
go to the
other extreme of
the p a i n t e r ' s
gamut,
you w i l l
find
that black
i s not the u tmo st de pt h
of darkness,
but
only
the greatest possible opposite to whiteness that can
be
produced on any substance,
when
exposed
to
the light;
and
between
the l i m i t s of these MODERATE EXTREMES a
sincere a r t i s t will confine his e f f o r t s , and
never
use the
seduc
t i v e a r t of gaining
fame
by a
splendid
error*
The
licence
necessary
f o r
allegory,
or
symbolic
painting,
may
be
submitted
to : some
intimation of
l i g h t s may
often be fou nd
proper
to
the
theme,
and
answer the
p a i n t e r ' s purpose
completely
a s
to the
point
of i l l u s t r a t i o n ,
but very l i t t l e
f u r t h e r .
There i s another great licence taken, which, in
my opinion,
i s practised through a preference f o r gaiety rather than truth,
which i s the introducing two
o p p o s i t e
e f f e c t s in one
p i c t u r e .
There
are pictures
representing the sun
s e t t i n g , or near
that
p o s i t i o n ,
generally
and
judiciously
kept
by
rich
tinted
clouds
* Shining
draperies,
such
as white
s i l k s
and
s a t i n s , have t h e i r
r e a l and natural
l i g h t
parts
much above white
paint,
the imitation of which
must sometimes be
affected ;
but
never
can be e f f e c t e d but i n a
comparative degree.
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HINTS ON COMPOSITION. 201
not remain a
secret
to
you,
provided
you
apply the adv ic e of
Pope
properly—
Trust not yourself; b u t ,
your
defects t o
know,
Make use of every friend and every f o e .
Experience has
informed
me
why
I advise
young painters to
deliberate
t o
some decision,
before they begin
to
sketch
the su b
ject—t
i s
this: The minds of those who have not been fur
nished with
an
ample
stock
of
knowledge
and p rac ti ce s ui te d
to so important
an
undertaking as the
painting
a subject
worthily, are
too
soon
exhausted.
The
very
f i r s t
essay
of
the
pencil conveys the forms
to
the
corporeal
eye, with that sort
of
self-applause, which too often bli nds the
critical eye
of the
mind; and (what ' . ' . y o u n g hope eager for the
end,
and too
regardless of the gradual means, i s , in general, to o fond o f ) ,
di smi sses that further consideration,
which
might
be
amply
rewarded with success. And
when
you have determined to
sketch a subject, you will find your genius carried on with a
degree
of
certainty,
i f
you
arrange
the
process
methodically,
as
follows :
—
First,—onsider the place, or scene of the circumstance;
whether
proper
to
be composed of landscape,
architecture,
or
any
other
object
s ui table to
the
story; as also,
how light may
be obeyed, to the most picturesque advantage; for i t must be
obeyed;
therefore,
Secondly,—
he climate,
season,
and
time
o f day,
should
have
due
consideration.
Thirdly,—he costume of the whole, as strictly as possible,
agreeing with the
date
of the c irc umstance , in
a l l
respects.
Fourthly,
—
he
dramatis persona.
Fifthly,—heir characters arid proper situations with regard
to
judicious*
grouping, so
as
to make the principal
appear acci
dentally, and naturally s o , rather than
designedly,
or by palpable
contrivance, like a group of comedians in the l a s t scene of a
play. S t i l l a judicious eye may see t h e s e , and much of the
scenery, to
some
advantage, in
the
present improving
state of
the histrionic a r t , especially by some of the
principal characters
that
now undertake
to illustrate the drama; or you may at
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203
THE COMPENDIUM 0¥ COLOURS.
LETTER XVI.
on colours.
Madam,
The very word
c o l o u r s
enlivens one's i d e a s . All
admire
the various e f f e c t s of their beauties
; but
those who will
attempt t o imitate them, should
study
the best means t o render
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207
AXIOMS.
First.—hat yellow, red, and blue, are entire colours of
themselves, and cannot be
produced
by the mixture < 5 f any
other colours.—ee plate I . , f i g s . 1 , 2, 3, page 208.
Secondly.—
ellow,
red, and blue,
contain
the
sole
properties
of
producing a l l
other
colours whatsoever,
as to
colour,
by
mix
t ures ari si ng
entirely among
themselves, without the
aid
of
a
fourth ;—
Thirdly.
—
ecause,
by
mixing
proper
portions
of
the three
primitives together,
Black i s
obtained, providing for
every
pos
sible degree of shadow.
Fourthly.—nd every practical degree of
light i s
obtained by
diluting any of the colours, as above producible ; or in o i l paint
ing, by mixture of white paint.
Fifthly.—
ll transient
or p ri smati c effects can be
imitated
with
such
coloured
materials
as are of the t hre e p ri mi ti v e
colours,
but
only
in
the
same
degree
of
comparison
as
white
bears
to
light.
Sixthly.—here are no other
materials,
in which colour i s
found, t hat are
possessed
of
any
of the
foregoing
perfections.
These axioms form the basis
of
the following explanations,
establishing
a
simple, clear, and permanent system, according
to the
nature
and powers of the materials.
It i s
worthy of
consideration, that, inasmuch
as a gamut
i s
not
any distinct
tune
of
i t s e l f ,
so
a
chromatic
display
of
the
formation of colours i s not any distinguishable picture; yet so
perfectly
do
each
develop that s ys te mat ic al order
by
which
n at ur e has determined harmony, that, without them, painting
with regard to colours, as well as music with regard to sounds,
would remain to a l l , as they s t i l l do to a l l those who are un
acquainted with
them.
The stu dent o f t he f ollo wi n g diagrams
should consequently
wait
patiently,
and attentively,
for the
fruits which thei r roots will certainly produce, i f duly culti
vated.
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212
LETTER XVIII.
PLATE I I .
Madam,
The three primitive colours here form the central
datum of the f i r s t c ompass, ac c ording with Root 1 , Plate I . ,
which i s the governing principle;
and
without which, the
c om
pletion of the compass must dep end on the consequence of pro
ceeding,
a s in
Harris's
Treatise ; while the root
a s
here
given,
determines,
and
d i r e c t s , the arrangement of every colour in the
c i r c l e ; leaving
nothing
to chance or conventional contrivance
a s each a r i s e s
in
i t s own and only
proper
s t a t i o n ,
dictated
by
their parent r o o t .
The number of c i r c u l a r divisions may be considered a s
a l l u s i v e t o i n f i n i t e , by imperceptible gradation between f u l l
colour and
i t s
t o t a l
evaporation
into
l i g h t ; which
I presume
i s
s u f f i c i e n t l y
intimated
by
the
systematical
gradation
of three*
distinguishable
variations
of
strength
a s t o
colour,
a s I have
offered them in t h i s diagram by the t h r e e c i r c u l a r s p a c e s .
THE SECOND COMPASS.
According t o Root 2 , t h i s diagram holds orange, green,
and purple, a s
principal;
having o l i v e , brown, and s l a t e , as
their natural intermediates. The
principles and intention
of
the
three
c i r c u l a r
gradations,
and
of
the
r a d i a l
d i v i s i o n s ,
hav ing been already explained, I have here
considered one
space
between
each colour, enough to show the sytematical
order of their circular communion, clearly intimating the
*
I t
was my
f i r s t
intention
t o
i l l u s t r a t e my
proposition by
six
large coloured
p l a t e s , u n t i l I found that the expence would have been inconveniently high
f o r many of those f o r whose particular instruction i t
was
designed. I have
therefore only reduced t h e
s i z e s of the
diagrams so as to comprehend
the
whole
work
;
and
that
only
(materially)
in
the
compasses,
by
giving
three
circular
gradations instead of
f i v e
; but I
would
advise the practising student to express
the gradations from colour t o l i g h t by many
more circular degrees,
increasing
the
number
of r a d i i a t pleasure,
and on
as large a scale
as
p o s s i b l e ,
according to
my system, which I t r u s t i s clearly
explained.
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TME
ffAMTlRMS C0JMDRAS8
U'ARM KFI'KCT.
Snb)ect4.
Expansion of Colours according tv'Rootl.
Subject
% .
While
Yellow
Orange
Keel
Purple
InribLqc
Black
According to Root
Z
(OLD ESPBCT.
Subject,
6 ,
LoiuLon-. Bagsber & , Sons .
BlacTt
Indigo
Blue
Ove^n
Yellow
Pule
Yellow
While
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THE
PAINTER'S
COMPASS.
213
means f o r
more
subtle gradations
by
the preceding compass;
a s the equal mixture of the colours of
any two
adjoining sub
divisions
w i l l
produce
the
colour
that
should
l i e
between
them,
excepting the
parent colours
of the compass, which c an nev er
be produced by t h e i r i n f e r i o r s .
THE THIRD COMPASS.
Here, according
t o
Root
3 , o l i v e ,
brown,
and
s l a t e colours,
form the central
datum,
and, l i k e their
predecessors, become
the c h i e f s of t h e i r region. The compounds which are pro
duced
by
their c i r c u l a r
communion,
are
not
s u f f i c i e n t l y
d i s
tinguishable
from
their humble progenitors, to require, or
indeed admit o f , more subdivisional
r a d i i ;
nor
of descending
by any intermediate t i n t
between
them and
t o t a l
shade. For
were we t o make the compounds
which
are produced by Root
3 between
the three colours of t h i s
compass, the principals
of a fou rth compass, the whole would blend
into
i n d i s t i n c t
dark
neutrality
; which, f i n a l l y united, r e s u l t s i n Blackness,
as
already
appears
in
the
centres
of
either
root
of
the
com
p a s s e s . And that
nature
might d i c t a t e the progress of s c i e n c e ,
and
prove
i t
always t o be consistent with
i t s e l f , t h i s f i n a l
compound becomes a
most important
material : i t i s the l e g i t i
mate
shading c o l o u r ,
the want
of which
in
Fig. 12, Plate I . ,
i s the cause of
my
excluding i t from the system : and
/
con
sider black
to
be a s
deserving
the name of colour among
colours
( a s
painting
m a t e r i a l s ) , a s any in
the system ;
and
to a l l
intents
and
purposes of
painting,
a s r e q u i s i t e ;
possessing
the
properties
of
i n f i n i t e variety
on
the descent
of c o l o u r s ,
a s light
governs their a s c e n t . The next Plate exhibits the
simple
e f f e c t s of
i t s u s e f u l n e s s , by
s i x gradations of
shade
on each
of the nine c o l o u r s ,
and
i s explained
in
i t s p l a c e .
The rule which S i r
Joshua
Eeynolds has given,
in
h i s 41st
note
on
Du
Fresnoy's
Art of Painting,
i s a s
follows:
—
The
predominant
colours
of
the
picture
ought
t o
be
of
a
warm, mellow kind, red or yellow,
and
no more c old c olou r
should be introduced, than will be just enough t o serve a s a
ground,
or f o i l ,
to
s e t o f f and gi ve v alu e
to
the mellow
c o l o u r s ,
and should never of i t s e l f be
p r i n c i p a l .
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214 THE PAINTER'S COMPASS.
Whether he
arrived at
this
knowledge
by
a
scientific
in
vestigation of the operations of
light
on matter
as
found in
NATUKE, or
by
studying the
works
of her most successful
imitators, i s not
a subject
of my
inquiry. He
WAS
EIGHT;
and
I cannot withhold the suggestion, that i t surely would
have been a weighty
confirmation
of his conclusions, to have
accompanied them with
the mathematical demonstration which
i s
conveyed
by
the natural
combination
of the three primitive
colours
in this Plate, as the infallible
consequence
of
their
triple
union,
by shewing
their harmony, sympathy,
and anti
pathies,
a l l
in
incontrovertible
order;
and
although
blue
has
such a powerful influence in i t s communion with the yellow
and red, as to determine the character of cold on that half
of the compass in
which i t i s
placed, s t i l l the mellifluent
influence
of yellow into
green
on one side,
and
the red into
purple on the other,
preserves
the
equilateral balance strictly
consonant with Si r
Joshua's
annotation.
Picture,
properly so termed, combines a natural proportion
of
light,
shade,
and
reflection,
on
judiciously
chosen
local
colours, which, i f properly proportioned in each requisite, and
in
natural order,
gives
harmony,
and conveys so true an effect
of
the subject,
that
nature will appear to have adopted the
work
as
her
own.
None but the genius who i s
refined by
a
scientific acquaintance
with the
system
which governs
so
meritorious a work, can comprehend,
nor
i s even aware of the
art
required to unite enough of a l l the component parts
for
a
naturally
whole
effect;
s t r i c t l y
conformable
t o
the
light
adopted.
It should be understood,
that
natu re, i n a l l her formations
and e f f e c t s ,
exhibits
nothing else but colour ; at l e a s t , inasmuch
as the effects of light,
shade, reflection, and
local
colours, on
the various objects of imitation, are considered; for then
a l l these
come
under
the denomination of colour or colouring,
every conceivable
and
perceivable tint
or
gradat io n o f which
may be
obtained by
proper application of the
means
offered
by
the
system
comprehended
in
these
explanations,
showing
the stu dent how to p ro vi de p ro pe r materials
for
the possible
representation
of a l l effects of
colour,
governed by the
Fifth
Axiom (see page 207).
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1
i
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i h i b j e c t
H
Lcnd/'n .Beta
s t e l ' & . ? « / ( . ' .
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EFFECTS OF SHADE ON COLOURS. 215
And,
although
appearances are rendered such, by that
incomprehensible and
inimitable
power, LIGHT, s t i l l , such i s
i t s ascendancy over the appearance of a l l
matter
in i t s
extreme
e f f e c t s ,
as
to
annihilate
a l l
idea
of
colour
by
i t s
overpowering
influence ; while the total absence of i t s power, i s
productive
of
the
like
effect
by
the opposite
extreme,
enveloping in
invisible
darkness
a l l that,
which,
in the vivifying medium
of
LIGHT,
diversifies a
scene
with a l l the variety and beauty that colours
c an display.
LETTER XIX.
flate i i i .
Madam,
Figure
1 of this Plate will show you how three
degrees of each of the nine
colours
of the
system,
would
be
affected
by
various
degrees of shade;
—
x pre ss in g t he
simple
effect of the absence
of
light, and
proving
that the
increase of
s hade , u n af fe c te d
by
reflections, does not increase the local
colour. In these examples, the three top spaces of each are
to
be pure
colour, of three
different
degrees of
strength,
which
are each to
be
carried
down
without alteration of
colour
through the two rows below; the
whole
variety of appearance
being obtained by the different degrees of darkness, as printed
on
the
Plate.
If you
colour a
circle
according to
the
example
in
the
diagram
Plate III.,
and
contrive
to fi x i t on the top
of
a
whipping-top, or any thing
that
will give i t very rapid motion
on
i t s
centre,
the effect
will
be white:
this impalpable
mix
ture of the three primitive colours, i s one
of
the proofs
of
their
peculiar powers.
(See
the
Axioms,
page
207).
According to
the
proposition on
which I
have
herein offered
a
rudimental
system,
I
consider
the
nine
colours,
and
their
final compound,
in
comparison with the NINE
fundamental
characters
and
the cipher,
in arithmetic;
each
being fully
com
petent to
the
almost infinite purposes required
within
their
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216
EXPLANATIONS OF
THE RAINBOW.
systems: because, whatever i s calculable within the powers of
the nine figures and the c ipher; so whatever i s imii able by colour
i s within the powers of the nine
material colours and
their
united
compound;
and
as
the
knowledge
of
arithmetic
must
precede the
study
of
calculation, I
have thought
i t
equally
reasonable
to make the kn owle dg e o f
colours as painting
material,
precede the stu dy of their
applications.
LETTER XX.
PLATE
IV.
Madam,
Although
my first proposition exonerates mefrom
assuming
any explanations which
properly
belong
to the prac
tice
of
transient colouring,
I have confidently
taken
the
su b
divisions
and
colours
of the rainbow
for
granted,
according
to
Si r Isaac Newton's distribution of them, as in the whole above
A, in Fig. 2, qualified by the fifth Axiom; which
may
induce
you to make
yourself
more particularly
acquainted
with that
beautiful phenomenon; which i s never visible when the sun's
height i s above
forty
degrees.
It
ought to be mathematically
understood by a r t i s t s , that the rainbow can
only
appear to be
nearly half a
c i r c l e ,
at the instant of sun-setting, and that at a l l
o the r t i me s of the bow's appearance i t will
be e l l i p t i c a l , with
i t s
longest
diameter parallel to
the horizon ; most
s o ,
when
the
sun
i s farthest from the horizon: to
be geometrically
ascer
tained, by
finding
how far below the horizon the
centre of
the
bow
i s
when seen,
which
i s the same number of degrees
as
the sun
i s
above
i t ; thus,
as
i t
were, throwing the
bow back
from
the
perpendicular.
The example given
(Fig.
2, above the line A,) proposes
to
show, that in the space appointed
for
red, a l l that can come
properly
under
that denomination, must graduate from deep
crimson
to
the
deepest
tint
o f o range
:
then
carry
off
the
orange
colour t i l l i t meets the deepest
tint of
yellow,
with which
i t
must unite imperceptibly ; then soften off the yellow
t i l l
i t meets
and unites
with
the palest tint of green. At t h i s point
of
the
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1HE.RMNBQfir
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SbrvLon.
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THE ARTIFICIAL RAINBOW. 217
bow, colour i s scarcely perceivable,
through
the delicate light
which
must there be affected : the
green
must tenderly increase
in colour and blueness (but not blue), t i l l i t
finishes at
the palest
tint of
b l u e . Blue
will go on
in
the
same
way increasing
in
colour
to Indigo,
and
from that
to the
v i o l e t , uniting
with
i t ,
and finishing violet with t he d ee pe st of that colour.
The width
of the
bow,
see Fig.
3, i s
governed by the
arch
i t
forms,
being somewhat
l e s s
in width than four degrees
of
i t s
arch. The distance of the se cond bow, above the princ ipal or
rainbow, i s not
quite nine
degrees, and
the
colours
are reverse
of
those
in
the
f i r s t
bow ;
this
i s
not
intimated
in
the diagram.
The
converging scale of
Fig. 2, from A
down to
E,
will
direct to the
drawing
of a
rainbow proportionable
to any size
landscape. First
mark
on the
edge
of a card the width of your
intended bow; then apply
i t ,
parallel to the line A, to that
part
of the scale that
t a l l i e s with
the len gth o f your measure, as
at
A, B, C,
or
D, or any intermediate space
between those
given measures ;
and
mark on the
card
a l l the
intermediate
divisions
of
the
colours.
Should
a
wider
bow
be
required
than
the measure
at
A, continue the
divisional
line
that
diverges
from E upwards, to obtain any width required ; then applyyour
marked card
to
the
foot
of the proposed
bow in your
picture,
and
set
off
the marks carefully.
TO
PRODUCE AN
ARTIFICIAL RAINBOW.
FIGURE
I .
PLATE
IV.
This figure proves the super-eminent powers
of
the three
primitive colours, by the
experiment proposed
by i t ,
which,
for
this
example,
being confined to the size of the Plate,
cannot
strictly
correspond with the proportion s taught
by Fig. 3 (that
of making the
width of
the rainbow about four degrees of i t s
arch); because
a
whole circle
i s
here
required, that a sufficient
breadth of each
colour may be displayed to illustrate the ex
periment
:
i t i s
therefore
f u l l
forty
degrees
from
the
inner
to
the
outer circles of this example, to bring i t within compass; but
the three c olo urs will nevertheless
blend
to the perfect elucida
tion of
the problem, by observing the
rule
which i t s figure
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218 LAWS
OF
LIGHT,
d i r e c t s .
F i r s t ,
draw the largest
c i r c l e
that your t a b l e t will
take,
and a
smaller one within i t :
the space within these
two
c i r c l e s
i s
t o
exhibit the width
and colours
of the rainbow, by
rapid c i r c u l a r motion,
when
the t h r e e c o l o u r s are properly dis
posed on i t , which, by p r a c t i c a l application to your s c a l e in
Fig. 2 , and i t s explanation, you w i l l subdivide
proportionably,
and
s t r i k e c i r c l e s a t
each subdivision,
a s
a t 1 ,
2 ,
3 , 4 ,
5 ,
6:
then repeat the l i n e s o f the radius by
any smaller
number
than
the twenty-four
equal
parts of the c i r c l e in t h i s example, and
then draw the
zigzag
l i n e s a l l
round, according t o
the
example.
Colour
each
partition
which
they
form
with an
even
lay
of
the
colour,
f i l l i n g the outermost partitions with
r e d , and
the whole
space a l l round that l i e s
between
the red ; and the next zig-T&g
boundary l i n e i s
to be one
uniform y e l l o w ,
—
he next quite
home
t o
the
inner
c i r c l e ,
and
from the
inner
l i n e
of yellow, i s
t o
be an even lay
of b l u e
a l l round—he n
colour
the remaining
narrow parts home to the
inner
c i r c l e with r e d . The whole
should be drawn with s o f t p e n c i l , that a l l the
l i n e s
may be
rubbed
out
a f t e r
i t i s
coloured;
then
cut
a l l
the
extra
paper
away from the painting, and paste i t (the bow) on a neutral
grey paste-board, leaving i t larger than the bow, and make
the
experiment proposed,
that of putting
i t into rapid
circular
motion,
according
t o
your
own
ingenuity
and
convenience.
There has appeared
to me,
sometimes
(perhaps
by i l l u s i o n , or
pressure
on
the r e t i n a ) , a beautiful gradation of arches under
the true bow, with a tender repetition of i t s c o l o u r s , retiring in
perspective
l i k e
several
bows
one
beyond
the
other,
exciting
the
idea of
an architectural
i n t e r i o r .
LAWS OP
LIGHT,
SHADOW,
AND
REFLECTIONS.
The following
p r a c t i c a l
r u l e s may serve the student of tran
s i e n t e f f e c t s a s a bunch of k e y s , with which
he
may obtain
ad
mission
into
the
principal
paths
that
lead
t h e
way
towards
the
s u c c e s s f u l
application
of the
colours found.
1 .
Reflecting
surfaces tincture the objects r e f l e c t e d on
with
t h e i r colour, proportionately with t h e i r distance from each other,
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SHADOW, AND
REFLECTIONS.
219
the
angle
under which
light
operates,
and
the
textures
of
both
surfaces.
2 .
The
general
prevailing
colour of
light
tinctures
every
object
within i t s
influence: for instance, observe the whole
hemisphere at clear mid-day, or the time of a warm
sun-setting,
or
the grey effects of a cloudy sky,
or
a fog.
3 . The power of light, particularly sunshine, increases the
warmth, and weakens the local colours, of a l l the cold class of
colours, which arc blue, green, and purple ;
for
instance, grass,
which in shade appears a cool refreshing green, will appear
ahnost
yellow
in
sunshine.
4. The warmth of parts, or
breadths, which
l i e
under
a par
t i a l
degree of shade,
but
where the power of lights from sur
rounding
matter prevails,
i s
accounted
for
by the quantity of
such secondary light, and
their local
colours.
5.
When a
white
surface r e f l e c t s on the shadowy part of any
colour,
i t
looks paler than the lighted
parts
of such colour; but
the power of the shadow holds i t
inferior with
regard to light.
6 .
Glossy
surfaces
receive
the
form
and
colour
of
a l l
objects
locally,
according
to thei r purity,
and reflect
them
accordingly,
being in
such degree
mirrors.
7 . Every colour that i s reflected on by i t s own colour, i s
enriched
thereby; according to the
strength
of
light
on the
reflector.
8 .
Every
colour that i s reflected on by i t s directly opposite
colour, will
be
neutralized thereby ; such a s , green against red,
blue
against
orange,
or
purple
against
yellow,
in
an
equivalent
degree
w7ith the
power
of
light.
9 .
If
any
two
approximate colours reflect the
one on
the
other, i t s
tincture will approach the appearance of that com
pound which the
two
colours
would
make by mixing them
(see
Painter's Compass, Plate I I . ) .
10. The direct opposite to
any
one of the primitive colours,
i s an equal
compound
of the o the r
two.
11.
The middle
colour, or medium,
in
a warm e f f e c t ,
i s red
(see Plate I I . ) .
12. The middle
colour,
or medium, between
light
and darkness
in the gradations of a
cold
e f f e c t ,
i s
green (see Plate I I . ) .
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220 LAWS OF LIGHT, SHADOW, AND REFLECTIONS.
13. Whatever
be
the c olou r of a
f l a t surface when
viewed
directly perpendicular by the visual
ray,
and fairly l i t must
be
painted
of
that colour,
when unaffected
by
glittering
or
reflec
tion, regarding
duly
the influence of distance and aerial medium.
14.
The
certain
colours
of a l l
visible
matter must gi ve plac e
to their
appearances, owing to the
compounding influence of
l i g h t , shade, r e f l e c t i o n , various distance, clearness,
density,
and
prevailing
hue or colour
o f t he medium under which any
colour
i s seen.
15 . Every gradation of shade i s a gradat io n from the purity
of
colour,
because
of
the
prevailing
power
of
darkness
over
the
ev idence of colour.
By t he f ore go i ng
explanations, i t i s
to
be
hoped that
the
student
of
colours
will
find
such
leading
rudiments as must be
considered essential
materials for
entering on the study
of so
subtle, so
sublime, and
important
an
art as that of Painting ;
and,
I trust,
will f e e l the advantage of myhumble endeavours,
in having disengaged the art of mixing colours from that
of
using
them,
which
must
depend
on
a
knowledge
of
the
SCIENCE OF
TRANSIENT
COLOURS; the Study of
which
I
most earnestly recommend to every one who presumes to at
tempt
i mi tat in g t he v ari ou s effects of
nature
according to the
unerring,
yet e ve r- varyi ng decrees of
LIGHT.
And
I
have
cause to believe, that the investigation necessary to insure a
familiar acquaintance
with
the beautiful i r i s , will be found to
be a very instructive introduction to the study of a l l other
effects
producible
by
colours.
It now, surely, appears reasonable to conclude, that those
who use
colours without
a scientific
conformity t o , or even
apprehension o f ,
a system, must
depend
solely on
harmony of
sight;
knowing and feeling when they
are
right,
but
unac
quainted with that which would ensure
them against
the risk
of the contrary,
and
that
waste of
time
which must
oc c ur on
every
new
experiment.
I t
may be asked,
i f
such i s the extensive
power of
three
colours only,
why are
we
furnished with s u c h a great variety
of
paints?
The answer to this question,
satisfactorily, would
give the
inquirer
some considerable study. There are books
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COLOURING
THE
DIAGRAMS. 221
which e xplain the natu re of substances used i n painting, to be
obtained by application to a
bookseller.
I t
may
s u f f i c e i f I
give
the general
information
on
the
sub
ject
a s a
general
answer.
The three substances (except
ultramarine) which
produce the
primitive c o l o u r s ,
and
mix
s o
variously
t o
a l l t i n t s
whatsoever,
are not
s o strong and durable (when mixed),
a s
many natural
and a r t i f i c i a l productions
of
d i f f e r e n t
colours; t h e s e , t h e r e f o r e ,
are preferred both a s to their strength,
and
a s they
save
the
trouble
of compounding. Another great reason i s , the i n f e r i o r
colours
are
cheaper
than
the
primitive.
I t will
be worth
the study, i f you inquire attentively
into
the
nature of your materials,
by the
means above
referred
t o ,
or a s
much
deeper into
the
a r t
of chemistry a s may
s u i t
your t a s t e
f o r such
study;
a s the compass of my undertaking w i l l not
admit
of room t o launch into a l l the information necessary f o r
an
accomplished a r t i s t . Besides,
where
a book i s already
extant, equal t o t h e purpose, I
f u l f i l my engagement by d i r e c t
ing
you how
t o
obtain
i t ;
f o r
i t would
require
a
complete
Encyclopedia of
Art,
t o bring a l l that i s r e q u i s i t e on the sub
ject into
one
book.
LETTER
XXI.
some
considerations
on colouring the diagrams.
Madam,
As
you are desirous
of
attai ni ng a
p r a c t i c a l know
ledge
of
the foregoi ng system, you
should
draw
t h e
diagrams
l a r g e r , and colour them
with
studious attention;
and
notwith
standing my confidence in having explained the whole to a
common capacity, I should
be wanting in
candour t o you a s a
student of c o l o u r s , were
I
to hold out the
delusion
—hat to
read i t
and
understand i t , would be
s u f f i c i e n t ,
except
you aspire
only t o the accomplishment of an amateur.
The landscape painter
in water-colours, who
i s not
properly
accomplished in determining on the direct means of producing
any particular
e f f e c t , w i l l
be richly rewarded
f o r h i s labour,
by
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222 COLOURING THE DIAGRAMS.
colouring the
whole of
this system according to the c olou rs
named in each part of every diagram, in the progressive order
of their development ; whereby he will
ascertain
t he i nv ari able
relationship of the
gradations suited
to circumstances; along
with the simple and certain
art
of producing any tint or colour
he may require.
Practice i s
one of
the great means of perfection;
for
when
we find
ourselves earnestly
engaged
in the performance
of
a
work,
the faculties are awakened
to a l l
that
appertains to i t :
thoughts and
conclusions
a r i s e , which perhaps
would
never
have
occurred
;
some
of
which
may
lead
on
to
others
of
infinite
value
to the object of study.
It
will instantly
appear,
that the
following
directions
are for such as are
unaware
of
mathema
t i c a l
demonstrations on this subject,
which i s
evidently the case
with many
great geniuses—ecidedly so with a l l mannerists,
who accidentally hi t on a
method
of
giving
one tolerable e f f e c t ,
and then abide by
i t ,
to save self-examination.
But as there are few of that class who will
be
anything the
better
for
general
instruction,
I
will
not
invade
their
egotistical
f e l i c i t y , but
proceed with my instructions
to
more pliant s p i r i t s ,
who will find i t most advisable to
learn,
from the proposed
practical study of the diagrams, a l l that they teach,
before
or
along
with the philosophy of Optics.
This should be attained
by the ai d and
instruction of
proper
authors (if
not masters), to
prevent the
mortification
of that v ani ty of self-applause, which
may
rack the brains of would be
original discoverers with
dreams
of
great
outdoings,
for
want
of
a
l i t t l e
humble
and
judi
cious reading, when they would find that Newton, e t c . e t c . , had
completely i ns ure d t he prize
for
which
they
had so fondly
and
so vainly laboured.
COLOURING
OF
THE DIAGRAMS.
The Three Primitive Colours determine for themselves, being
each
of their proper colour
without any
mixture. But as
they
may
be varied in the depth of their colours, according to the
quantity used on a given space, you must take care to avoid
both paleness and darkness, so as to satisfy your eye that each
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COLOURING
THE DIAGRAMS.
223
i s
perfectly
t he c olo ur
i t i s
named
to
be. Yellow must
be
neither
more
nor l e s s than
perfectly yellow; which,
in
using
gamboge,
will require
care, because i t s full depth tends to
orange
colour
;
and
wherever
i t i s
to
mix
with
any
other
colour,
i t
i s advisable
to
use i t alone,
by
laying i t on the c olou r
you
would mix with i t , as i t i s rather an unsociable material, and
acts best by i t s e l f ; but some mixture of i t with other colours
i s
unavoidable.
The
red lake
requires
enough o f y ello wn es s to
be
added to
overcome i t s
pink e f f e c t ,
so as to produce a
scarlet
t i n t ,
which
i s the
true
red;
and i t s
proper depth of colour
must be feelingly
attended to;
and
so
of a l l colours,
when
considered
as
the
standard colour
of
i t s name, which i s when they are the true
medium between the lightest and darkest tint of each colour.
The proper
depth
of
the
P ru s si an blu e i s a l l
the
attention
the
Blue requires: thus
you are
provided with the f i r s t
three
colours
of
Plate I . , which are there, to be
u sed
invariably
of
the same
depth,
as also
throughout
the
work,
wherever they
are
named
independently
of
gradations.
The
second row of Figure 1 , Plate 1 . ,
i s
the
clearest
and
most simple ev i denc e of the means by which the third row (or
second
of
colours) i s produced that I could devise—he inter
sections by couplets bringing orange, green, and purple, in
their proper colours, as
they are
t o be in
.
their respective places
of
t he s ys te m, forming the second class of colours as they
stand
in
the
third
row.
Although each
of
these are
made
by
mixture
of
other
colours,
they
must
be
so
perfectly
balanced
by
the
eye,
as to produce no idea of either of the two colours by
which
they are made. So that green, orange,
and
purple, must
appear
so en ti rely independent
of
those which
produced
them,
that
yellowness,
redness, and blueness,
must no
more be excited
by them, than they were before
you knew
the
mechanical
origin of
these compounds. The couplets which
are to
be
formed
by them,
according to
the fourth row, produce by
simple
intersection
the
third
class
of
colours,
as
they
are
set
up
in the
fifth
row, and are olive, brown, and slate colours. Here
we have the nine rudimental materials for pain ting, or
colouring,
NOT ONLY
THESE RUDIMENTAL LESSONS,
BUT THEY ARE
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224 COLOURING THE DIAGRAMS.
THE MOST
AMPLE
MATERIALS
FOR THE
GENERAL
PUR
POSES
OF the
palette; their truth and
utility
depends on
your keeping strictly to the colours, both in tincture
and
depth.
The
second
subject of Plate
I . will only
require the nicest
observation of the foregoi ng directions, with regard to each
colour, both in tincture and depth. The same i s a l l that need
be
said
o f c o lo u ri n g Figs. 3, 4, and 5 .
Plate I I . The centres of the three
compasses are repetitions
of Fig. 10,
Plate I , and
are named roots, from
their situations
and o f f i c e s , and must
be
coloured e xac tly to the originals (as i t
i s
from
these that
the i nner
spaces
of the
circles
are
to
be
coloured), and most carefully matched.
Then,
as the
f i r s t
com
pass contains eighteen radial
divisions,
and the root dictates
only six of the
colours,
there will consequently
be
two
radii
between each to
be
coloured by the harmonising
communion
of the
two colours which
such spaces
l i e
between; i . e . , the two
spaces
between
yellow
and orange must
graduate
ou t of one
into the other, by just proportions of each,
according
to their
local
influence
:
—
he
same
between
orange
and red, and from
red to purple; then on to blue, which
will
graduate towards
and into green, as the green must up to the yellow. This will
f i l l the inner circle scientifically
true,
and each
of
the outer
circles will be only the one paler than the
other
by three
distinct gradations, from f u l l colour in the
inner circle
to pale
on the outer circle of eac h example.
A
good way of pro
ceeding
will
be
to
mix a l l
the
colours
to the
palest
t i n t , colour
i ng
each
whole
ray
( a l l
three
divisions)
at
once
:
then
leave
the
outer
space,
and
repeat the colours
again
on the
remaining
two
radii to
the
proper
depth
; when you
will
only
have the inner
circle
to
repeat the same colour on to a full
depth, which,
if
well calculated, will
finish
the compass. The more care you take
in preparing the original colours, the easier will the work be.
The
se cond compass
leaves
but one clear space between the
six c olo urs di c tate d by i t s c entral ro ot : those spaces must be
coloured by an
equal
mixture of the
two
colours which l i e on
each
side of i t , so as to make a harmonious association with
both.—The
third
compass
having but
six
radii,
the colours
are a l l dictated by i t s central root. Subjects 4 and 5 must
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ON
COLOURING LANDSCAPES.
225
be worked according to the manner of the directions given f o r
colouring the rainbow, page 216;
and
the
directions
f o r colour
ing
Fig.
1 , Plate
I I I . , are
given under
the
proper
head, in
Letter XIX.
The
centres of
each
of
the
three
r o o t s , Plate I . , Fig.
2 ,
will be equally
of
one
tincture;
that of colourless shade,
nearly
black, notwithstanding the v arious colours of
their
causes:—
and
i t
w i l l
be one t e s t of the
truth
of the
colours of
their
compound
c a u s e s , namely, the three colours which, by i n t e r -
sectional
mixture, form each of the c e n t r e s .
LETTER XXII.
introductory
considerations on
colouring
landscapes.
Madam,
Theory can
only
shew the entrance to that
vast
and
varied
f i e l d
of
the
a r t
whi ch c omes
under
the
dominion
of
colour; or
perhaps
point
out some few of the
main
roads
which are most l i k e l y
t o forward
the
student
on his way
towards the
attainment of
a
rational
system.
To paint in
water-colours, you
must begin by shading,
or
(in e f f e c t ) modelling* the
whole
with a neutral t i n t , composed
of
indigo
and
Indian
red, which produce
a charming
cool
retiring colour;
more
generally adapted
t o
receive the various
appearances
of
l o c a l
colours
than
any
other,
particularly
in
landscape.
Whatever
you
can
conceive t o be,
in
any degree, shadow,
may
be done with
t h i s t i n t ,
not
regarding
the colour
of
the
object,
and
using t h i s
neutral t i n t only, a s
the
proper
repre
s e n t a t i v e of shade; which, you understand, means a l l the
v arious degrees of
the absence
of
l i g h t ,
independent of
the
additional force or depth
which
the l o c a l colour
must
give
* Which, I presume,
you now
understand to be the producing an appearance
of the substances, supposing your whole subject t o be composed of white o b j e c t s ,
entirely
disregarding colours ;
you
w i l l not lose time
i f you
re-peruse Letters
X., XI.,
and
XII.
15
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226 ON
COLOURING
LANDSCAPES.
when added.
This
will
be sufficient caution to
you
against
doing
too
much
of the
picture
with this tint; f o r ,
when the
effect of a
colourless
object
i s
produced, with a l l i t s proper
force
of
light and shade (s u ch
as a finished
white
marble
statue,
or
any other white objec t) , thi s neutral tint has
com
pleted i t s part; except as a local t i n t ,
i t may often
suit the
colour as well as the
form
; as
in
clouds,
water, and
distance,
(in
cloudy scenes) which
makes
i t superior to
Indian ink for
the
purpose
of
dead colouring,
as this
f i r s t
lay may
be
termed.
Observe, a l l the transparent colours, in some instances, shade
themselves.
The
method of
preparing and
u s ing this neutral tint
i s pre
cisely according to the direction
given
you for shading
with
Indian
i nk (see Letter
X.),
calculating on a
sufficient
quantity
of
eac h degree
to be mixed
in
separate
saucers,
before you
besri n to
colour.
Now, as the
instruction for
adding the
true effects of
the
various colours of each
object
in the
picture,
and also the
general
hue
or
tone
of
i t ,
must
depend
on
circumstances,
I
c an only proceed to give
general
information,
which,
i f
pro
perly digested by practice and observation,
will,
I hope, intro
duce you to a good system of reflection, and lead you towards
a
true
imitation
of nature.
The f i r s t
general distinction of
colours, i s by
dividing
the
circular
diagram
(Painter's Compass, as explained in
the
XVIIIth l e t t e r , Plate I I . ) into
two
equal parts, horizontally.
And you will
find a l l the warm
colours on
the red and
yellow
half of the Compass, and the cold on the other, through the
influence of yellow and red on the
one half,
and the
power
of
blue on the
other.
The warm colours are adapted
to
advance, and the cold are
considered as retiring colours, when viewed with the light;
yet they a l l
will
suit a forward position,
when pure, and
pro
perly
supported
(according
to
the
illustration
of the
above
diagram);
but will
retire in
various
degrees towards the
distant
ground,
when
used
pale on the neutral t i n t , suited to the
intended distance; and (in o i l ) ,
by mixing
white
and
neutral
enough
to carry the
colour
o f f . This will
be
confined to
f l a t
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ON
COLOURING LANDSCAPES. 227
surfaces
only,
in
a due degree
of
light, without glittering
or
reflection;—
roducing
this general rule,
—
hat the greatest
warmth will always be found on the i llu mi nat ed
side of
the
object; and, as far as a general rule can accompany genius,
in views
of
natural scenery, you will find
that,
when
looking
towards
the
light
(as for instance, a
sun-setting
e f f e c t ) , the
distance and
sky
will
possess
most of the gai ety and warmth
of
your
palette,
with
a l l the light
possible; and
the foreground
will be cool and sedate, and advance with increase of shade,
owing to the shady side of a l l objects being towards you; and
in
a l l
broad
masses,
which
l i e
entirely
ou t
of
the
immediate
influence of the principal light,
this
will be strictly the
case
on
account of their sole dependence on the cool, secondary
light of the opposi te part of the hemisphere, excepting from
local reflections ;
blades
of grass, and leaves of some
trees,
being transparent, must be treated accordingly. See Letter X.,
Rule
12.
It
will
be impossible
to t e l l you what gradat io n o f
tints
will
best
accomplish
sun-setting
effects;
they
must
be
seen
and
seized at the
instant,
owing to the
rapid changes
of the
cause: the whole
effect
will
change
gradually, so that i t i s
impossible
to copy
i t on the spot. This i t i s which renders a
previous s c i e n t i f i c knowledge of the varying degrees
of
light,
and i t s effects on various scenes necessary : for yellow changes
quickly
to
orange, and
will
become pink; and then purple,
in a short space
of time
deepening into indigo, on to
the
total
absence
of
a l l idea
of
colour. This
gradation will
be found on
the
edges of clouds,
according
to
their apparent
distance
from,
and strength of the cause of the
light
on them; and the
plain atmosphere, or space seen behind such clouds, will
graduate
from
colourless brightness
near
the
horizon, to
yellow,
then pale
green,
on
to blu e,
t i l l
i t f a l l s in with
the
indigo;
and,
like
the
gradation
just
mentioned, will
at l a s t retire upwards
into colourless shade, as night advances. So that the mass
of
space,
or
plain
sky, will derive
i t s colours and
gradations of
them, from the horizon to the zenith, according to the arrange
ment found in the
blue
(or cold) half of the rainbow; and the
clouds will
be
illuminated
with
the c olours of the (warm or)
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228
ON COLOURING
LANDSCAPES.
red
h a l f , including
half the centre, or yellow portion in
both
instances; b egi nn in g wi th the l i g h t e s t yellow possible on the
horizon,
and ascending
gradually to the deepest colour of each
extreme
of
the
bow:
the one
f o r
sky,
the other
clouds,
as
follows :—
Purple,
I Red, I Orange, \ Yellow,
|
Green,
\
Blue, \
Indigo.
Colours of the lighted parts of
clouds, as correspondent with
the warm half of the bow.
Gradation of the
colours
on the
space
or clear atmosphere,
the
c o o l half of the bow.
A SUN-SETTING EFFECT.
Colours of the l i g h t s on
the undermost edges of
clouds, as correspondent
with the warm half of
the i r i s .
Z enith, or
Top
of t h e Picture
Indigo,
Blue,
Purple,
I R e d ,
I Orange,
YeUow.
Green,
Yellow.
I Gradations of the colour
^ of the sky, as corres-
( pondent
with
the cold
I half of the i r i s .
Horizon.
Let i t
be r e c o l l e c t e d ,
that t h i s
systematic association of
c o l o u r s , can only
be
found under one
particular
circumstance of
l i g h t
and
a e r i a l medium combined; and i s
given
a s a theme
of
study
in
the
department
of
rudimental
research,
under
the
f u l l
conviction, that the more
causes
can be ascertained by such
as are possessed of adequate t a l e n t , the more f r e e l y
and
power
f u l l y will their e f f e c t s be displayed.
I s h a l l , t h e r e f o r e , advance some further observations on sys
tematic e f f e c t s of l i g h t ,
a s p e c t , and consequent colour, a s
they
appear t o r e s t on any practical b a s i s ; from which genius
may
take f l i g h t
upwards
with
some
increase
of c e r t a i n t y ,
that there
i s
a
way
towards
the radiant
realms
of
perfection,
without
groping through chaos
Permit me now t o c a l l
your
attention to the e f f e c t which
would present i t s e l f t o your study, by turning your back t o
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ON COLOURING
LANDSCAPES.
229
wards the western horizon, when the sun i s
i n
that part
of
the
sky. You
w i l l then
find
the greatest distance
to
be the
c o o l e s t ,
and
every
object
will
brighten
a s
they
approach
the
foreground,
and w i l l
have
their
l o c a l
colours heightened
by
the
power
of
the light
directly
on
them
;
exhibiting
a l l the s p i r i t
and warmth
of
colour,
a s
well
a s
strength
of s h a d e , on the nearest o b j e c t s ,
according s t r i c t l y
with
the
rule just
before gi ven.
You
must r e c o l l e c t what has been said on the subject of l i g h t , shade,
and
r e f l e c t i o n ,
a s
they are general r u l e s , and must bear
their
parts a s much in a painting a s in a mere drawing without
colour.
They are
the
keys
to
T i t i a n ' s
c a b i n e t .
You
must
a l s o
conclude i t reasonable,
and
w i l l prove i t in nature, that a s the
two contrary e f f e c t s I have noticed, a r i s e
from
a direct con
trariety of cause,
namely,
the
warmest
and the c o l d e s t light pos
s i b l e in one hemisphere, any
view,
therefore, to the right
or
l e f t of either the
one
or the other, will
have
their warm and
bright parts towards t h e l i g h t ,
and
the s h a d e s , in quantity
and
tone, will be
proportionate t o
the degrees
of
i t s a b s e n c e ,
and
the
angle under which they are viewed
and
lighted.
With
regard
to the
particular colours
proper to
each
part of
your
scene
under
those a s p e c t s , the circumstances alone
can
d i c t a t e :
i f the
objects
are
f r e e from
moisture, you
will have
much more of their l o c a l colour than when wet with
dew
or
r a i n , because
moisture gives a glassy s u r f a c e ,
which
returns
r e f l e c t i o n s of the sky, e t c . t o your eye, instead of the colour of
the
o b j e c t .
Let
i t
be
s t r i c t l y
observed,
that
experimental
ev i
dence of what the certain
or
general colour of any object i s
—u st
have no influence over the painter s eye, no more than
absolute forms have over their perspective appearances; he must
resign a l l previous acquaintance with the colours of o b j e c t s ,
especially
distant
ones, and c o n f i n e
himself purely
t o
o p t i c a l
con
v i c t i o n , which i s
a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e , or
the perspective
of
colours,
and endeavour, by s c i e n t i f i c inquiry,
t o
discover whythe known
colour
of
an
object
must
give
place
(in
painting)
t o
i t s
apparent
one
—o a s
to enable himself f a i t h f u l l y
t o
anticipate the princi
ples
of those natural e f f e c t s
which
light, in
i t s various
de
g r e e s , produces
on
the vast and wonderful variety of
o b j e c t s ,
s u r f a c e s , textures, and d i s t a n c e s , which present
themselves, each
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230
ON
COLOURING LANDSCAPES.
in as
great
a v ari ety of appearances as there may be
changes
of
position, and degrees of
light—
that (like the accomplished
scholar)
he
may
be thoroughly
acquainted
with
the grammar
and
dictionary of the language in which he undertakes to com
municate
his ideas ;
for
i t i s on the utility of learning and ele
mentary knowledge
that genius
must
s t i l l
chiefly depend
for
the
successful results of
hi s labours.
*
All substantial
bodies
resign
their
local appearances
ac
cording
to
the proporti on of their distance ; and their evidences
of
unevenness soften,
through the
perspective
diminution of
the
parts,
into
apparent
smoothness,
and
consequent
glossiness
on
their light sides ; until, finally, in the extreme distance, a moun
tain
would
assume the
apparent substance
of a cloud, as
well as
i t s
colour,
according to the degree of
glossiness
on i t s surface:
which glossiness i s not solely to be attributed
to
the
smoothness
and moisture of the snow as
found
on the continental moun
tains, but to that effect of smoothness which i s produced by
distance; becoming thereby an effectual mirror,
and
convey
i ng the colour
of
the
sky,
or clouds,
to
the
eye
of a
spectator
by
r e f l e c t i o n . (The
softening e f f e c t ,
produced
by
density
of atmo
sphere,
must
be
considered
according to
i t s
degree, along
with,
and not in opposition t o , this radical cause of distant colours.)
According to the above
conclusion,
the extreme blueness,
and
various
other aerial effects of colour on the distant moun
tains
seen
on the continent,
may be clearly
accounted
f o r .
Suppose
the
general
slope
of
the si de
of a
mountain
lay
at
an
angle of 45
degrees
from the level
( f i g . 148),
the
spectator
of
this would find
i t
reflected on by that colour which would be
in the sky or clouds perpendicularly over i t ,
at
a right angle to
his visual ray; and the same sort of calculation will in a l l
cases
confirm the
conclusion
(see Dialogue on
Reflection)
; the whole
effect
heightened,
of course, according to the
general
moisture
of surface.
Therefore, in an effect looking towards
sun-setting
with
a
wet
landscape,
you will
find
the
colours
of
the
sky
reflected strongly on the v ari ou s
distances, according
with the
angle under which they come. The most distant would in
* Extract of a l e t t e r to my e l d e s t son, during h i s f i r s t journey to Rome.
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ON COLOURING
LANDSCAPES. 231
some
certain medium
of atmospheric matter
almost assume
the
colours of the
sky
nearest the
horizon
; and as your
eye
would
advance nearer objects to your attention, the reflection of
clouds
or
sky,
at
an
equal
angle
with
that
which
your
ray
of
sight
would make on the surface of
them,
would gi ve their
colour instead
of the local, and consequently would increase
in depth of
cool
shadows, s t i l l preserving the
ev idenc e of
local
colours, and effects of transparent bodies, until arriving at
the base line
of
the picture; the absolute glitterings of wet
excepted.
The effect
you would have, when viewing
the opposite as
pect, under the same
circumstances
of wetness, would
(as
I
have
observed)
render the
distance
much
lighter
than
in a
dry
landscape;
which
I conclude
i s
owing to the power of
light
returned by glittering : and although the colouring would ad
vance
towards the foreground, with a duo degree of
general
warmth and increase
of
local discrimination, yet the
moisture
would have that
general c o oli ng
influence which the incidental
clouds
would
convey
at
their
proper
angle of
reflection
;
pro
ducing that mys te ri ou s p lay of various tints over the whole
scene; which none
can
attempt
without
scientific
experience
after nature; and in imitating which, even the copyist
of
a
good
picture of this description c an seldom avoid gaudiness.
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232
ON COLOURING-
LANDSCAPES.
I t
i s
almost
impossible
to
carry instruction
beyond the basis
laid
down
by
the se sugge st ions , without a risk of
confining
a
d i f f i d e n t
student
too
much within system;
but
as some
general
instances
may
awaken the right mode of
application,
I shall
advance them
thus:
—
Either of the three principal colours will stand forward in a
picture, by
being opposed with compounds of the
other
two,
agreeably to the order they are found in Plate I . f i g s . 11, 12 ,
and 13;
and
consonant with the tenth article of the laws for
light, shade, and reflection, page
219,
and when either black
or
white
i s
required
to
form
the
principal
mass
in a
picture
(s u ch
as the
black
or
white
drapery of a single figure), they
maybe supported or held conspicuous, by subordinate masses
of
a l l the thre e
colours, ingeniously
and naturally arranged ;—
either
pure and separate,
or
compounded, agreeably
to the
light,
shade,
reflection,
and distance, of the
objects
on
which they
may
be adopted. And as another eminent example, suppose you have
occasion to paint a group
of figures a l l uniformly dressed
in
white,
or pale
buff
colour
(as
in
the
picture
of
S t .
Romaldo,
of
Andrea Sacchi),—
ay quite white:—
he
greatest
success
of such
a p ic tu re
must rest on judicious composition, character, and
di s
position of figures
and draperi es, so
as to secure
an agreeable
b alanc e o f light, shade, and reflection,
c h i e f l y , of
course, with
proper expression of the subject.
The
next consideration must
be
upon that scientific balance of colouring, which would
pro
duce a natural
and
harmonious picture, according with the na
tural powers and properties of the three colours. Thus,in the
ex
ample
quoted, white, which i s
the absence of the three primitive
colours
(when
considered
palpable),
being
the
object
of
fore-
standing or principal, will
be successfully
brought forward by the
presence of the
three
primitive colours, judiciously harmonised by
light and shade.
It
i s a
common
question with amateurs,
to
ask
what
colour
i s
proper
for
the
shading
of
another. The
plain
and
direct
an
swer to such inquiry,
i s
—o colour
:
for shadow,
in
i t s
greatest
degree,
i s
entire
darkness
; and every gradat io n of colour ou t
of
darkness towards
light,
will
in the
same
degree
regain
i t s
original
hue;
which
effect
may be
very fairly proved
only by
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ON
COLOURING
LANDSCAPES.
233
colouring on Indian
ink
shading
;
when the
mere
light
and
shadow of an uneven
surface (of any
c o l o u r )
i s
considered. But
when
shadows
are
reflected on by
any strong
colour, the sim
p l i c i t y of the shadow i s
overpowered
by
such
r e f l e c t i o n ,
and
must
be treated accordingly; f o r instance—
he
r e f l e c t i o n
and
counter-reflection of red r o s e - l e a v e s ,
when
f u l l blown,
continues
and
contains
the colour, even in deep shades, to a greater
degree than the radical principle just advanced would seem
to
allow,
which
i s owing
to
their
transparency.—ee
my
Xth Letter, Eule 1 1 .—aint some plain s t r i p e s of various
colours
on
a s l i p of drawing paper, leaving
some
uncoloured
space between
each, and you
w i l l f i n d , by bending or rumpling
the paper, that the
shade
produced by the
bending
i s no colour,
but
precisely the same t i n c t u r e of shadow
on
the coloured parts
a s
on the p l a i n ,
f o r
colour
(truly s o
c a l l e d ) i s
never
increased
by
shadow.
The
remarks I
have
made
are rather to
lead you into
a
proper
train
of
observation
when
studying
nature,
than
a
pre
sumption
t o
give
a
law
f o r
colouring
without. To
become
an
accomplished imitator of the
beauty
and harmony of the natural
e f f e c t s
of
colour,
you w i l l find
i t proper to apply, frequently
and
s t u d i o u s l y , to every picturesque circumstance which may tend
to the improvement of your
powers,
seizing
whole e f f e c t s ,
prac
t i c a l l y from nature;
and
subdividing your
masses into a s
few
gradations a s p o s s i b l e , when
colour
i s the main object of in
quiry. The
various seasons of t h e
year, and times
of t h e
day—
the
storm,
and
calm
—
l l
have
their
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
beauties
and
p e c u l i a r i t i e s , of equal importance in the choi ce of a subject.*
Those who
make
landscape the
chief
object of their study,
would find
great advantage
in
getting correct outlines
drawn
of the
most
picturesque
subjects
that o f f e r
themselves
t o their
frequent observation; these should be in their p ocket sketch
book,
and
such a r t i s t s
should
never be without the po cket
*
Howard
on
Clouds,
i s
an
ingenious
and
very
useful
book
to
landscape
p a i n t e r s , but
more particularly as to the
s k i e s
of h i s t o r i c a l
pictures;
because
a r t i s t s ,
professedly i n
t h i s department, may
not hare
drawn these general
con
clusions
from nature,
which are
indispensably necessary
to the u ni ty of circum
s t a n t i a l h i s t o r y .
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234 ON OUTLINE
AND PROFILE.
water-colour box, e t c . ; then, when any interesting effect of
colouring happened to oc c ur opportunely on revisiting any
scene
which had
been
previously
outlined,
they
would
be pre
pared
to arrange
t he v ari ou s tints
on
the
outline,
without loss
of that very precious time which the stu dy of aerial
colour
offers,
and on which a whole
picture
most
materially depends for that
unity
of
e f f e c t ,
which no theory
can
explain, beyond
the
general scientific principles that ev ince the correspondence
between causes
and their
e f f e c t s , enabling the
a r t i s t
to be hi s
own interpreter. I
cannot finish
this letter
without
calling your
attention
to two
writing-copies,
which
I
have
remembered
ever
since I
wrote
them
at school— r
OPPORTUNITY LOST CAN NEVER BE RECALLED;
and,
He that defers a
thing from day
t o
day,
Doth
on a r i v e r ' s bank expectant s t a y ,
' T i l l that f u l l stream which stops him s h a l l be gone,
Which
runs,
and
s t i l l for ever w i l l run on.
LETTER
XXIII.
on outline, profile, and
the
painting-room.
Madam,
I have hitherto
treated
of drawing (or
outline),
light,
shade,
reflection, and
colour,
separately,
for
the sake
of
progression, that you
may
be the better enabled to collect the
whole under one
idea
—hat
of
a
complete
picture.
The outside l i n e , correctly understood,
i s
a most important
preliminary to accomplish : while light,
shade, and
reflection,
are
only the ge ne ra l c o nt i nu at i on o f
i t .
What the outside
line
i s to the apparent
extreme
edge of the
object, lights and shades are to a l l the parts which l i e between
them;
evincing,
by their differently arranged de gre es o f force
or tenderness, a l l the p ro jec ti ons or rec edi ngs , as perfectly as
the outside l i n e . Insomuch, that a sc ulptor might make a
per
fect model therefrom ; thereby proving, that the outline
of
the
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ON
OUTLINE AND
PROFILE.
235
whole of every part i s as necessary to be con ce ived and ex
pressed
as the outside l i n e . And i f this
be
perfectly accom
plished
by
a
successful
combination
of
the
means,
a
universal
outline
will
be as
evident
as
in that
complete statue,
or
model,
which i t ought t o be correct enough t o produce to a
sculptor.
And
the local
colour must
so
unite with a l l
other circumstances
of shade, reflection, e t c . , in
t h i s ,
as
rather
to i mp ro ve t he
effect
than confuse i t , as good music does poetry.
This,
i t
i s , which makes the greatest distinction between the
practical
means of
sculpture and painting.
What
the sculptor
accomplishes
with
the
chisel
on
absolute substance,
must,
in
a
du e degree of exactness, be effected on
a
flat surface by the
painter.
The late
eminent
sculptor,
Mr.
Bacon,
told
me
that,
If a correct copy of
sculpture (a
group especially) did not
produce as
good
an effect
as a
would
i f truly copied from
a
good
p ai nt in g o f the
same
subject, granting fairly that variation
and depth which
coloured
draperies, e t c . , e t c . ,
must
give to
such print, the
sculptor had
not done a l l
that
sculpture might
accomplish.
This
idea
(said
he)
ha s
governed
my
compo
sitions,
and
Roubilliac
i s
a
great example of i t s advantage.
I
may surely venture to
hope, that what
I
have communi
cated
of
each part
in
i t s
place
will
a s s i s t you
in the
pursuit
of
your studies, and lead you
to
seek a
good
reason
for
a l l the
effects
you would
attempt.
When
I
say good
reason, I
wish
you to understand that the name only of the greatest master
may
not
be
sufficient
reason
for you to copy him.
If
you are
asked
whyyou oppose purple to yellow, e t c . ,
e t c . ,
I
hope
you
will
now have a
much
more sufficient
answer than
saying,
Because
Vandyke did
so.
Although
i t
will
be
proper to
caution
you against doubting, while
you
do not possess the
science requisite; but I must hope that enough has been ad
vanced to
direct
your
i nqu iry Whythey did
so
or so? and
to
have
given
you the same
good reason
for copying them, which
they
had
for
copying
nature
to
that perfection
which
some
few
have attained.
To say more on the combination of
a l l
the separate parts,
or
means
by which the whole may be
best
produced, would
be binding
you to
that systemati c f o un dation,
on,
and from
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236 ON
OUTLINE
AND PROFILE.
which,
genius
should r i s e
with c e r t a i n t y .
Look to Nature
with the
eye
of Art, or you
can
never hope t o imitate her
b e a u t i e s .
P. S . In answer
t o
your
query respecting
p r o f i l e s ,
or
out
side
l i n e s :—must
f i r s t remind you, that
i t i s n ot wi thi n the
province of my
undertaking
to t r e a t on
matters
that depend on
t a s t e ; and i t i s with
some diffidence that
I range
out
of
my
sphere. Persons who think their p r o f i l e o u t l i n e t o be irregular,
or overmarked, have a great objection
to
having their portraits
thus
painted; thinking
that a
front view may
give a more
favourable
picture
:
which
you
must
perceive
cannot
be
a
true
one, i f the
p r o f i l e projections
are
not
made quite
a s
evident by
true and judicious light and
shade in the
front v iew, a s when
drawn in
a d i r e c t p r o f i l e .
To
prove
t h i s ,
study the bu st of
the
Duke of
Wellington
—hat point
of view
could
soften or
take o f f the
evidence
of h i s having strongly-marked
f e a t u r e s ,
i f
a l l the
parts and articulations
of the
other forms
of the
f a c e ,
a s
seen
in the
model, were s t r i c t l y
attended to?
You may
take
i t
f o r
granted,
that
the
above
prejudice
against
p r o f i l e
o r i g i n a t e s , and belongs t o
black-shade p r o f i l e s only ;
f o r without
the
preference du e
to the antiques, the beautiful p r o f i l e models
of the present time w i l l hardly allow one t o imagine that
any
other view of the subject could
have
been a more advantageous
representation.
For my
own judgment, I must declare, I
conceive
that strongly-marked f e a t u r e s , viewed,
and
closely
imitated i n f r o n t , especially under a high l i g h t ,
would
produce
a
l e s s
pleasing
e f f e c t
than
p r o f i l e ; particularly i n
female
f a c e s ,
in consequence of the bold shadows of their projections : while
the
p r o f i l e
may
be so
placed broad
t o
t h e
l i g h t ,
a s t o
ren de r the
e f f e c t a s agreeable a s the form could
possibly
admit. However,
I only
o f f e r my particular
opinion
on t h i s a s a theme rather
than a s
a
law :
and i f that captivating
expression which
charms
the soul could be a s instantaneously portrayed a s i t i s given
when
directed t o the sympathising feelings of
love
or friendship,
I should gi ve up
my
arguments f o r p r o f i l e s , and a l l distinguish
ing remarks
on
f e a t u r e s , and decidedly recommend a
preference
t o taking t h e whole soul full i n front ; which conclusion leaves
you to
cultivate acquaintance with those ideas which
will
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ON OUTLINE AND
PROFILE. 237
qualify you t o judge f o r yourself on the
most
advantageous
representation of a s u b j e c t .
Those
involuntary
expressions of
a f f e c t i o n
which
flow
from
the s o u l , and
convey
so much i n t e l l i g i b l e f e l i c i t y t o the fond
parent, the sympathising f r i e n d , and the f a i t h f u l
lover;
that
energetic vehemence which characterises valorous actions—hat
firm and
deliberate
mind
which
s u s t a i n s
the
arduous
senator,
the s o l i d look of j u s t i c e , the depraved hardiness of unconscion
able
villany, the timorousness of
f e a r ,
the
awkward
expression
of bashfulness, the
lovely and unconscious
triumph of innocence,
and
the
various
expressions
of
joy
and
of
sorrow,
—
l l
w i l l
impress
t h e
f e e l i n g s
of
an
acute observer, with a decided and
very
powerful
e f f e c t . But a s most of
the
characterising expres
sions of the passions are
t r a n s i e n t ,
the most happy and
well
cultivated genius can
only s e i z e t h e
i d e a s of
what
i s
required
to
be conveyed t o the canvass, or
wrought
out on the marble, and
digest them
in
his
mind according t o
t h e rudimental information
he has a c q u i r e d . The gradual progress of performing a
work
of
such
importance, requires
the
mutual
attention,
s p i r i t ,
and
patient perseverance of both subject and a r t i s t , wherever those
extraordinary
f e l i c i t i e s
are expected
from
that e f f e c t , which i s
erroneously imagined
to
be
within
the miraculous powers of the
a r t i s t , by means of a happy glance, or a fortunate t o u c h .
What danger of
error
must the self-endeavouring tyro be i n ,
when a friendly adviser (who i s fond
enough
of works of a r t ,
and the endeavours of
genius,
to i n s i s t on the t i t l e of a con
noisseur
)
who
will
t e l l
him
one
happy
touch
will
perfect
the
work,
and
that
he
has been s o
fortunate
a s to
point
out such
s i n g l e
touch,
t o the completion of a p o r t r a i t , which had NO
RESEMBLANCE BEFORE
A
p o r t r a i t - p a i n t e r ' s great dependence i s on the Graces,
most particularly s o , when painting
handsome females;
wherein
the
utmost
e f f o r t s of a r t require extraordinary genius to do
justice
t o h i s
subject;
and
even
t o
improve
on the plain t r u t h ,
by selecting the
most
pleasing
and
interesting t r a i t s of expres
s i o n , a s well a s
of forms;
aiming a t that nice c r i t e r i o n , which
distinguishes the very c r i t i c a l l i n e which divides f l a t t e r y from
complaisance,
s t i l l preserving indisputable i d e n t i t y ofresemblance.
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238
THE PAINTING BOOM.
Many ask a portrait painter, why he paints with so high
and confined a light,
and
that only from one window or aper
ture?
Its
height i s intended to gi ve a sufficient quantity of
shadow,
to
produce not
only
a more practical,
but powerful
effect
on the
object of
study. And
why
but one window?
Because the integrity of light and shade i s not
only
more sub
stantial in e f f e c t ,
but
much
l e s s
difficult
to i mi tate.
For an
experimental proof, set a decanter of water on the table, and
study i t
from a painter's l i g h t ,
and
the
operation
would be as
simple, and as perfect, as the
nature
of the object
would admit.
Then
open
two
or
more
windows
in
addition
to
the
painting
window,
and try another study
from
the decanter,
and
you
will find
such a
multiplication of lights, shades, and
reflections,
as to increase the labour proportionate to the number of win
dows; and after a l l , i t would only be the picture of the decanter,
with perhaps no
improvement
of
effect
for your trouble.
Here
observe, as a lesson that will be of material importance
in
our next subjects of
inquiry,
that the
depth
of shadow so
necessary
to
the
best
e f f e c t ,
must
be
studied
with
the
nicest
attention
t o nature, as
(perhaps I
may say) f i f t y ou t of a
hundred
f a i l
in the advantage offered them by an
appropriate situation
of their model, through incorrectness of imitation, both of
shade,
reflection,
and colour : and that
which
should appear one
of the greatest merits of their work, becomes the ridicule of the
vulgar, as
well
as
a
just object
of
criticism to the connoisseur,
who, expressing
his
condemnation in a sarcastical vein, com
pares
the
dark
shadow
under
a
nose
to
the
stain
of
black
rappee
:
this sort of severity
may
be some punishment to a careless
a r t i s t , and points ou t the necessity of attention.
I
am now fully prepared to commence my
communications
on miniature
painting, and hope
you are quite convinced of
the
absolute necessity
of the
preparatory
instruction which you
have so attentively
waited f o r , although the following letters
were wri tt en wi tho ut any previous teaching
to
the
young
lady
to whom they were
originally
addressed.
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239
LETTEE
XXIV.
on miniature painting.
Madam,
I shall now give you the copies I promised of
the two letters I
wrote
to a young lady, on the subject of
miniature painting; in which you must submit to
some
re
petition
of
many points, with
which
my
foregoing commu
nication
must
have
made
you
thoroughly
acquainted.
I
have
sometimes thoiight
of abri dgi ng
them
of what they con
tain of
matters
previously explained ; but have
concluded
that
i t would be more to the purpose to repeat the
whole
as
originally written, with a design of gi v ing my system as
com
pletely as
possible.
Avery tolerable painting in mi ni atu re has been produced
by an amateur (from an attentive application
to
the
following
l e t t e r s )
who
had
never
before
used
a
colour,
and
in
the
specimen
alluded
t o ,
had no
other guide than a black and white print;
and
since the
first
publication of them, I have received many
other ev idences of the success
of my communications
on the
subject.
LETTER XXV.
INSTRUCTIONS
ON
PAINTING
IN
MINIATURE,
Containing
much Rndimental Information necessary to
General Accomplish
ment i n the
other
Departments
of
the Art,
IN LETTERS TO A YOUNG LADY.
Madam,
I
consider i t due
to your great
attention and the
honour you have done
me
by your improvement,
to
give you
the
following general
memorandum
of the
whole
process,
that
you may not be at a loss in any material point, when you will
have finished your course of lessons on miniature painting, and
can
practise without a master.
The sheet ivory
for
miniature painting i s to be
had
finely
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240 MINIATURE PAINTING.
prepared a t most of the water-colour shops,
and
of ivory
turners:
the
best f o r
the
purpose
i s
c l e a r ,
f r e e from
those seams
and
white marks which sometimes occur.
They
can be
had
any
s i z e
which
the diameter
of an elephant's tooth will admit
o f . It
i s best to bleach the sheets
gradually f o r
a month in the sun ;
some b o i l them. They
may
be brought to
a
good
s t a t e
to
paint
on
in half an
hour, by
placing them
a t a small
distance from
the
f i r e . When
a sheet of ivory i s s u f f i c i e n t l y white, i t will
be
come in a
certain
degree opaque, losing that o i l y transparency
which i s i t s natural property.
You
must then
scrape
i t with
a
sharp smooth-edged
knife
or
scraper,
t i l l
the
saw
marks
are
cleared o f f , and the surface perfectly smooth. Rub i t with
c u t t l e - f i s h , or very.finely-sifted pumice-stone powder, t i l l the
polish produced by scraping i s f l a t t e n e d , and with a large pen-
' c i l
f u l l of c l e a r
water wash the s u r f a c e ,
and
wipe i t off
quickly
with a very clean piece of linen
or c otton
;
or
rubbing i t with
very clean India-rubber will answer the same
purpose;
i t i s
then f i t to paint on. Take great care not t o touch the
surface
afterwards
with
your
f i n g e r s ,
a s
i t
w i l l
render
i t
unfit
t o
receive
the water
colour
f r e e l y . Even the
imperceptible
perspiration of
the
cleanest hand
must
come
under t h i s
character
;
and
the
caution
must
be s t r i c t l y observed, f o r no other
reason than the
one given.
When
your
ivory
i s pre
pared, cut a card about
one
inch longer
and wider,
t o put
i t
on,
which
you
may
f i x
in
a temporary manner thus:—
Lay the ivory
even
on the
card; make a pencil mark
at
each end of
i t ;
and
then
cut
four t e e t h ,
or
angular points,
in the form
of
a V, a t the
corners near t h e
ends
of
t h i s
pencil
mark
quite
through
the card, pointing inwards,
and
finishing a t the
pencil
l i n e .
Slide the ivory under these fou r poi nts
of
the
card,
and that
w i l l hold i t secure t i l l you have
made
your drawing, which
Card.
V
V
The IVORY
placed properly
on the
Card.
A
A
Card.
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MINIATURE
PAINTING. 241
should be done on a piece
of
wove paper the size of the ivory.
I generally lay i t over the ivory by sliding i t under the same teeth
which
hold
i t
to
the
card;
i t
i s
thus
secure
enough to
sketch
on.
If
you only wish to draw a bust
or
head,
divide
the length
of the ivory into three equal parts, and l e t the length of the
head be one
of
those parts ; and, to a person of
middling
stature,
place
the chin
or
bottom of the
face
in the
centre
: this gives
half a
head
clear above the head,
and
the length of a head
and
one-half below,
which
you
will find
to f i l l your ivory very
pro
portionately, being careful
to place the
chin
higher or lower on
the
drawing,
according
to
the
stature
of
your
subject,
observing
that i t
i s always wrong to have the face too low
down.
One-
eighth part of the le ngt h o f the head,
either above
or
below
the
centre, i s
nearly sufficient for the t a l l e s t or shortest
person;
that
i s , one 24th part of your ivory : discretionary liberty must be *
granted in t h i s . And when you paint a pair of miniatures, a
gentleman and lady,
to
match as
to
s i z e ,
you
may
have
to
cal
culate the
he ight o f female
head dresses, so that the rule will
require
consideration, that
the
two
faces
may
be
of
right
pro
portion, the one
to
the other.
When you have made a correct drawing on the paper, and
completely
settled your composition
in
pencil
(marked
strongly),
raise
the corners of the
card, and
place the drawing
under
the
ivory,
which
will
serve as an
outline
for
your painting,
as
the
ivory
will
be
transparent enough for that
purpose.
Here you
will have
an advantage
you would not have had, i f your
f i r s t
sketch
had been made on the ivory—
hat
of moving the paper
drawing to
that
part
of
the
ivory
you may wish.
To
obtain
the proper handling in miniature,
i t will be
good
practice
to
copy,
in
Indian
ink,
a few of the very best engrav
ings
(after
such
noble and reputable
characters as
may be
worthy a place in your portfolio), that you may not
be
per
plexed with colours t i l l you can f e e l your ivory ground; and
as soon as that
i s
acquired,
you may begin
painting
in
miniature
but I should not advise studying from the l i f e , until you have
made some copies after good l i f e - s i z e paintings. For
copying
miniatures
will
give
you
a
l i t t l e
style, especially as there are
very
few of
much value except as to
identity
o f r es emblan c e,
16
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242 MINIATURE PAINTING.
but
what
are too highly esteemed by their owners to admit of
their
being
copied.
And as to the
manner
of putting
on
the
paint,
i t i s
only
worthy your
attention
to
know, that
i t
should
be
done with great care
and
delicacy, which practice
and con
viction of what
you
have t o do will best produce.
It may be proper
here
to assure you, that there should
be
bu t one distinction between large and small pictures, namely,
the difference of
their
s i z e . To
prove
t h i s ,
I
have
only to
refer
you to Mr. Bone's enamels,
and other
well painted miniature
copies,
after large
pictures, which
are
generally superior to
any
originals
of
their
dimensions.
And
as
far
as
regards
the
size
of
a
picture, I
will ask, what small original pictures,
generally
considered, are
to
be compared with the engravings after
some
of the largest pictures in the world by Si r E. Strange,
Barto-
' l o z z i , W oo lle tt , Sha rp ,
Heath,
Cardon, e t c . , e t c . ,
which en
gra v i ng s f o r size must be classed with miniatures ?
Teniers,
Ostade, Wouvermann, Rottenhammer,
Wilkie,
e t c . ,
prove that the
small
dimensions of a work ought not to lessen
i t s
importance
:
for
a
good
miniature
must
contain
a l l
that a
good
l i f e - s i z e picture
should,
ex cept quantity. This,
I hope,
will
s e t t l e your mind as to s t y l e ,
that
you may proceed to the
manner
by which a good miniature may be produced—f
you
c an com
pose
and
draw equal t o
such an undertaking
; for
which I
hope
myeight f i r s t Letters have prepared you.
For
i t
would
be
un-
candid in me to proceed, without assuring you that a l l I can
teach you respecting the progres s of miniature painting, will
not
enable
you
to
produce
a
good
picture,
in
any
degree
beyond
your a b i l i t i e s for correct drawing. There i s no power in colours
that
can
compensate the defects of bad drawing ;
i t
must not
only be well drawn, but well characterised; which cannot be
accomplished
without a
competent
knowledge of
forms, and the
reasons for
light,
shades,
and reflection, united with a happy
taste to arrange the whole to the greatest advantage.
It i s not
expected that these accomplishments will
shine ou t
in perfect splendour in
your
f i r s t essays, but they must ever be
the
ruling principles
of your progress.
The mind
must be
bent
on perfection ;
and
you must not
turn
your beginnings off with
disgust,
continually
entering on
something new ; but studiously
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MINIATURE PAINTING.
243
and
patiently
correct
and
complete
whatever
you
begin,
to the
very best of
your
a b i l i t i e s
: which
must
not
depend
on
your BEST
wishes
for
a
lucky
hit
;
bu t
acquired
a b i l i t y ,
through
elementary
application, whereon alo ne c o nv i c ti o n of certainty depends.
Please
to understand, my
objection to
your
making many
beginnings, does
not extend to
your
sketch-book,
which may not
improperly be classed with the accountant's
waste
book, wherein
you
should
not
neglect
to
sketch any thought,
or circumstance,
worthy a se cond consideration. Your sketch-book will be the
sincerest
c r i t i c ,
i f you make candid reflections
and
observations
on
i t s
contents
;
shewing
what you
c an
do,
and
proving
wherein
you are deficient, thereby directing you in the clearest manner, to
which of the
elements
you should
apply for
improvement.
Now, admitting you qualified,
—se
fresh soft water,
and
the gum water
should
also be fresh ; about one-eighth part
gum, and
seven-eighths of
soft water, i s
as strong as
i t can ever
be required ; but i t may be made
much weaker for general
use
with advantage
to
the picture : some
good
painters u se nothing
but
clear
soft
water.
The
finest
water-colour
cakes you
can purchase
may
be
much
improved by re-grinding,
for
which
you
should be pro
vided
with a glass,
or,
rather,
porphyry
slab,
and muller, or
levigator. Rub the cake on the slab with very thin gum water,
t i l l you have discharged as
much colour
from
i t
as you choose ;
then grind i t with the
muller for
ten minutes (the strong-
bodied paints will require more grinding than the lakes) ; take
the
colours
off the slab with a palette-knife, and place them on
your
palette
in
the
following order,
or
any other
you
may
choose to
adopt
with
better
reason.*
Brown mad
der l a k e .
Pink d i t t o .
Carmine-
l a k e .
Vermilion.
Venetian
r e d .
Indian
r e d .
Sippia.
Vandyke
brown.
Burnt
terra
de Sienna.
Raw d i t t o . Gamboge.
Yellow
ochre.
Black. White.
Nap.
Y e l l .
Ultrama
r i n e .
Pruss. b l u e .
Indigo.
* This p a l e t t e represents the
s l i d i n g l i d
of a box of
water
colour cakes, which
I advise
as
a very convenient i mp ro v eme nt o n t h e i r
present l i d s .
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244 MINIATURE PAINTING.
Begin your painting on the ivory with the utmost atten
tion to correctness o f r es embla nc e , not entirely relying on the
sketch
you
have behind;
but
reviewing and improving the
whole to a perfect likeness in this new outline, by tender
touches
and
masses
of shadow: do not work
too
wet, but
bring the
whole
forward by
hatching, which
i s making light
clear strokes with the pencil, somewhat in the manner of line
engraving ; and stippling, which i s dotting,
and
i s generally
practised most towards the finish of the work. You must
never l e t the
pencil stop
on the
ivory,
unless
you
would leave
a
solid
spot
of
paint, which
i s
seldom
required,
because
a l l
the colour should be more like a tincture, or dye, than
an evidence of substantial
paint.
This f i r s t part i s to
be
done with a neutral t i n t ,
mixed
of Indi an red and
indigo;
but
for flesh, ultramarine blue, and
the
madder
lakes, will
be f i n e r .
You
may
draw
and
paint with this t i n t ,
t i l l
the whole
of
that
which
you c an
consider
shade
i s
completed, paying very
l i t t l e
attention
to
the
local
colour or
complexion
of
any
part,
but aim at
the
likeness with
the
effect
of a plaster-of-Paris
bust;
observing,
as you proceed, that the reflected parts may
have a
thin warm
tint of yellowish
hue : raw terra de sienna i s
a
good
general
colour
for t h i s .
This
must
be done with an
eye
to nature, and
a hand of caution;
and a l l
retiring parts,
or
those surfaces
which
are seen
in an
oblique direction, will be
colder (except when influenced by
reflections)
than the other
parts
of
the
shading;
that
i s to say,
bluer,
when
you have
the
light
side of your subject toward you,
which
i s generally the
case
in portraiture.
The neutral tint i s a retiring colour;- take care to u se i t
sparingly
and tenderly, recollecting
that
the
local colour,
or
proper
complexion of the part,
when
added, will decrease the
li ght i n
a
considerable degree.
In
marking the forms of
features
and muscles, the neutral
tint should have more of red than blue, especially the lips;
f o r , if
you model
them too much with
a
cold t i n t ,
you would
not
recover
the coral of the l i p s . Indeed
i t
will
be absolutely
necessary
to observe when effecting the modelling, that i s ,
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MINIATURE PAINTING. 245
when
you endeavour to express any part of t he f orma ti on ,
with a
colour foreign
to the real purpose, however s trong the
likeness
may
become in expression through
correctness
of
form, the colouring must
be
s t i l l
imperfect. The
greatest
geniuses for tru e o utli ne in portraiture,
being
such through a
sort of
impulsive
sympathy, are most liable to the
effects of
this
error : while
young
i n o bs erv ati on , dashing on
at
the
expressions, just when
i t
strikes them,
without
due regard to
the
colour
they are going to use.
It i s
this
class
of picture
that appears
better
in
print than
in the original; and the
observation
here
required,
i s
for
painters
in
o i l
or
crayons,
as
well
as miniature. The nose and ears, being transparent,
will,
in some points
of l i g h t ,
have
their shadows of
a deep red : this
depends
on
the
circumstances of
light and reflection, by which
you must also
be governed
in the hue of your retiring
t i n t s , by
the effect on your subject.
As
soon as you have produced a good likeness, as to the
model or
dead colouring,
begin
to
cover
the whole
with
the
complexion,
both
lights and
shades,
proceeding
in
a
careful
tender manner to produce that
delicate
smoothness,
and
uniting e f f e c t ,
which
are requisite in such minute
attempts.
This may
be
facilitated
by
taking care to have the tint you
are using, pale
enough
to
prevent
your
touch
from
appearing
a dark
speck. You
will
find light red (which i s yellow ochre
bu rnt); or
Venetian red,
pink madder, well-ground good ver
milion, and raw terra
de
Sienna, equal to almost a l l the local
complexion
you
c an
conceive,
when
variously
applied
as
your
subject dictates.
In
very f a i r complexions the ultramarine will be
found
necessary
near
the i nner corners of the eyes, on the sides
of
the
nose, on t he t emp le s, and about the mouth, and in a l l retiring
parts
that are not
under
the
influence
of reflection,
which
will have been attended to in the modelling, or f i r s t
process, i f
my
previous directions have been
rightly
given
and
received.
Indian red
(when
fine) i s a very useful and durable colour,
but, like vermilion, requires a delicate touch, i t being an
embodied heavy colour, and should be used with
very
l i t t l e
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246
MINIATURE PAINTING.
gum ; because a l l body
colours
will remain as a substance on the
surface of the ivory, and too much gum would form any mass
of such colour into a cake,
which
would
be liable
to
shrink
and
scale
off from
the
ivory.
Now begin to find your
deeper
shades with a mixture of
Indian
red,
lake, and Indian ink,
attending at the same
time
to
brown
or warm
shade, and
increase
the local colour, especially
the darke st o r
deepest,
and settle a l l your high lights
by
deli
cate
touches
of
'
fine
white,'
as
prepared
by
Newman,
of
Soho
Square, and
to
be had
at
most
of
the colour shops, ready
for
u se, like
the other c akes
of
colour.
Observe
to
keep
and
u se
this
colour very clean,
and,
indeed, a l l of
them:
use the purest
water
you
c an obtain, and have a l i t t l e thin clear gum water,
using i t rather
sparingly,
as i t i s liable
to
injury
from
damp.
I
have
habituated myself
to
forward the background and draperies
immediately after this f i r s t stage of the likeness, or subject, i s
in a satisfactory
s t a t e ,
which you will understand to
be
when
the
whole appears t olerably corre ct as to design, light,
and
shade,
but f a i n t ,
like
a
very
pale
impression
of
a
slightly
coloured print.
Backgrounds, to any portrait
which
includes the
hands
or
more
than
the mere bust (as in lockets), should not be inde
finite breadths of colour, with no other effect on one's mind
than that of background ;
for
a portrait
will
not
only
appear
lonesome,
but unnatural, when
the background i s not
some
intelligible description
of
a place or
space,
suitable, and pro
perly subordinate,
to
the
principal
object
of
the
picture
;
which,
when expressing more than the bust,
will
require suitable
but
subordinate accompaniments. Much consideration i s always
due
to
this point, but i t
would
carry me ou t of the
sphere
within which I
presume to
be useful, were I t o ant ic ip at e the
prov i nc e of genius, t a s t e ,
and
judicious observation, by ad
vancing any
further
information on ' t h i s point.
I have seen
a
very
natural
effect
of
flesh colour in a
min iat ure , declared (by the painter) to be
entirely painted
with
Indian
red,
yellow ochre,
and
indigo
only; but yellow
ochre
does
not work
pleasantly
unless
very finely
prepared
(which
now i s pretty well done
by
the water colour manufacturers; I
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MINIATURE
PAINTING.
247
have found none
better
than Newman's, Soho-square) ; yet
I
have experienced that much may be done with those colours,
enough
indeed
to
secure
a
durable
vivacity
of
colour,
when
the more delicate tints
have
faded ; and for the whole of the
backgrounds
of
portraits,
these
three materials, mixed agree
ably
to the system of making the nine
principal
colours (see
Letter XVI.), are most suitable to t he fo re standi ng of the
higher
order of the three primi t i v e colours, which you will u se
on
the portrait.
When you have completed your design, the ivory
may be
easily
c ut
to
a
proper
size
and
shape
with s c i s s o r s , beginning
at
the sides, and cutting
with
the grain towards the
ends;
then gum the back near enough the edge to prevent i t from
running
under
the
f l e s h ,
as that would give a
cold
tinge.
Place i t on a clean card the instant i t i s gummed, and put i t
between two very smooth f l a t surfaces, in c lean p ap er,
under
a
sufficient
weight to
press
i t
until i t
i s
dry,
unless
you have a
small screw
press
for the
purpose. When
your painting
i s
completed,
you
should
fasten
i t
to
the
glass
with
goldbeater's
skin, or court-plaister, c ut in long s l i p s : the goldbeater's skin
must be used as soon as i t i s
wet,
f o r , when dry
again,
i t s
adhesive quality i s gone. You must lay the skin on a table
to wet i t ,
and l e t i t
l i e just while you place the picture and
glass together quite even, and holding them close between
your thumb and
finger,
place the edges on the middle of the
slip of wet skin,
and
i t will stick to the glass
by
rolling :
make
i t
adhere
closely
to
the
glass
and
picture,
and
leave
i t
to
dry,
when the s up erf lu ou s s ki n on the
glass can be
easily
scraped
away. The
glass should always
be
a t r i f l e
larger than
the
picture,
that
i t s edge may take the
skin.
Take care,
when
painting from the
life, or any
absolute
model,
to have some
surface,
of a p ro pe r de gre e of shade
and
colour,
placed
behind
as a background, to
give
the best
relief
possi ble to your subject; some compound t i n t ,
approaching
to
neutral, i s
(in my opinion) most
suitable;
but on this
point,
genius takes a free commission,
only
observing,
that
i f
you paint
a background
to
your
picture
darker than that
which i s
really
opposed to your view, and then study the flesh ti nt from the
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248 MINIATUKE PAINTING.
l i f e , while sitting as f i r s t proposed,
you
are
liable
to colour and
shade
i t as
much darker than
nature,
as your
painted back
ground i s
darker
than
the one
set
up.
Now,
consider
how l i t t l e of any round object presents
itself
f u l l to the
light
and to your
eye
at the same time ; that space i s
a l l
which
will
require
the pure local
colour;
and the extreme
points of
projection
in these, will shine in some degree, and
approach to whiteness : this i s easily produced by scraping the
colour
o f f .
The
true
and
peculiar
form
of
these
lights must
be
as nicely observed as the shape of any of the features or
shadows
—
nder
this
consideration,
that
perhaps
after
t he p ic tu re
i s
finished, a
sculptor
may
be
employed
to
make a model of
the
same
subject; and your
picture
may
happen
to be the only
means he c an obtain for
that
purpose ; but a greater reason for
correctness should govern your study—ruth and excellence
demand your best on a l l occasions.
The
true brilliancy,
or
natural
effect
of
colours, depends
much on a judicious subordination
to that
light which illumi
nates
your
subject.
Every gradation to shade i s a gradation from the purity of
colour, because
of
t he p re vai li ng
power
of
darkness over
the
ev i denc e of colour: this
may
intimate to you, that carmine,
and red
or
yellow lakes, will not be
found
necessary in those
parts; which
enables
you
to
ensure a
greater certainty
of
durability
in
the c olo uri ng of
your
picture, ' because the
l e s s
,
brilliant colours arc much more permanent than those of the
lake
kind,'
and
often
form
the
tint
required.
A
great
degree
of
critical
judgment, the most correct
t a s t e ,
and much
experience, are requ ired,
to
determine
on
natural colouring,
in true
distinction from the showy
compo
sition
of paints with which some (not ill-drawn) pictures are
emblazoned. For, as a finely engraven portrait, i f happy in
the
expression
of character, with a tone nicely
correspondent
with flesh
colour,
does convey so
much
satisfaction as some do
with
only
the
simple
material,
black
on
white ; a painter,
with
the engraver s eye, might produce a l l
the
engraver's
effect
with
any colour, for
we see red prints,
or brown, blue,
or green,
convey the same character, expression, and
force,
as engravings
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MINIATURE
PAINTING. 241)
printed
i n blac k,
therefore
some approach to the general tints
of
flesh, with
good drawing, would
produce
a
very
satisfactory
performance to the general judgment, while those who have
been so happy as to
learn
the cause of Titian's superiority in
colouring,
would
f e e l a very contrary opinion, with a conviction
that could only
be
communicated to their equals in the know
ledge
of the means. Those tyros who are too sanguine,
and
dislike investigation, depending on
mere ocular proof,
and
(according
to
the
v u lg ar p ro v er b)
they
find
their object ' ready
cut and d r i e d , ' thus
saving
themselves the trouble of thinking,
and relying on (perhaps) a tolerable taste for
unity
and
har
mony,
with regard
to
composition, and expression; they will
copy, and look for a l l the tints
they
.want, in a work perhaps
very imperfect in that particular, thus establishing the error of
their leaders
into
habit.
A
speedy way of laying a
colour for
a
dark cloth
coat i s ,
to mix white enough with the c olo ur you would use, to make
i t
dry to the lightest part of that
colour;
as
thus,
for dark blue
mix
Prussian
blue
and
Indian
red,
with
white,
t i l l
i t
will
flow
like cream (there must
not be any
gum
in the water with
which you dilute those
mixtures,
there being sufficient in the
prepared c akes of the colour): lay this over the space you
intend for
cloth,
and i t will
dry
light
enough to
shade on,
with indigo, lake, and Indi an i nk : the Indi an red which i s
used in the f i r s t mixture, i s
requ isi te to counteract
the coldness
of
the blue. Blue and white
mixed
will make a good body
colour
for
blue
cloth,
i f
enriched
afterwards
with
a
wash
of
red lake,
which
must
be
done
with
nice
dexterity, touching
broad, and
but once
in
every
part,
joining each course of the
pencil
so as to make
but
one uniform t i n t . Indigo, Indian
red,
and
yellow ochre, will
mix to
a good black, which will
take some shadow
by
Indian
ink, used without
gum-water,
and afterwards
deepened
with
gum-water
only. But the most
genuine way
i s
to
paint
the
whole
in
the
transparent
manner as
in
painting
f l e s h ,
for
the
very
important
advantage
o f gi v i ng
the
lightest parts with truth. Yet
many good inferior
tints
may be
produced proper for
backgrounds,
with indigo, Indian
red, and
yellow ochre, by mixing
them
as a
body
colour, and floating
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250 MINIATURE PAINTING.
them
on
the
ivory, when
laid f l a t , which
should remain so
t i l l
the colour
i s
dry: and, as
a l l
body colours dry differently to
their wet
appearance,
i t i s
a good precaution to try the
tint
f i r s t ,
on a
piece
of spare ivory,
and dry i t by the
f i r e . Un
avoidable haste must be the apology for floated backgrounds.
Some
painters
put silver f o i l behind the ivory
to
force a
brightness, but the
f o i l
i s liable
to tarnish,
and
to
hurt the
e f f e c t . Perhaps great c are might avoid the tarnishing of the
f o i l :
i t adds
much to the brightness of the colours
under
which
i t i s placed. Newman's white,
laid
thick on the back of
the
ivory,
over the
space o c c u p i e d by
flesh colour, will give
great
warmth and
brightness to
the colours, especially
i f
the ivory
be
thin. Some tint the ivory, behind the parts where white
drapery i s to appear, with a neutral t i n t , in order to take o f f *
the ye llo wn es s o f the
ivory;
but this
i s
not practised by the
best painters.
Their reason
i s , that the ivory becomes
opaque
by time, and shuts ou t the effect of the colour pu t
behind,
leaving the front, in the same degree, meagre
for want
of i t .
Fine
ivory,
properly
bleached,
will
admit
of
a l l
the
perfection
of
colouring
without
any of
THESE
contrivances. There must
not be any b i t s * of paint seen on a miniature ; a l l must be
delicate, and as impalpable as p os si ble, enduring the magnify
i ng glass, and improving by the t r i a l ; and i f you c an touch so
fine as to make the working imperceptible, so
much
the better,
provided you pay due attention to the greater requisites of the
work; as smoothness, merely,
i s
not a perfection, unless accom
panied
with
the
r e s t .
A
Birmingham tea-tray
has
smoothness
in the highest degree, produced by varnishing and polishing;
yet what pictures do
they
exhibit
Their
manufacturing expe
dition will not admit of the
time requisite to
paint a
good
picture : a dexterous u se of the
materials
does not (alone) con
stitute the proper u se of
them,
while ' both' are equally
essen
t i a l ;
so
that
the one
cannot
supply the want of the other.
*
If
you
fi nd spots
of colour too
d i s t i n c t l y
seen,
moi sten a
f i n e
s t i f f
hair
pencil with
gum-water, and
they may
be
thus e a s i l y diffused or
taken o f f ; and
i f
an accidental
b i t
of dust
or f l u e
i s to be
cleared o f f ,
touch
i t
with a wet
pencil c a r e f u l l y , and in
about
ten seconds you may
take i t
cleanly off with the
point of the scraper, which i s better than scraping i t o f f without wetting.
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MINIATURE PAINTING. 251
How
often have we
seen
works of the
highest estimation
a s to
subject, and e f f e c t , when seen a t such a distance a s t o preclude
the appearance of i t s rough
indexterous
handling,
or
the
coarse
granulated surface
on
which
some
smooth s k i e s , e t c .
have
been
pretended in
small
water
colour drawings of l a t e ; a s
to
force
one t o say on c l o s e r view, ' What a pity i t was, that s o great a
genius did not learn that e s s e n t i a l
in
the
a r t ,
which i s indis
pensable, even in painting a t e a - t r a y : '
and I
s h a l l
venture
t o
object
t o that dexterity of hand (except in sketching), which
throws t o o t h i c k a lump of paint
on
the high l i g h t s of clouds,
because such
lumps
will
have
under
shadows;
i t
i s
not
s o
in
NATURE.
Always
determine
that your present work
s h a l l
be
your
very
b e s t ,
and
wait patiently
and attentively f o r the
completion
of your p i c t u r e ,
before you indulge
your
f l a t t e r e r s
with the
opportunity of praising you. I t i s an intoxicating
t r i b u t e ,
and
should be received with great caution. When
application
and
experience
have rendered your essays worthy a genuine compli
ment,
your
constitution
f o r
praise
w i l l
be
proof
against
many
of i t s
bad e f f e c t s .
In the early stage of your picture,
do
not be
over
eager t o
make
i t look
pretty
with colour; but
proceed
patiently
with
your
neutral,
or modelling t i n t . This
w i l l look c o l d ,
t i l l you
begin
the complexion;
but
when that i s properly added,
you
will find the neutral t i n t vanish, and the
whole
w i l l appear
f l e s h :
take care to preserve a coolness in the r e t i r i n g
p a r t s ,
unless
reflected
on
by
a
warm
colour
:
and
even
then,
the
e f f e c t
of
retiring can
only
be produced by the c o o l t i n t .
You may touch broadly and generally in the f i r s t
shading,
to
gain
your
masses
speedily; but
rather
lean to
the c a r e f u l
s t y l e ,
and freedom w i l l a r r i v e , in i t s proper time, a s f a r a s i t
i s possible in t h i s
minute
s o r t of work; f o r you must never
expect t o
perform
a highly-finished picture
s p e e d i l y .
The
only possible
means
of gaining time,
i s
t o learn what
you
have
t o
do
:
with
t h i s s o r t
of
f o r e c a s t
much
time
may
be
gained.
Breadths of colour, of any considerable degree of depth, may
be l a i d on ivory, in the same broad manner that you would
observe in laying the various
shades i n
an
Indian-ink drawing
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252 MINIATURE
PAINTING.
on
paper;
but you must never retouch a wet part, for that
would draw off the
colour, and
give you much unnecessary
labour
in the finishing;
but
when
you
can decide on the
general effect with
some
certainty, you
may
obtain i t
(I
may
say) rapidly
by
a
judicious
observation of method;
this
i t
i s
that
enables an accomplished a r t i s t
to surprise,
by those rich
and instantaneous effects which impatient amateurs wish to di s
play
without submitting
t o
the study of
a l l that supports such
effects; namely, GOOD drawing; with true t a s t e , which,
however innate, c an
never
be displayed to advantage without
thorough accomplishment
by practice.
Many miniature paint
e r s , especially those who confine their practice to miniature
solely,
are self-taught
as
to
practical
methods,
and seldom ac
quire the facility which may be practised, even on ivory, with
out any detriment to the final beauty of what i s termed high-
finishing
; a course
of
study in landscape under some
of
the
accomplished exhibitors in the water-colour gallery, will be of
the
utmost
advantage to most self-taught practitioners.
Habituate
yourself
to
look
enough at
your
subject,
to
learn
to
a certainty
that
your
next
touch
will
improve
your
work ;
and
draw what you s e e ,
and as
you see i t ,
o r ,
what you
know to be,
may deceive you.
For instance, you
know
the
top
of a
wine-glass
to be a circle; yet i t generally stands in a
point of view to appear an oval; t h i s i s enough to prove the
absolute
necessity
of le arn in g t he
art of
drawing objec ts as
you
see
them, which art
i s
Perspective —and
i t i s
the
basis of
success
to
that
portion
of
a
picture
which
may
be
termed
descriptive. When
you have
made yourself thoroughly ac
quainted with the methods I have given, and c an practise
accordingly, I shall
see
by
your
performance wherein
either
the tutor or pupil i s deficient, and will make my remarks
thereon
the
subject
of
another
letter; and
remain,
Madam,
Your obedient Servant.
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253
LETTER
XXVI.
miniature painting concluded.
Madam,
I
expected the
neutral
tint would not meet your
entire
approval
at
f i r s t ,
as
i t
i s
very
difficult
for
a
young
prac
titioner to look on a fine complexion, e t c .
without
being drawn
off
from
the
consideration of
a colourless
form
:
but if you c an
persevere
in preserving the three distinct
properties
in
your
subject
separately (i f
only in
idea),
your work will proceed
systematically; perfectly comprehending,
f i r s t ,
that a
true
outline
must be
obtained; and, secondly, that
mere
lights and shades are
not local colours;
and, thirdly,
that the
local colour,
with
due
observation of
shining
and
reflections,
must be
general
in
both
light and shade. I have no objection to your carrying a l l
on
together,
when you know that you are both practically
and
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y qualified;
but, in
my
humble opinion,
a
young a r t i s t
i s
to be compared with a young musician, who
attempts
to play three
parts
at
once,
before he c an play one
part well.
The
most perfect
method
of
o i l
p ai nti ng, o r u s ing
colours
embodied to
their
various
tints
with
white,
i s
to
determine
as
nearly as possible
that
each touch of
the
pencil shall
give the
full
e f f e c t of the part i t covers, with no more blending than ju st t o
unite them t o a natural e f f e c t , a l l
rather
lighter
than the
finishing depth; which finishing i s most usually performed
with transparent tinctures
of
the
various
colours, without
white, which, in o i l painting, i s termed ' ' g l a z i n g . ' Now
this ' glazing,' or transparent system, i s almost the whole
system
of
miniature
painting,
and so
well
admits
of
pro
gression, that form, shade, and colour, may
best
be learned
and
done
separately,
t i l l their
united
effects c an be
compre
hended under one process.
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254 MINIATURE
PAINTING.
Your queries about the c olou rs of reflections on f l e s h , are
very pleasing proofs to me, that you think on what you
do;
and the vast
variety,
on which the truth of reflection
depends,
admits
only of a
general
conclusion
in answer. You have
already
been
told
that
reflected parts
of white objects, are,
in
general, warm o r ye llo wi s h; and that their retiring parts are
generally c old or
blueish, when
unaffected by other local
re
flection; these two, when united,
would
produce a tint of a
greenish hue, but that they will compound with the complexion
or
local
colour,
and with the shade, when appealed to in paint
ing
;
which,
like
a l l
other
triple
compounds,
become
to
a c ertai n
degree
neutralized;
therefore,
from
the many circumstances
which may
oc c ur to vary any given
rule,—eason, practice,
and
observation o f n at u re must
be
your
guide.
These
are
the parts of
a pi cture which depend much on the
harmonizing power of the eye. Genius must here find proof
from
reason and v i s i b l e
evidence
(as
no
effect can be
relied on,
where
the
cause i s not
clearly understood to exist), and
rest
on
a
better
origin
than
either
fanc y, or
(uninvestigated)
examples
:
yet
rather
follow
well-recommended
example, than
doubt or
ob
ject,
while
your own judgment i s
immature;
and,
with
study,
the knowledge of the causes may u n fo ld t he ms elv e s to
your
satisfaction as you
proceed.
That kind of faculty i s necessary to
success,
in the depart
ment of fine
and
harmonious colouring of
shadows reflected
on,
which
i s either natural or acquired in a musician, who i s
master
of t he
violin;
taste
and
practice
enable
him
to
stop
or
finger
the strings,
in
tune
—
hereas,
on a keyed instrument,
that
faculty
i s
fully provided by the maker
and tuner
of the
instrument:
and although
that
shaded colour, which
i s
accompanied with
any
reflection,
cannot
be faithfully repre
sented, without the
assistance
of the three primitive
colours,
the whole consideration of
natural colouring might be lost by
mixing them, although the ' engravers
e f f e c t s ' might s t i l l
be
preserved.
Look at
nature,
and you never c oncei ve black, ex cept
as
a
local
colour:
study shade, abstractedly, and no thought of
colour will
impress your
ideas.
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MINIATURE PAINTING.
255
Now,
t o unite
these d i s t i n c t conclusions
t o
p r a c t i c a l -
advan
tage, you
have
only t o consider the property of each colour, a s
regards c o l o u r ,
s o
a s to apply
them separately and
produce
a
natural e f f e c t
;
a s
i s
perfectly exemplified
in
the
works
of Rubens
and Titian. Even a study from white marble, or
any
other
white o b j e c t , requires the above considerations,
where
natural
e f f e c t
of colouring i s
presumed ; because
the r e f l e c t i o n of colours
from surrounding
o b j e c t s , compounds with
the
simplicity
of the
white o b j e c t , s o that the plain light and shade,
which,
t o a
s u p e r f i c i a l observer,
seems
a l l
that
can
be required,
would
only
produce a print e f f e c t ,
and
not unite with surrounding e f f e c t s .
I observe that
you
leave the shading of the globe of the
eye, or
that part which i s
white,
too much s o , and unfinished :
you must
consider
how small a
portion
of absolute
white
would
be
found
on
any
white
globe; and when you attend
to
the
overshadowed situation
of an
eye,
by
the
thickness
of the
e y e - l i d ,
and the additional
shadow
caused by the eye-lash, you
will find i t
impossible t o
have
any
r e a l white in
a well-painted
eye,
except
the
glittering
r e f l e c t i o n
o f the
l i g h t ,
which
w i l l
s e l
dom
be
more
than
one speck, which
must
be placed
with the
utmost attention t o the o r i g i n a l .
In answer to your
question,
How must
I paint
white
drapery? I can
assure
you there w i l l be a very small portion
of
pure
white paint : you must form the whole by tender, d e l i
cate
shading,
with a cool neutral t i n t ; and the whiter you
bleach
your
i vory the b e t t e r , both f o r
t h i s ,
a s well a s
a l l
other
c o l o u r s .
The
r e f l e c t i o n
t i n t ,
and
a l s o
the
r e t i r i n g ,
must
be
used in white drapery;
and when
a l l
i s nearly formed,
touch
the
edges
of
a hem,
or the points
of l a c e ,
the
highest l i g h t s on
the shoulders and
b r e a s t s ,
with f i n e white
;
which, i f
done
ac
cording
to your model, will produce a white
drapery.
Need
I
s a y ,
Heighten
the l i g h t s on p e a r l s ,
and
the glittering of dia
monds, gold,
s i l v e r ,
or s a t i n , with
one speck
each,
of the f i n e
white;
tinting
them afterwards t o
their
peculiar ke ep i ng w ith
a
thin
touch
of
suitable
transparent
colour
?
Even
the
compara
t i v e
e f f e c t of
glittering
(such a s i s
found
on polished metals,
and
jewellery, or
any
glossy
matter),
can only be produced in
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256 MINIATURE PAINTING.
those parts that arc a t l e a s t s o f a r i n shade a s may be called
half s h a d e .
To
paint
HAIR
well i s very e a s y ,
when
compared with the
judgment
r e q u i s i t e in
the drawing and composition of
i t .
This
i s one of the great t e s t s of true t a s t e . The colours t o be used
in hair can only
be
dictated by i t s
l o c a l
colour;
but
I find
the various degrees of brown hair can be given by tempering
Vandyke brown, Indian ink,
and
red
l a k e , t o
the
colour
required, observing that hair i s ' transparent '
and
' glossy ; ' a l l
the masses of light will
be
coldest; the
absolute
shades will
be
tempered
with
the
colour
of
the
hair
i n
a
very
small
degree; the l e s s absolute shades will have more hair colour;
and
the
parts
which
neither
shine nor are in shadow, will be
the
colour
of the h a i r .
It
i s the
transparent
property of h a i r ,
t o present more of
i t s
colour
when loose
and
relieved by some light-coloured
surface
behind
i t ,
while
l i g h t e d
on
the s i d e i t
i s
viewed,
than
when plaited c l o s e
or l a i d smooth t o
the
head; f o r
then the
l i g h t s w i l l
be
cold
and
g l o s s y .
These
are
the
best
directions
I
can o f f e r f o r a general r u l e ; but you must study these matters
according t o the circumstances of l i g h t ,
shade,
r e f l e c t i o n ,
and
t h e i r own p e c u l i a r i t i e s . The l o c a l colours which commonly
occur in
h a i r ,
a r e , burnt
umber,
Vandyke
brown,
and s e p i a ,
with various
gradations of
Indian ink,
brown
madder, red
l a k e , and indigo, a s shade; but r e f l e c t i o n w i l l s o a f f e c t any
glossy
matter,
that a l l must be ascertained by the accom
panying
circumstances.
Whenever
you find
the united
e f f e c t
of form, substance,
and colour, too much f o r
your practical
comprehension
at
once, return
t o
your
systematic
c l u e , sec uring the forms
f i r s t ,
then
the substantial appearance
by
shading,
and
f i n a l l y the
colours
and r e f l e c t i o n s
; each separately,
according
to the
directions
in
Letter V., and
in
Letters
X.
and XXII.
It i s not very good practice
f o r a young student
to
work
on the f l e s h in the absence of the subject; particularly when
the
picture
i s
a portrait
; not only on account of the necessity
of s t r i c t
adherence t o
the
peculiarity of
form, but a l s o to the
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MINIATURE PAINTING. 257
colouring:
but
this
must be
regulated
by
your
own confidence
in what you
know
may
be safely and truly done
to forward
the
picture.
For
instance,
where
time
i s
an
object, you
may
have attained
a l l your drawing
and shading by
a bold, broad,
and
open touch. In
such
a case, an
experienced
a r t i s t
would
proceed to
blend
and f i l l up a l l the spaces, uniting a l l to
one agreeable s t a t e , with the c olou r or shading suited to each
part, preparing
hi s
p ic tu re we ll
for
the next v i s i t , and
so
far
advance the
finishing.
You wish to
know
how long a good
miniature ought
to
be
in
hand
—
cannot
give
you
any
direct
answer;
but
must
say,
i t i s
a question that no
painter ought
to consider,
or be
asked, ex cept with a view to the arrangement of other
engage
ments. I may here fairly remark on the hurry, i n c o nv en i en c e ,
and
frequent disappointment
of
both
employer
and painter,
by those ladies
and gentlemen
who
determine
to
s i t before
leaving
town, bu t
postpone
i t
from time to time,
t i l l perhaps
within a week of their intended
departure
: ' I t must be done,'
i s
the
word,
without
glancing
a
thought
( t i l l
too
l a t e ,
i f
ever)
that an a r t i s t i s not
like
a
master
t a i l o r , or other mechanic,
with forty
pair
of hands, or as many more at
command,
according
to the
exigencies
of trade. Such perplexing miscal
culations
unfit a
painter
for the delicate work
required
of
him.
All
i s
anxiety and endeavour in the art i t s e l f at
best;
and when the hurry and impatience of
his
employer are added
to t h i s , i t may very probably overthrow the success of the
work. I t i s advisable
to
employ an
approved
a r t i s t ,
and
( whi le the
object
of hi s s tu dy) gi v e
up
as
much command
to
him as possible; the
ultimate
res ult will always answer this
proceeding. P at ie nce, persev eran ce ,
and sufficient
ability,
will
complete
a
picture
in
proper
time. You
must make up
your mind to this f a c t , that painting well, as
i t i s
one of the
most
rational
and
delightful
amusements,
WILL
always
remain
ONE
OF
the
MOST
DIFFICULT
;
totally
independent
of the
mechanical
view which I am endeavouring to
give
you
of practical modes, but c on sidering always, that
'painting well'
implies the producing faithful representations. And, when
nature i s broiight under the MICROSCOPIC size of A minia
17
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258 CRAYONS,
OILS,
ture picture, ' t i s most
certain that
a l l the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the
a r t are
increased in the same degree
that truth
i s f a i t h f u l l y
appealed
t o :
and
necessarily
require
extraordinary exertion
both t o a t t a i n and practise with s u c c e s s . Ambition of e x c e l l e n c e ,
n e c e s s i t y , or a natural impulse,
must
be the stimulus. I
hope the f i r s t
and
l a s t of these you p o s s e s s . Had
I
been
writing to a
gentleman, I might
have observed,
that they
are two excellent
spurs
t o Pegasus, and should conclude that a
bridle would a l s o be r e q u i s i t e
t o
r e s t r a i n the
Muse
to
a
regular
pace. If what has been communicated may be the
means
of
rendering
your
journey
towards
Parnassus
more
easy
and
certain than i t otherwise
would
have been, i t w i l l give me the
utmost
s a t i s f a c t i o n , and I s h a l l
ever
remain,
Madam,
Your
obliged,
obedient Servant.
P.
S .
—
have
had
ample
proof
that
continual
p r a c t i c e ,
along with a thorough comprehension
of
the p r a c t i c a l
rules I
have advanced, w i l l not f a i l t o ensure
you
equivalent s u c c e s s .
on crayons, oils, and other materials.
Madam,
I
should
endeavour
t o
comply
with
your demand
on
the a r t of painting
in
crayons, had not the l a t e
Mr.
Russell
superseded
the best I could say
on
that s u b j e c t ,
by
his publica
tion of a complete t r e a t i s e , not only of the a r t of using,
but
a l s o of making crayons; to which
I
should
think
i t
best
to
r e f e r you, but I f e a r i t i s out of p r i n t .
My
practice
in
crayons
has been
chiefly
on very
small
por
t r a i t s ,
and
various
e f f e c t s
of
landscape,
generally
on
vellum.
I
s h a l l
not
withhold from you the
methods
I
have found to
answer, a s f a r
a s
my
experience i n t h i s mode?
of pai nting has
qualified mc ;
but
by no me an s w ou ld I be understood
to
o f f e r
i t in
l i e u
of the work t o which I
have
referred you.
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AND OTHER
MATERIALS.
259
My f i r s t care i s to get good materials. The Swiss crayons
are (in
general) the most
pure.
The vellum
must have a
soft
velvet-like
nap,
or
smooth
roughness,
on
the
outside
the
skin,
sufficient to hold the colour. Mr. Russell, in his excellent
essay on
crayons, raises an
objection to vellum,
which
my
practice of forty years' proof enables me to consider ground
l e s s ,
for
I know of none of my earliest paintings which owe
any
part of their defectiveness to the vellum on which I did
them;
although, t i l l
within
the
l a s t
four years,
I
bought the
usual drawing
vellum ; since
which,
I
have turned my thoughts
to
the
preparation
o f v ellu m,
with
a
view to
dispossess
i t
of
the animal o i l ,
which
Mr. Russell objected t o .
I considered
that
vellum
for
pictures,
after
being
once
secure on the
straining frame,
i s
no more
liable
to the wear of
rolling
and
u nro lli ng, o r folding, e t c . , e t c . , as writings are; and by con
sulting
t he man uf ac tu re rs , I found
that
vellum might be
rendered as calcareous as required. This has been most
successfully done
for
me, by Messrs. Starkey and Cripps,
of
Newgate Street, and afforded an advantage which I
had
not
calculated on, by making the vellum require more
crayon to
f i l l i t ,
and
retaining
i t
much more
firmly
than on common
drawing
vellum.
Continual
dampness i s
known to
be
injurious
to a l l painting. The vellum must be strained tight, by tacking
i t on a straining frame, on which
should previously
be pasted a
piece
of
stout
white
drawing-paper. If i t be possible, strain
the
vellum
in
damp weather,
or lay
i t
cleanly
covered
in
a
damp place
the
night
before you strain, then the surface will
always
be smooth ; for vellum strained in a
very
dry
s t a t e ,
as
in summer, will relax in damp weather and become uneven.
When the vellum
i s
strained,
set
i t in the sun, or at a di stanc e
from the
f i r e ,
to harden;
then,
with
an
clastic cane, or
rather
a piece of dry linen, flap i t well, to discharge a l l the whitening
which the manufacturers leave in i t : this makes i t take the
colours
more
plentifully,
and
gives
the
dark
ones
their
f u l l
force.
Stout, but f i n e , wove-drawing paper, tightly
strained
on a
frame,
or
drawing-board, rubbed
with a
fine pumice-stone, will
take crayons well
for large
subjects.
Care must be
taken to
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260
CRAYONS,
OILS,
discharge a l l the powder of the pumice-stone from the paper;
after
which,
sponge
i t well with
a very
clean
damp
sponge,
and
l e t
i t
dry
for
use.
First
draw
your subject as correctly as possible with charcoal ;
touching very tenderly : for i f used too freely, vellum will retain
too
much of i t .
When the
drawing
i s sufficiently marked,
flap off as much of t he c harc o al as you can ; and there
will s t i l l
remain a very visible
sketch:
then begin the painting, by
covering a l l t he d arke st masses with t he darke st
tints;
using
as
l i t t l e
of
the
crayon as possible, and
driving
or spreading i t with
a leather
stump,
leaving
no
more
paint
on
the
part
than
s u f f i
cient
to stain
or tint i t (nearly)
to
the proper depth and colour ;
bearing in mind a l l my elementary laws, respecting the proper
effect as to light, shade, and colouring ; and covering the
whole
vellum in this manner, as quickly as the
nature of
the study
will allow,
to
obtain
a
general idea
of what the
picture i s to
be.
Thus,
having
overcome the whiteness of the vellum,
proceed
to
study the portrait, using a neat-pointed,
hard-rolled
paper
stump in those minute parts where the leather stump i s too
large ;
preserving the lights broad and untouched, and
marking
the shades
deep, but
very spare of crayon: thu s proceed t i l l
a l l i s tinctured, rather
than
embodied with paint; taking care
to keep the
shades
as deep as
can
be required at the f i n i s h , and
the lights as bright and pure as possible ; never suffering a light
tint to
cover
a
part
which must ultimately be a shade, as
that
would
produce
a
chalky
e f f e c t .
In
these
small
pictures,
you
can
mark much
of the
drawing (with
a
passable
effect of truth as
to
colour, because of shade) with the
hard
native black and red
chalks.
There i s
a
good
deep black
composition,
called Conti
chalk, very u sef ul i n i t s proper place.
Now begin to touch with the crayons, sufficiently with
regard
to
quantity,
to
cover the whole of the
flesh
as
near
to
nature
as you
can,
carefully blending or softening them
together
with
the
finger,
pressing
a
l i t t l e ,
to
fi x
the
c o lo u r f irmly
in
the
vellum
: the
leather stump
must now
be laid aside
; but a piece
of
good sound
cork, cut to a smooth
blunted point, i s s t i l l
useful
as a
substitute
for the
finger,
in the minute parts o f the work.
Take care that the
whole surface
of
your picture i s fully
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AND
OTHER MATERIALS. 261
covered with
paint
in the l i g h t s , and as sparingly
as
will cover
in the shade : as i t i s a great accomplishment in crayon paint
ing,
to
arrive
at
the
true
effect
without
a
superabundance
of
colour.
Therefore,
when your vellum
i s
uniformly
f i l l e d with
paint, no more should
be
pu t on,
but
a l l corrections of colour
ing, particularly the
darker
t i n t s , must be made by scraping off
the wrong colour
before you
give the improving
one,
which
may be done
safely
without injuring the vellum. Paper
grounds
need not
be scraped, but
a hole
may be
cut
in
a piece
of writing
paper,
the shape of the place you would clean;
laying
i t
correctly
over
the
part,
whether on
paper
or
vellum,
and,
by rubbing i t with crumb
of bread,
dry
sponge, or
cotton,
enough
of
the colour will
be discharged.
When blending crayons, observe, that the dark tints will
r i s e
through
the light
ones; and,
on the contrary, the light
tints will
weaken, and
always render deep
c olo urs chalky ;
but
this may be a l l turned
to advantage by
sufficient practice and
reflection,
as both may
be
required,
under some
circumstances,
to produce a natural e f f e c t .
Ared t i n t of the pink class will
clear
any dirty part
of
flesh
that i s not of the red class ; a
tint
of a light-greenish
cast
will
take
down
red in
reflected
parts, but must
seldom
touch the
full
lights
of flesh (the best way i s ,
to
discharge the
wrong
colour,
and
use a
right
one in
i t s
stead).
If
you regard the
durability of your picture, paint with such colours as
are
strongest in their
original natural state:
ochres, umbers,
and
earths, both raw and
burnt,
are of this description, and agree
best with the whitening
with which
the gradations of
tints
should be made up. Fine genuine lamp-black
i s
the only black
that should be used in crayons, and that only when unavoidably
requisite;
o r , should
you
not
f e e l
confident in
your lamp black,
a
good
black may be made by mixture
of
indigo, brown
madder
lake,
and
burnt
terra de Sienna;
a
l i t t l e
India
yellow may be
added,
i f
too
purple
a
tint
rises
from
the
above mixture
:
t h i s
will not mildew.
The best white for the ge ne ral
mixture
with
a l l
the colours,
i s
the
flake,
or uppermost stratum of the whitening,
when
i t i s
in
pulp, in large
quantities, at
the manufactory,
ready for
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26'2
CRAYONS,
OILS,
ETC.
moulding, because a l l the gross and
heavy matter
has preci
pitated towards
the bottom.
Some
think t he y p ro c u re
this
flake by
di ss olv i ng a
few
lumps
of whitening: but i t i s inferior; because, after a l l , i t i s only
the flake of an inferior stratum. 77*6 pure first flake of
the
whole i s worthy
the trouble of applying for at the
manufactory.
Newmans white
might
be
used
for
entire
white, and some of the
finest tints
of the
three principal colours
may
be
embodied
with i t .
The late
Mr. Morland (father to
the
great genius of that
name)
made
the
very
best
crayons
I
ever
possessed.
Sufficient grinding
of a l l
the
colours i s an important
object.
They may
be
made up with
various
glutinous liquids,
diluted.
Skim milk, small beer-wort, and gin, are the three generally
used;
the clearness of gi n suits the light
t i n t s . Mr. Morland
used gin,
as
the
best
of the three,
for
the pu rp ose. Beer-wort
will
do well enough
for
a l l
the darker
tints (I u se skim
milk
only).
Practice and experiment
are
wanting in this de
partment,
which
I
leave
to
the
ingenious
and
industrious,
under
the
assistance
of the treatise recommended ;
but
practice
and proper thought will qualify any one to make crayons.
Provided you make no more u se of the f ollo wi ng expedient
than just to ascertain the best manner of
f i r s t laying
on
the
crayons, you may depend on i t s great efficacy.
I
find this
caution,
as ap olo gy , p ro pe r; because the examples I shall pro
pose, although (manufactured)
from
the
works
of eminent
a r t i s t s , are far below that
perfection,
as pictures,
which
i s
wisely
recommended for
the
proper formation of the
best
style,
and are as
much inferior
to ultimate excellence, as the rough
foundation stones
of a pedestal are to that
ou t
of which
the
statue should be formed; from
which I argue,
that the proposed
subject for imitation being intended as a sort
of
foundation
only, on which future excellence may find a
certain
support, I
shall
forthwith
venture
to
shock
the
lofty
taste
of
those
who
scorn progression, and,
i f
I
may so
describe my
ideas,
are
always jumping at the pinnacle.
Paper
printed
in
colours, e t c . ,
for
the hanging or ornament
of
rooms,
i s printed with a sufficient number
of
blocks,
so
inge
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PAINTING IN OIL. 263
niously
matched,
as to complete a certain good effect; each
block performing i t s part by an impression of one of the
several colours required
in
the pattern: by
which means
as
perfect a representation as this ingenious association of the
several
separate tints can produce, i s obtained. (Look at some
good paper-hangings attentively, and
you
will the better com
prehend
the instruction.)
There are some
productions
of
this
sort, particularly of ripe fruit, flowers, e t c . (broad
bordering)
of
so
good
an e f f e c t ,
that I
have
proved them to
be an excellent
first
key
to
using
crayons; because each t i n t , in
such specimens,
has
i t s
distinct
shape,
and
can
be
easily
matched
in
a
full
set
;
which, with the softening property
of crayons,
may be
finely
blended together with the finger, so as to produce at least a
very finished and
pleasing
e f f e c t ,
even more
like the
original
design than the paper-hanging, which you may study a f t e r .
Bycopying some
of these with tolerable
mechanical precision,
and having learnt
therefrom
how
to
arrange the f i r s t lays of
colour, you will have finished the foundation,
and must
proceed
to
the
finest
specimens
of
painting,
and
of
nature,
to
complete
your system.
With regard to painting IN OIL, I shall say l i t t l e more
than refer you to
the
best
works published on the
subject.
The
Art
o f P ai n ti n g in Oi l Colours,
by
Bardwell, will
give any
one
a
verypure and
proper method,
who begins with i t s
instruction.
I
know
systems of this
sort
are
under
t he p re ju di c e of those
who have
previously habituated
themselves to other modes;
but
so
far
as
the
choice
of
materials,
the
preparation
and
arrangement of
them
for the palette,
and
the application of
them to the canvass, i t may be safely adopted in
preference
to
the practice of those
whose
works would have been a lasting
ornament of the a r t , had their methods and materials been
better
understood. I shall offer
you
the best system of
practice
that I know o f , with the palette set according t o
the
book above
recommended.
As i t
will
be
most likely, as
well
as
most
proper, that you
should begin the u se of o i l paint, by copying, f i r s t draw with
white chalk, or a p ip ec lay c rayo n, as
perfect
an outline
of
every part of the original picture as
you can,
according to the
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264 PAINTING IN OIL.
system you have learned
i n
my Eighth
Letter of
t h i s
book,
f o r your
f i r s t
sketched outline with charcoal; then go over
again with
a correcting eye
and hand, with
a s o f t black-lead
crayon or p e n c i l ,
and
wipe away the white outline; i t w i l l be
proper
to
notice much
of the shadowing
( e s p e c i a l l y
of
the
e x t r e m i t i e s of
f i g u r e s )
by p e n c i l l i n g .
This,
i f well done, will
s e t t l e character and expression.
Then
begin with
Vandyke
brown,
t o
secure
the
whole
by a firm outline and careful atten
tion
t o s uch shadi ng
a s
conveys a
modelling
e f f e c t , and
touch a l l
the high l i g h t s wi th pu re whi te
;
and a s t h i s stage of your work
i s
t o
render
a l l
the
drawing
p e r f e c t , you
should
attend
tenaciously
t o the
form
and
depth
of
a l l
the
shades,
s o t h a t , when f i n i s h e d ,
a s preparatory f o r colouring, i t should look l i k e a tolerably well-
finished drawing
in
Vandyke brown, leav ing the canv as s f o r
a
t i n t , wherever i t will answer the purpose. Nowbegin with your
c o l o u r s
t o
lay an
equal t h i c k n e s s
of
paint over
every part of
your study, s o that the c anvass may be f u l l y covered with
embodied paint,
that
i s ,
colour
mixed
with white,
f i l l i n g up
each
portion
of
the
whole
with
a
t i n t
a s
nearly
like
the
o r i
ginal a s
p o s s i b l e ,
but not
t o
the
f u l l
depth of i t s
dark parts:
the whole should be paler
than
the o r i g i n a l ,
because
no
finished
part of
a picture should
have
a
darker
t i n t under i t ,
e s p e c i a l l y
of t h e shade c l a s s such a s
have
black in
them;
bu t
you may put
a lighter t i n t on a deeper of the red c l a s s , a s in
f l e s h ,
and i t w i l l
have
the e f f e c t of the skin over the natural
blood. Let a l l your
f i r s t
painting of the f l e s h have a
rose
t i n t ,
rather
than
that
of
a
c r o c u s , a s
there
w i l l
be
o i l
enough
worked into the picture i n the c ou rse of your labour
to
pro
duce the
warm hue
in
a
very
short
time,
which I
do not
advise
you t o consider a s any
r e q u i s i t e
t o the
p i c t u r e . The
substance of your picture, a s necessary
f o r
i t s durability and
power to abide the ravages of picture c l e a n e r s , depends
materially on the f u l l body
of
paint with which the canv ass i s
f i r s t covered,
and
eminently s o , with regard t o the t r u e colour
of
each
p a r t , because,
s o
much
of
your picture
w i l l
stand the
t e s t
of
time and the picture
c l e a n e r ,
with the l e a s t possible
injury. When you have
completed
your f i r s t
lay
in
t h i s
p l e n t i f u l
manner,
y o \ i may use a
softening brush
t o
smooth
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PAINTING IN OIL. 265
and
blend
the
surface
preparatory
f o r further
study. As
you
w i l l
not be able
t o
perform the whole of t h i s very
important
stage
of
your
work
a t once, you
w i l l of c ourse u se the softener
on
the
parts
you
cover,
while
the pai nt
i s
moist
;
f o r
i t
w i l l
be
too l a t e when the colours begin to harden.
Should
you succeed in the work thus f a r ,
your
copy will be
in a f i n e s t a t e f o r yo ur mi nu te attention t o the forms and e f f e c t s
of each o b j e c t , by sec uri ng the depths and colours of a l l the
gradations of shades
and colours
from the darkest f i r s t ,
t o
the
l i g h t e r , until
you are driven, a s I may
express
i t , t o the prin
cipal apparent projections, or l i g h t s , which you w i l l
most
l i k e l y
find about the chief point of i n t e r e s t
in
the o r i g i n a l . And
whenyou
have
produced the general e f f e c t
on
your copy,
when
compared a t a distance,
begin to
work up every part tenaciously
to the o r i g i n a l , until you can discover no difference
whatever,
except
in
a certain freshness
in your
work, which time w i l l too
soon divest i t o f . Take c are that a l l the
t i n t s
on your palette
be
of
an equal
s t a t e
of moisture,
so
that
a l l
should
flow
under
the
pencil
a l i k e .
Do
not
dwell
on
the
light
parts
of
the
picture
in
i t s
early stage
; but bring on
the
whole
general force and
e f f e c t
by
securing,
f i r s t , a l l
absolute and
t o t a l
shades throughout
your picture
in their proper c l a s s , a s
nearly
a s
possible
(never
losing
the drawing which was
your
previous consideration);
then the next c l a s s of
depths
and their colours
in
the same
order; then the t h i r d , with a l l their tender and s u b t i l e ascend-
ings
into
l i g h t , where, i f
you
successfully a r r i v e , your study
will
only
want
that
refinement
of
attention
which i s
always
required on the
broad
l i g h t s ,
because
the model
of
every form
must be expressed a s perfectly t h e r e , a s in the more e a s i l y de
terminable shaded p a r t s .
Your f i r s t observation on the general hu e of an old picture
you
would
copy,
should be
t o
search out a part which you are
certain
was
touched
o r i g i n a l l y with
pure
white,
then
take a
piece
of
p ure whi te
on the palette k n i f e ,
and compare
i t
with
the
o r i g i n a l .
You
will
thus
find
what
degree
of
lowering
the
whole picture
has sustained
by
time;
and
i f
you begin
the
painting of your
copy
by
securing
t h i s
point,
or mass of pure
white, and l e t i t remain unaltered, a s the key-note t o your
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266 TRANSPARENCIES.
copy, i f
you
possess due harmony of
eye,
the
whole
copy
w i l l , by t hi s r u l e , become what the original was when f i r s t
painted.
An
old
experienced
a r t i s t
(whose
works
are
s u f f i c i e n t
evi
denc es of
the truth of
h i s
testimony) assured
me,
that
s p i r i t s
of
turpentine, mixed with a very small portion of good nut o i l ,
was
the only vehicle he
had
made use of in painting; which,
when f i n i s h e d , had a
dry
calcareous appearance; but when
varnished with
mastic
varnish, a l l came
forth
with excellent
e f f e c t ,
and would n e i t h e r crack
nor change c o l o u r ,
except
from
the
slow
but certain power of t i m e , on a l l similar
materials.
If a gallon of
raw l i n s e e d
o i l be buried in a
hot-bed, or
the
earth, f o r three months, the greasy matter s e t t l e s a t the bottom
of the v e s s e l ,
and
nearly
half
a
gallon
of f i n e
c l e a r
vehicle i s
obtained, which dries
w e l l , and
does not change
the colour.
But
numerous other vehicles can now be procured which
may have t h e i r peculiar advantages.
TO FAINT TRANSPARENCIES.
The material f o r working on, i s f i n e
cambric
muslin, which
must
be well covered with any f i n e c l e a r
s i z e
—hose
made
of
white
l e a t h e r ,
or parchment
cuttings,
are
the b e s t . While
wet, the
cambric muslin must
be
strained
very
tightly
on
a
frame, and when dry should be 'passed over lightly with a
pumice
s t o n e ,
which
will
very
much
improve
the
surface
for
working on.
The
colours t o use a r e , any or
a l l of
those of
a
transparent
quality
; the
vehicle,
s p i r i t s of
turpentine mixed
with
japanner's
gold size—the t o o l s , camel-hair p e n c i l s ,
plenty
of clean linen r a g s , and a penknife with a point of t h i s shape—
Having sketched the
subject
with a s o f t
lead
pencil l i g h t l y , outline the
principal
objects
with
either
water
or
o i l
colours:
water
colour
will
dry
almost
immediately;
proceed then to lay in the sky, the t i n t s f o r which should be
mixed separately
in
s a u c e r s , and rubbed in lightly with the
linen rag; then the water or distance, and l a s t l y the f o l i a g e ,
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TRANSPARENCIES. 267
rocks, e t c . ,
e t c . , ; l i t t l e or none of the japanner's gold s i z e
should
be used
with
the
light
t i n t s , a s i t d r i e s too
f a s t ;
—
n
the
dark parts of the subjects where c r i s p l i g h t s are required, or
indeed
in
any
other
part
where
they
are
r e q u i s i t e ,
a
mass
of
dark
c olo ur of a warmish t i n t , may be l a i d over the ground colour,
and a f t e r being allowed to dry a
l i t t l e ,
they may be
scraped
out
to the greatest nicety with the before-mentioned penknife:
when
t h i s i s a l l dry, the t i n t s may be
strengthened and mel
lowed by
additional
colour,
and
where great depth i s required,
i t
may be
obtained qu i ckly by
colouring the other
s i d e
of the
blind. All the work
should
be done with the subject between
the painter
and
the
l i g h t .
A composition f o r painting, in imitation of the anc ient
Grecian manner, i s explained
by
additional
communications in
the
25th v o l . (1817)
of the
Society f o r encouraging
Arts,
Manufactures,
and
Commerce;
a s
discovered
and
successfully
practised by
Mrs. Hooker, of
Rottingdean,
near
Brighton, and
f i r s t published in the 10th
v o l .
of the
Society's
Transactions,
f o r
the year 1792. This
method
precludes the use of
o i l s
and t u r
pentine varnishes; and i s therefore
( i f
only in t h i s particular)
f i n e l y adapted
f o r
amateurs of delicate
c o n s t i t u t i o n s .
The pro
c e s s i s simple
and wholesome, and
appears
t o possess
a l l the
fineness of
o i l
p a i n t s .—
.
H.
**
The notes t o Eastlake's
translation
of
Goethe's
Theory
of Colours, are t o be highly prized; and should be carefully
studied by the
more
finished
student
in the
a r t
of o i l
painting.
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268
PAPER IN POLITE ARTS.
The
Thanks
of the
Society
were t h i s
Session
voted
to Mrs.
Hooker, of
Rottingdean, near Brighton,
formerly
Miss Emma Jane Greenland; for
Additional
Eemarks t o her
Method
of making a Composition f o r Painting
in Imitation
of
the Ancient Grecian Manner, as published i n the 10th
Volume of
the Society's
Transactions, f o r
the Year 1792.
A Specimen of t h i s Mode of Painting i s preserved in the Society's House.
Sir,
—had the
pleasure
to communicate to the Society for
the
Encouragement
of
Arts,
Manufactures,
and
Commerce,
in
1786,
when
Miss E. J.
Greenland,
my method of pai nti ng in
imitation
of
the
ancient
Grecian
manner, or incaustic
painting,
and
in
consequence,
they di d me the honour to adjudge to me
the Gold Palette, and also afterwards to approve my account of
the result of above f i f t y experiments per day,
which
I made
during more than four months in 1792, in the hope of di s
covering some means of making wax, gum-mastic,
and
water
unite
like
a
cream,
in
order
to
expedite
the
formation
of
the
composition for
imitating
the
incaustic painting, which
was
published the same
year
by the
Society
of Arts.
I
now take
the
liberty
of sending them
another
copy,
but
with
some altera
tions and
many
additions, which I trust
will
be found
calculated
to
facilitate
and
improve that method of painting, as
they
have
arisen from much observation and reflection on several pictures
I have
painted
since
I had
l a s t the honour
of
addressing the
Society.
In consequence
of the
application
of
several
gentlemen
of the profession, I
have
drawn up this
paper,
which, consider
i ng the
former attentions
of the Society,
I
thought
i t
would be
proper
for
me to offer
f i r s t
to them
for
their acceptance ; bu t i f
they
should not think i t worthy of
communication, I hope they
will pardon the
intrusion,
and attribute i t only to the sense of
gratitude
I feel for the honour already
conferred
on,
Sir,
Your
most obedient
Servant,
EMMAJANE HOOKER.
Bottingdean, Brighton, March 1 6 , 1807.
To
Charles
Taylor, M.D., Sec.
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269
METHOD OF PREPARING AND APPLYING A COMPOSITION
FOR PAINTING IN IMITATIONOF THE ANCIENT GRECIAN
MANNER.
Put into a glazed earthen
vessel,
four ounces and a
half
of
gum Arabic, and eight ounces, or half a pint (wine measure)
of
c old s pri ng water :
when
the
gum
i s dissolved,
s t i r
in seven
ounces
of
gum mastic,
which has been
washed, dried,
picked,
and beaten
f i n e . Set the
earthen
vessel
containing
the
gum
water
and gum-mastic
over a slow f i r e , continually stirring
and
beating
them
hard
with
a
spoon,
in
order
to di ss olv e
the
gum-mastic: when sufficiently boiled, i t will no
longer
ap
pear transparent, but will become opaque and s t i f f , like a
paste. As
soon
as this i s the case,
and that
the gum water
and mastic are quite
boiling,
without taking them off the
f i r e , add
five ounces
of white wax, broken
into
small
pieces,
stirring and
beating
the different ingredients together, t i l l the
wax
i s perfectly
melted
and has
boiled. Then take the com
position
off
the
f i r e ,
as
boiling
i t
longer
than
necessary
would
only
harden the wax,
and
prevent i t s mixing so well after
wards
with water.
When
the
composition i s
taken off the
f i r e , and in the
glazed
earthen vessel, i t
should
be
beaten
hard,
and
whilst
hot (but not
boiling)
mix
with
i t by
degrees
a
pint
(wine measure) or sixteen oun ces more of
cold spring
water, then strain
the
composition,
as
some
dirt will boil
ou t
of the
gum-mastic,
and
put
i t into bottles: t he c omp os it i on ,
if
properly made, should
be
like a cream,
and
the colours,
when
mixed with
i t , as
smooth as with
o i l .
The method of
using
i t ,
i s
to
mix
with the
composition
upon ah earthen pa
l e t t e ,
such
colours in powder as are
used
in painting with o i l ,
and
s u c h a qu an ti ty o f the composit ion to be mixed with the
colours as to render them of the usual
consistency
of o i l
colours :
then
paint with f a i r water. The colours when mixed
with the composition maybe laid on either thick or thin, as
may
best suit your
subject,
on which
account,
this
composi
tion
i s very advantageous, where any
particular
transparency
of colour
i s required:
but
in
most cases,
i t
answers best
if
the colours be
laid
on thick,
and
they require the
same
u se
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270
MRS.
HOOKER'S PArER
of the
brush,
a s i f painting
with
body c o l o u r s ,
and
the same
brushes a s used
in o i l
painting. The
c o l o u r s ,
i f
grown
dry,
when mixed
with
the composition, may be used by putting a
l i t t l e f a i r water over them; but i t i s l e s s trouble t o put some
water when the c olours are
observed
t o be growing
dry.
In
painting with t h i s composition the colours blend witho ut di f
f i c u l t y when wet, and even
when dry
the t i n t s may e a s i l y
be united by means of a brush and a very small quantity of
f a i r
water.
When
the painting i s
f i n i s h e d ,
put some white wax
into a
glazed earthen v e s s e l over
a slow f i r e
;
and when
melted,
but
not
boiling,
with
a
hard
brush
cover
the
painting
with
the
wax; and when c o l d , take a moderately
ho t i r o n ,
such a s i s used
f o r ironing
l i n e n ,
and s o cold a s
not to
h i s s , i f
touched with
anything wet, and draw i t l i g h t l y over the wax. The painting
will
appear
a s i f
under
a
cloud
t i l l
the
wax
i s
perfectly
cold, as
a l s o , whatever the picture i s painted upon i s quite cold; but i f ,
when s o , the painting should not appear s u f f i c i e n t l y
c l e a r ,
i t
may
be
held before the f i r e , s o f a r
from
i t a s to melt the wax
but
slowly;
or
the
wax
may
be
melted
by
holding
a
ho t
poker
a t such a distance a s t o melt i t gently, especially such parts of
the picture a s should not appear s u f f i c i e n t l y transparent or b r i l
l i a n t ; f o r the oftener heat i s applied t o the picture, the greater
will be the transparency and brilliancy of colouring; but the
contrary
e f f e c t s
would be produced
i f
too sudden
or
too
great
a
degree of heat were
applied, or f o r too long a
time, a s i t would
draw the
wax
too
much t o
the
s u r f a c e , and
might likewise
crack
the
p a i n t .
Should
the
coat
of
wax
put
over
the painting
when
f i n i s h e d , appear i n any part uneven, i t may be remedied
by drawing a
moderately hot iron over i t
again, a s before-men
tioned, or even by scraping the wax with a knife : and should
the
wax
by too great
or
too long an
application of
heat form
into bubbles a t particular p l a c e s , by applying a poker heated,
or
even a
tobacco-pipe made
hot, the bubbles would
subside
;
or such defects
may be removed
by drawing anything hard
over the wax, which
would
c l o s e any small c a v i t i e s .
When the
picture
i s c o l d , rub i t
with a f i n e linen c l o t h .
Paintings may be executed
in
t h i s m,anner
upon
wood (having
f i r s t pieces of wood l e t i n behind, across the grain of the
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IN
POLITE ARTS.
271
wood, to
prevent
i t s warping,) canvass, card, or
p l a s t e r
of
P a r i s . The
p l a s t e r
of
Paris
would require no
other
prepara
tion
than
mixing
some
f i n e
p l a s t e r
of
Paris
i n powder
with
cold
water the thickness of a
cream ;
then
put
i t on a looking-glass,
having f i r s t
made a frame
of beeswax on the
looking-glass
the
form and
thickness you would
wish the p l a s t e r of Paris t o
be
o f , and when dry take i t o f f , and there w i l l be a very smooth
surface t o
paint upon. AVood
and canvass
are
best
covered
with some
grey
t i n t mixed
with
the same
composition
of gum
Arabic, gum-mastic, and wax , and of the same s o r t of
colours
a s
before-mentioned,
before
the
design
i s
begun,
in
order
t o
cover the grain of the wood or the threads of the canvass.
Paintings may a l s o be done in the same manner with only
gum-water
and gum-mastic,
prepared
the same way a s the
mastic and wax ; but instead of putting se ve n o unc es of mastic,
and
when
boiling,
adding f i v e
ounces
of wax, mix
twelve
ounces of gum-mastic with the gum-water, prepared a s men
tioned in the f i r s t part of t h i s receipt: before i t i s put
on
the
f i r e ,
and
when
s u f f i c i e n t l y
boiled
and
beaten,
and
i s
a
l i t t l e
cold, s t i r
in by degrees
twelve
ounces, or
three
quarters
of
a
pint
of
cold spring
water, and afterwards s t r a i n i t .
I t
would
be equally practicable,
painting with wax
alone,
dissolved in
gum-water
in
the
following
manner:
—
ake twelve ounces or
three
quarters
of a pint of
cold spring water,
and four ounces
and a half of gum Arabic : put them into a glazed earthen v e s s e l ,
and when
the gum i s dissolved, add
eight ounces
of
white
wax.
Pu t the earthen v e s s e l with the gu m- wat er an d wax upon a
slow
f i r e , and s t i r them t i l l the wax i s dissolved and has boiled
a few minutes; then take
them
o f f the f i r e and throw them
into
a bason,
a s
by remaining in the hot earthen v e s s e l the
wax
would become rather hard; beat the
g um- wa te r an d
wax t i l l
quite c o l d . As there i s but a small proportion of water in
com
parison
t o the quantity of
gum and
wax, i t would be
necessary,
in
mixing
the
composition
with
the
colours,
t o
put
a l s o
some
f a i r
water. Should the
composition
be
s o made a s
to occa
sion
the ingredients t o separate
in the
b o t t l e ,
i t
w i l l become
equally serviceable i f
shaken before
used to mix
with
the
c o l o u r s .
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272
MRS.
hooker's
method
I
had
l a t e l y an opportunity of discovering that the compo
s i t i o n which had remained in
a bottle since
the
year 1792, in
which
time
i t
had grown dry and
become a s s o l i d a substance
a s
wax, returned
t o
a cream-like
consistence, and
became again
in a s proper a s t a t e to mix with c o l o u r s ,
a s
when i t
was
f i r s t
made, by
putting
a
l i t t l e
cold water upon i t ,
and
suffering i t to
remain a short
time. I
a l s o l a t e l y found some of the mixture
composed of only
gum
Arabic water,
and
gum-mastic, of which
I sent
a specimen t o the Society of Arts in 1792; i t was
become
dry, and had much
the
appearance and consistency
of
horn.
I
found,
on
l e t t i n g
some
cold
water
remain
over
i t ,
that
i t
became a s f i t f o r
painting
with,
a s when
the composition
was
f i r s t prepared.
EMMA JANE HOOKER.
Rottingdean, Brighton,
Sept. 2 4 , 1817.
Mrs.
Hooker's
best
compliments
t o
Mr.
Hayter,
and
has
the
pleasure of answering h i s questions,
which
she rec ei ved
this
morning, respecting her method of Incaustic Painting; she
has
always
prepared the vehicle (or
what
she
c a l l s
cream,
as
i t
has that appearance) h e r s e l f , in order t o be sure of the exact
proportion
of
the
d i f f e r e n t
ingredients; a s a
deficiency
in
any
one might a l t e r the e f f e c t of the
colour,
when heat should be
applied to
them.
In
general
she has not found the ingredients
t o
separate
t i l l
a
length
of
time
a f t e r
the
composition
has
been
made,
but which i s never of any consequence, i f the bottle
be shaken, or the composition
in
i t s o s t i r r e d a s t o mix
i t
thoroughly, and occasion a du e proportion of the ingredients
to
mix with the c o l o u r s . The warmed iron must
touch
the
surface of the picture, which process i s
chiefly
intended to
smooth i t ; which i s f u l l y described in the printed r e c e i p t .
She
has often smoothed the surface of the wax by scraping
with
a
very
smooth-edged
k n i f e .
She
does
not
know
that
the paint
ing can be
retouched,
a f t e r the coat
of
wax i s applied ; but she
has materially improved many pictures by
repetitions of
heat
p a r t i a l l y t o such
parts
a s required more f o r c e .
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OF
INCATJSTIC PAINTING. 273
Mrs.
Hooker has
most
usually painted with the cream, com
posed of gum
Arabic,
gum-mastic, and wax ; and
begs
to
ob
s e r v e ,
that
the
d i f f e r e n t
persons
to
whom
she
has
given
the
r e c e i p t ,
never
f a i l e d in making the composition, when
they ad
hered s t r i c t l y t o
her d i r e c t i o n s . At her
l e i s u r e , she used t o
mix
the colours ( i n powder) with the cream, and
when
dry, took
the lumps
so
prepared o f f the p a l e t t e , and
put them in papers,
to keep them c l e a n ,
and
when either
was
required
f o r
u s e , she
cut a piece o f f ,
and
put i t in a l i t t l e f a i r water,
and
in a few
minutes
i t became in
a f i t s t a t e
to
u s e , and
Mrs. Hooker has
now
d i f f e r e n t
colours
so
mixed
a s
long
ago
a s
the
year 1795,
in the f i n e s t s t a t e possible f o r
u s e ,
and neither (even the flake
white) the
l e a s t
changed; i t i s a great
advantage that
there i s
no necessity f o r clearing the palette continually ; an earthen
palette i s the
most
convenient. She prefers
cutting
off the
quantity of each colour f o r immediate u s e ,
and diluting
them
a s before explained, t o l e t t i n g them remain wet any considera
ble
time,
a s that must weaken the gum Arabic, and thereby
diminish
what
the
I t a l i a n s
c a l l
the
Impastura.
Finding
the colours dry too f a s t
on
the p a l e t t e , I was much
inconvenienced a t f i r s t ; but on reconsidering my instructions
f o r using the
paints (when
mixed with the cream) with fair
water,
I diluted
each colour
( a f t e r preparing
them
with
the
c re am) w it h a s much f a i r water a s would render them usable :
t h i s
preserved
them moist much longer
than before; but s t i l l
they dry
very inconveniently
s o o n , to a novice in the use of them ;
but t h i s only proves the
want
of p r a c t i c e , both i n the depart
ment
of mi xi ng and using the materials, and does
not l e s s e n
myhigh
opinion
of Mrs.
Hooker's
discovery.
C.H.
The
regular
s i z e s of canvass,
and their
technical names,
are
a s follow ;
f o r
which the author i s
obliged t o
Mr. Brown,
18
/ .
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274
SIZES OF CANVASS AND DRAWING PAPER.
Primed
Cloth Manufacturer,
and
Colourman
t o A r t i s t s ; 163,
High Holborn.
f t ,
i n .
f t .
i n .
A
whole
length measures
7 10 long xy
4
10 wide.
Abishop's half length
— 4
8 —
3 8
Common
half
length
— 4
2
—
3
4
Small half length
— 3 4 —
2 10J
Kitcat
....
— 3
0
—
2 4
Three-quarter s i z e
— 2
6 — 2 1
Head s i z e
— 2
0 — 1 8
Two smaller
s i z e s .
/I
0
—
5 1 -
1
5
1 2
Landscapes
have
no
s e t t l e d
dimensions, but
are often
painted
on
the above given s i z e s , placing them on t h e i r
s i d e s
instead
of upright, a s f o r p o r t r a i t s ; thus,
on
asking the s i z e of a land
s c a p e ,
a painter
would answer,
I t
i s
a whole-length
s i z e ,
landscape way,
which
you
are
to understand to
measure
in
length
and
width
according t o the
measure
given
under
the
head whole l e n g t h .
SIZES OF DRAWING-PAPER.
I n c h e s .
Demy 20 by 15
Medium 22 —
17
Royal
24
—
19
Super Royal 27 —19
Imperial 30
—
21
Columbia 34 —23
Atlas
33
—
26
Double
Elephant
....
40 —26
Antiquarian 5 2 —31
Extra
large
d i t t o
... 5 6 —38
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27 5
COMBINATION
OF
THE THREE PRIMITIVE COLOURS.
The
multiplication of t i n t s
by various
intersections may be
made
very
i n s t r u c t i v e ,
a s
well
a s
amusing.
The
foregoing
con
trivance
exhibits the three Primitives
and
their s i x
pure
com
pounds,
with twenty-one
additional
compounds
by couplets.
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276
COMBINATION OF PRIMITIVE COLOURS.
The following
List
i s intended to serve
as
a Key to the effect
of the
combination
of the
nine
colours of the
system in
the
diagram
of the
preceding
page.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1+4
1+7
1+6
1+9
2+7
2+4
1 are
Yellow
2 „ Red
Blue
Orange
Purple
Green
Brown
Slate
Olive
YeUow
Yellow
YeUow
Yellow
Red
Red
[ J
Primitive
I 1 colours
1 /First
|
I compound
I
J
Second
[
]
compound
and Orange
Brown
Green
Olive
Brown
Orange
2+5 are
2+8
3+6
3+9
3+5
3+8
4+7
6+9
4+8
5+8
5+9
6+7
7+8
7+9
8+9
Red and
Purple
Red
, Slate
Blue ,
, Green
Blue ,
, Olive
Blue ,
,
Purple
Blue ,
,
Slate
Orange ,
, Brown
Green-
,
,
Olive
Orange ,
, Slate
Purple ,
,
Slate
Purple ,
, Olive
Green ,
,
Brown
Brown , , Slate
Brown
, , Olive
Slate ,
, Olive
Colour
the
sides
of
the
triangles
by
the
f i r s t
nine
numbers
in
rotation,—he couplets will then a l l answer
to
the names appro
priated
to them
in
the above l i s t .
J. WKRTHBIMER AND CO.,
PRINTERS,
FINSBl'RT CIRCUS.
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