1A QUARTERLY NEWSLETTER FROM NATIONAL FOLKLORE SUPPORT CENTREVOLUME 2 ISSUE 4 SERIAL NO. 13 APRIL - JUNE 2003

I ndian I olklife

Folk Medicineand

Biodiversity

BHAISHAJYAGURU,THE BUDDHA OF M EDICINE

I N D I A N FO L K L I FE V O L U M E 2 SERI A L N O . 13 I SSU E 4 A PRI L -JU N E 20032

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C O N T E N T SEditor ial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Dohada (Pregnancy Cravings). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Hot / Cold .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6Dreams... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Indigenous Know ledge Erosion .....................10Medicinal Plants ..........................................12An Introduction to the Tamil Siddhas...............14Folk Medicinal Wisdom ................................19Green Health Boom.......................................21Book Rev iew. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Review Books ................................................24

N ational Folklore Support Centre (N FSC) is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation, registered in Chennaidedicated to the promotion of Indian folklore research, education,training, networking and publications. The aim of the centre is tointegrate scholarship with activism, aesthetic appreciation withcommunity development, comparative folklore studies with culturaldiversities and identities, dissemination of information with multi-disciplinary dialogues, folklore fieldwork with developmental issuesand folklore advocacy with public programming events. Folkloreis a tradition based on any expressive behaviour that brings agroup together, creates a convention and commits it to culturalmemory. NFSC aims to achieve its goals through cooperative andexperimental activities at various levels. NFSC is supported by agrant from the Ford Foundation.

S T A F FAssistant DirectorsT.R. SivasubramaniamAdminist rat ionM ir iam N elkenProgrammes (Volunteer )Eva GlanzerProgrammes (Volunteer )Programme Officers (Publ i cat ions)M . Ramakr ishnanGi ta JayarajProgramme AssistantsPr imadonna Khongw i rRi ta DekaLibrarianR. M uruganArchival AssistantRanga Ran jan DasVolunteer (Research Project )Rengin A ktarSupport StaffY. Pav i t raP.T. DevanK. Kamal A hamedV. ThennarasuC. Kannan

C H A I R P E R S O NKomal Kothar iDirector, Rupayan Sansthan, Folklore Inst i tute of Rajasthan, Jodhpur, Rajasthan

T R U S T E E SA jay S. M ehtaExecut i ve D i rector, Nat ional Foundat ion for India, India Habi tat Cent re,Zone 4-A , UG Floor, Lodhi Road, New Delhi

A shoke Chat ter jeeB-1002, Rushin Tower, Behind Someshwar 2, Satel l i te Road, Ahmedabad

N . Bhakthavathsala ReddyDean, School of Folk and Tr ibal Lore, Warangal

Dadi D. PudumjeeM anaging Trustee, The Ishara Puppet Theat re Trust ,B2/2211 Vasant Kunj , New DelhiDeborah Th iagarajanPresident , M adras Craft Foundat ion, Chennai

Jyot indra JainProfessor and Dean, School of Ar ts and Aesthet i cs,Jawahar lal Nehru Universi t y, New Delhi

M ol ly KaushalAssociate Professor, Indi ra Gandhi Nat ional Cent re for the Ar ts,C.V. M ess, Janpath, New Delhi

M uni ra SenExecut i ve D i rector, M adhyam, Bangalore

K. RamadasDeputy D i rector, Regional Resources Cent re for Folk Per forming Ar ts, Udupi

P. SubramaniyamDi rector, Cent re for Development Research and Training, Chennai

Y. A . Sudhakar ReddyReader, Cent re for Folk Cul ture Studies, S. N . School , Hyderabad

Veenapani Chaw laDi rector, Adishakt i Laboratory for Theat re Research, Pondicher ry

E X E C U T I V E T R U S T E E A N D D I R E C T O RM .D. M uthukumaraswamy

R E G I O N A LR E S O U R C E P E R S O N SV. JayarajanKuldeep Kothar iM oj i RibaK.V.S.L . N arasamambaN ima S. GadhiaParag M . SarmaSanat Kumar M i t raSatyabrata GhoshShikha Jh inganSusmi ta PoddarM .N . Venkatesha

I N D I A N F O L K L I F EE D I T O R I A L T E A MM.D. MuthukumaraswamyEditor

M. RamakrishnanAssociate Edi tor

K. Kamal AhamedPage Layout & Design

C O V E R I L L U S T R A T I O NFront: Medicine Buddha or Bhaishajyaguru is considered tobe the physician of human passions, the un fai l i nghealer of the ills of samsara. He is dark blue in colour andholding a myrobalan (arura) plant in his right hand and a bowlof amrita medicine in his left hand. Courtesy: A Hand Book ofTibetan Culture (1993, London, Sydney, A uckland andJohannesburg: Rider)T H I S I S S U EThe focus of April June 2003 issue is on Folk Medicine andBiodiversity.Visual motifs courtesy: Sangs-Rgyas Stong: An Introduction to MahayanaIconography (1988, Gangtok (India): Sikkim Research Institute ofTibetology), and A Hand Book of Tibetan Culture (1993).N E X T I S S U EThe theme of the July - September issue of Indian Folklife isFolklore and Biopolitic. The forthcoming issue proposes to explorehow folklore expresses the rich symbolism of the human bodythat exists as a way for social groups to express about theirrelationship to community, nature and state in a hierarchicalsociety. Closing date for submission of articles is September10, 2003. All communications should be addressed to:The Editor, Indian Folklife, National Folklore Support Centre,7, 5th Cross Street, Rajalakshmi Nagar, Velachery, Chennai -600 042 (India), Tele/Fax: 91-44-22448589/ 22450553, email:i n f o@i n d i an f ol k l or e. or g/ m u t h u @m d 2. v sn l . n et . i n /nfsc_india@yahoo.co.in

B O A R D O F T R U S T E E S

3 LIGHTING A YERCUM FIBRE WICK

M .D.M uthukumaraswamy

Edi tor i al

E veryday as I walk to the Centre for work I pass through two folk medicine shops in Velachery, one of the fast growing hi-techsuburbs of Chennai city. The shops themselves aresemiotic delights as they assemble a wide range ofsacred objects used in worship along with folkmedicine. For the familiar eye the shops represent amindset, a worldview and a luxury fast disappearingin the countryside. The citys economy and vastnesshave facilitated the business of these shops and theirsheer presence anachronistic to those who belongto the popular realm - charts out an unstated visionof alternatives.

Let me first of all name some of the herbs sold inthese shops. Arugam grass, basil, climbing brinjal,Indian pennywort, bael, jamoon plum nut, turmeric,gallnut, Malabar nut, lotus stem wick, Yercum fibrewick, dry ginger and neem flower make up commonlist along with items that would ward off evil eyesuch as black twines, pumpkin pictures and yellowtwines. If sacred things varying from basil beadgarlands and holy ash pockets to lamps and wicksform yet another set available, then, traditionalalmanacs, astrological chapbooks and books ofprayer songs complete the picture. Medicine, beliefand worship shape the syntax of these shops andcertain objects like turmeric, basil and Yercumtraverse through all the three realms. Indicators of alarger paradigm basil and turmeric have foundentries in the encyclopedia of South Asian Folklore(2003) edited by Margaret A. Mills, Peter J. Claus andSarah Diamond. Yercum is yet to make its place inany encyclopedia including the Tamil one,Abithanachintamani.

Yercum is a milky plant that grows even in amound of trash all over the Tamil landscape. Yercumsports small white flowers with violet veins along theedges of the petals. Children are often advised not toplay with the milk of Yercum plant, as it is feared tobe poisonous. Although ruthlessly destroyed if it is

found in the backyard of any house, Yercum isbelieved to be the most favourite plant of Ganesh,the remover of all obstacles. During GaneshChadurthi festival there is sudden demand forYercum flowers. Ganesh figurines made out ofYercum stems are considered to be of extraordinarysignificance and auspicious quality. Lighting aYercum fibre wick in front of Ganesh is believed tobring boons unparalleled. Nonetheless no plausibleexplanation exists in the folklore of Ganesh thatwould connect him to Yercum. On the contrary thereis quite a body of negative folklore surroundingYercum. In the recently published ten-volumecollection of Tamilfolksongs (2001) edited byAru. Ramanathan, onefolksong refers to Yercumas one of the herbs thatmay be used to abort anunwanted child. (Volume3, Page 76 Song number412). In fact, Yercum is aTamil cultural sign thatsubscribes to certainincompleteness and so toinfinity of interpretations.

Tying a Yercum fibretwine around the hip of achild is believed to curediarrhoea and ward off anypossible stomach ailments.It is possible that Yercumkills shigella, a highly virulent microbe responsiblefor half of all episodes of bloody diarrhoea in youngchildren. Nobody has ever proved it yet. Yercumstransference from a sacred/feared plant to amedicinal herb is a path familiar to a hermeneuticthat wraps itself in itself and enters the domain oflanguages. It is this hermeneutics that reveals thecultural processes at work because it shows howcultural signs never cease to implicate themselves. Ifculture were to be seen as a dynamic process wecannot believe that cultural signs exist primarily,originally, actually, as coherent, pertinent andsystematic marks. The ambivalent position of Yercumin Tamil culture exposes this fundamental nature ofcultural signs. Floating they are, they gain meaning,place and purpose in lifes moments.

Lighting a Yercum fibre wick in front of Ganesh ortying a Yercum fibre twine around the hip of a childmay emerge from someones moments of despairfacilitated by tradition. Often they cannot and do notstand the test of scientific testimony. Especially whenit comes to the case of folk medicine the mainargument revolves around its scientific verifiability.The domain shift results in several problems.

Yercum Plant

Lord Dhanvantari,the Original Teacher of Ayurveda

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One, when the curativeproperties of some of thefolk medicine do stand thetests of verifiability they areimmediately patented intodays context of globaleconomy. The patentingseverely restricts the free,unlimited and creative usesof the said medicines in anygiven culture.

Two, often folkmedicinal herbs arecollected from particularsurrounding only as thesurrounding consisting ofcertain soil condition and

accompanying plants contribute towards theircurative properties. Actually the prescriptions for thesurroundings are the prescriptions for thepreservation of biodiversity as well. When particularherbs are isolated for mass production their necessityof unique habitat is brutally ignored.

Three, folk medicine is embedded in a system(say, Ayurveda, Siddha or Unani-Tibb) that linkscosmos, body and nature. There has been such anerosion of knowledge that often the relation betweenthe cosmic philosophy of these systems and theactual medical practices do not make sense.

These are issues in addition to the conceptualdivide between a single modern, rational, mechanisticand science based medical system and a plurality ofcontext-dependent folk medicines. Thanks to theworks of very fine scholars new respect forindigenous knowledge systems (Barsh 1997; Brush1993; Dharampal 1983; Sen 1992; Shiva and Holla-Bhar1993; Warren et al. 1995) and for the cultural value ofalternative sciences (Nandy 1988; Visvanathan 1997)has diminished confidence in scientism. However,the job of the folklorist in decoding medicinal signs isyet to be done. At the moment only collections listingfolk medicines exist in print.

Let me light a Yercum fibre wick towards theaccomplishment of this goal.Note

I gratefully acknowledge my colleague Mr.Murugans help in collecting some of the datarequired for this essay.

BibliographyBarsh, Russel, 1997. The Epistemology of Traditional

Healing Systems . Human Organization. 56 (Spring): 28-37.Brush, Stephen B., 1993. Indigenous Knowledge of Biological

Resources and Intellectual Property Rights: The Role ofAnthropology . American Anthropologist, 95(3): 653-71.

Chaudhuri, B., and S. Chaudhuri, 1986. Tribal Health,Disease and Treatment: A Review Study . InB. Chaudhuri, ed., Tribal Health: Socio-CulturalDimensions, New Delhi: Inter-India, pp. 37-52.

Claus, Peter J., 1984. Medical Anthropology and theEthnography of Spirit Possession . In E.V. Daniel andJ.E. Pugh, eds., South Asian Systems of Healing, 60-72,Contributions to Asian Studies (Leiden) vol. 18.

Dharampal, ed., 1983 (1971). Indian Science and Technologyin the Eighteenth Century. Hyderabad: Academy ofGandhian Studies.

Mills, Margaret A., Peter J. Claus and Sarah Diamond,eds., 2003. South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia. NewYork: Routledge.

Nandy, Ashis, ed., 1988. Science, Hegemony and Violence:A Requiem for Modernity. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Ramanathan, Aru., eds., 2001 Nattupurapadal kalanchiyamVolume 1-10. Chidambaram: Meyyappan Thamizhayvakam.

Sen, Geeti, ed., 1992. Indigenous Vision: Peoples of India,Attitudes to Environment. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Shiva, Vandana and Radha Holla-Bhar, 1993. IntellectualPiracy and the Neem Tree . The Ecologist. 23(6): 223-7.

Visvanathan, Shiv., 1997. A Carnival for Science: Essays onScience, Technology and Development. Delhi: OxfordUniversity Press.

Warren, D. Michael, L. Jan Slikkerveer and DavidBrokensha, eds., 1995. The Cultural Dimensions ofDevelopment: Indigenous Knowledge Systems. London:Intermediate Technology Publications.

Agasthiyar, the patron saint ofSiddha medicine

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5D ohada (Sanskrit), dohala (Pali), dohala (Prakrit, Hindi), doladuk (Sinhalese),

two-heartedness, is thepregnancy whim, when the will ofthe foetus influences the moodsand desires of the mother. Theword is probably derived fromSanskrit (dvi + hrd), literally having two hearts ; from Sanskritdaurhrda, sickness of heart, nausea, or evil-hearted ; orperhaps from Sanskrit doha + da, giving milk. Dohada issometimes a euphemism forpregnancy.

The condition of having asecond heart, causing vicariouscravings in the mother, isdiscussed in Sanskrit treatises onmedicine and love, and inreligious literature, where it isoften interpreted as transfer ofkarmic substance (especially byHindus) or as coordination of twopeoples karma (especially byJains). In literature, the dohadamotif is used as a stockembellishment. For example,many poetic descriptions of springfeature the pregnancy longings ofblossoming trees. The asoka treelongs for the touch of a maidensfoot in order to blossom, and thekadamba tree for the first thunderof the monsoon. Stories ofpregnant humans and animals indohada also abound, especially inthe religious literature of theHindus, Buddhists, and Jains,where they often have a formulaiccharacter, serving, like dreams, toaugur the birth of a hero. Dohadaincidents often serve as a startmotif, or are used ornamentally,

having no obvious influence onthe main events of a story.

Dohada stories usually involvesome direct or indirect danger tothe husband, who must performheroic deeds to satisfy his wifescravings, ensuring a safe andauspicious birth. Sometimes adangerous dohada is satisfied bytrickery, or dohada may befeigned to trick the husband.Dohada stories usually involveinauspicious, dangerous cravings,but, especially in a Jain context,may involve auspicious cravingsfor pious acts.

Examples of auspicious orgood dohada are the craving of aJain woman to hear continuouslythe Jain teachings, and to spendmoney for religious purposes, orthe craving of a Buddhist womanto entertain the monks.

Cases of inauspicious or evildohada are more numerous. Forexample, in the Thusa Jataka,Prince Ajatasatrus mother has adohada to drink blood from herhusband King Bimbisaras knee,which is satisfied; she gives birth,after an unsuccessful attempt atabortion, to a child who isdestined to kill his father and seizehis throne. The Vipaka Sutra (aSvetambara Jain canonical text)contains many especially sinisterdohada stories.

Dohada is often satisfied bydeceit. In the Kathasaritsagara,Queen Mrgavati has a dohada tobathe in a lake of blood, which issatisfied by her husband, whomakes for her a lake of red coloredlac. In the Parisistaparvan, theMachiavellian political theoristCanakya (Kautilya), plotting todestroy the Nanda dynasty,searches for a suitable proxy torule for him. A village chiefsdaughter has a dohada to drinkthe moon, and Canakya promises

Jerome H. Bauer is Lecturer in theDepartment of Religious Studies atWashington University, St.Louis. Theauthor can be contacted atjeromebauer@sbcglobal.net

to fulfill it if the infant is given tohim to raise. The dohada isfulfilled when the mother drinks areflection of the moon, and herson, the future Mauryan emperor,is named Candragupta, MoonProtected.

Many stories involve feigneddohada. In the VidhurapanditaJataka, the queen, wishing to hearthe sage Vidhura discourse on theDharma, feigns dohada. In theNigrodha Jataka, a woman feignspregnancy and dohada in order toimprove her status in thehousehold.

Similar tales are found in theworlds folk and popular literature.(See MotifT571, unreasonabledemands of pregnant women ;Thompson 1957: 402-403).ReferencesBauer, Jerome H., 1998. Karma and

Control: The Prodigious and theAuspicious in Ivetambara JainaCanonical Mythology, ch.5.Ph.D.diss., University ofPennsylvania.

Bloomfield, Maurice, 1920. TheDohada or Craving of PregnantWomen: A Motif in Hindu Fiction .Journal of the American OrientalSociety 40 (1): 1-24.

Tawney, C.H., tr., The Ocean of Story,Being C.H. Tawneys translation ofSomadevas Kathasaritsagara (or Oceanof Streams of Story). Delhi: MotilalBanarsidass.

Thompson, Stith, 1957. Motif-Index ofFolk Literature, vol. 5. Bloomington:Indian University Press.

DOHADA (PREGNANCY CRAVINGS)*

Jerome H. Bauer

South Asian Folklore: An EncyclopediaEdi ted by M argaret A . M i l l s,Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond2003, pages xxx + 710 New York,London: Routledge.

(This article was originally published inthe encyclopedia of South Asian Folklore(2003), p. 163.)

D O H A D A

I N D I A N FO L K L I FE V O L U M E 2 SERI A L N O . 13 I SSU E 4 A PRI L -JU N E 20036

H ot/cold is a conceptual framework widely adhered to throughout South Asia.

Within Asian medical systems,hot/cold descriptors are used todenote the qualities of people,plants, animals, minerals, places,times, seasons, celestial bodies,foods, medicines, stages ofdevelopment, gender-basedproclivities, and bodily sensationsas well as symptoms and types ofillness. Symptoms are recognisedas signs of internal heat and coldmanifest in myriad forms, relatedto various humoural imbalances.To the lay population, hot/coldreasoning guides behavioursranging from folk dietetic practiceto bathing habits, domestic healthcare to the interpretation of howmedicines work, evaluations of thequalities of soil to deliberationabout the use of various types offertilisers.

Significant intra- as well asinterregional variation exists in theclassification of specific items andphenomena as hot/cold; there ismore of a pattern in the way theframework is employed than inthe specific rules for itsapplication. Consensus is greatestfor items involved in rituals. Forexample, Hindu rituals follow alogic that demands particulartypes of offerings representinghot/cold qualities matching thecharacteristics of a deity or theintent of a particular sequence inthe ritual.

Hot/cold may refer to eitherselective qualities or the overallqualities of an item beingdescribed. A point of comparisonmay be implicit (rice is cool inrelation to wheat) or explicit whenan index object is noted in

conversation. For example,particular colours and tastes arewidely associated with states ofhot/cold (e.g., red: hot, white:cold), but these attributes may beeclipsed by others, such as bodysensation, which are moreimmediate (e.g., burningsensation: hot) as well as subjectto personal interpretation.

Hot/cold reference is oftenrelational, hot-cold constituting acontinuum along which one itemmay be described in relation toothers within a common domain(e.g., milled rice: hot, parboiledrice: cold; beer: cool, rum: hot). Apoint of comparison may beimplicit (rice is cool in relation towheat) or emerge as an anchorpoint in conversation. Items tendto be classified within domains(vegetables, meats, liquor,medicines), each domainanalogous to an octave on amusical scale. Thus, a grain suchas wheat may be classified as hot,as may a meat such as chickenand an oil such as mustard seedoil. Each may be thought of as hotin relation to other members of aclass, but their qualities may notbe seen as identical, although eachmay be described as causing aheating effect on the body ifconsumed in excess.

The hot/cold conceptualframework constitutes an excellentexample of an interpretive modelof serving as a model for(Geertz 1973) practice. At issue iswhen the model is invoked.Research in South Asia suggeststhat predispositions toward hot/cold reasoning are embodiedthrough a complex of practices,especially those associated withpregnancy and delivery, childcare, and illness. South Asians donot spend their lives strictlyabiding by rules of healthy livingunderlain by hot/coldconceptualisation. They do,however, follow practices

influenced by hot/cold reasoning attimes associated with states ofvulnerability. Hot/cold reasoning isfurther employed to explain newphenomena (e.g., how birthcontrol pills work), and it serves asa guide for experimentation. Aflexible, user-friendly conceptualframework, hot/cold facilitatescommunication between expertdomains of knowledge such asastrology, Ayurveda medicine, andexorcism wherein associationsbetween the hot/cold properties ofstars, spirits, and bodily statesmay be drawn. Hot/cold alsoprovides specialists with a widelyunderstood reference pointenabling communication withlaypersons unable to grasp thecomplex relationships underlyingexpert practice.

ReferencesBeck, Brenda, 1969. Colour and Heat

in a South Indian Ritual . Man 4:553-572.

Babb, Lawrence, 1973. Heat andcontrol in Chhattisgarhi ritual .Eastern Anthropologist, 26: 11-28.

Geertz, Clifford, 1973. TheInterpretation of Cultures. New York:Basic Books.

Nichter, Mark, 1986. Modes of FoodClassification and the Diet-HealthContingency: A South IndianCase . In R.S. Khare and M.S. A.Rao, eds., Food, Society and Culture.Durham: Carolina Academic Press.

Wandel, Margareta, et al., 1984. Heating and cooling foods inrelation to food habits in a southernSri Lanka community . Ecology ofFood and Nutrition, 14: 93-140.

Mark Nichter is teaching at theDepartment of Anthropology, PrincetonUniversity. The author can be contacted atMnichter@u.arizona.edu

HOT / COLD*

M ark Nichter

South Asian Folklore: An EncyclopediaEdi ted by M argaret A . M i l l s,Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond2003, pages xxx + 710 New York,London: Routledge.

(This article was originally published inthe encyclopedia of South Asian Folklore(2003), pp. 289 - 290.)

7D reams are pervasive in South Asian folk literature. Folk beliefs about dreams in South Asia are similar to those found in the classicaltraditions of South Asia as well as in other culturesfrom around the world. For example, most peopledistinguish meaningful from meaningless dreams,emphasizing the importance of dreams that occuraround dawn and dreams sent by gods over thosecaused by bodily disorders, such as indigestion.Indeed, most of the dreams in SomadevasKathasaritsagara story collection take place at dawnand are sent by the gods. These basic ideas aboutdreams are also found in ancient texts such as theCaraka and Susruta Samhitas (medical texts) and inearly Buddhist works such as the Samantapasadika(I.520-529), Manorathapuraii (V.xx.6), and Milindapanha(IV.75), while the Palija takas are particularly rich inthe dreams of women.

Overshadowing these theories in Hinduism,however, is the well-known idea that we are allparticipating in Gods dream of creation. One version ofthis idea is contained in the Kurma Purana, whichdescribes the beginning of this kalpa (eon), whennothing existed but a vast ocean and Lord Narayana(Brahma; in other versions, Vishnu) sleeping on the coilsof a great snake. As he sleeps, he dreams, and awonderful lotus grows out of his navel from which arisesall that exists; Gods dream is the basis of our reality.Shared DreamsOne type of dream preserved in various stores is theshared dream, a dream that appears on the samenight to more than one person. While examples ofsuch dreams can be found in other cultures, SouthAsia is an especially rich source for them. Examplesfrom the Kathasaritsagara include: two Brahman cousins who perform austeritiesto Karttikeya and then receive a shared propheticdream telling them where to find a guru (I.12). three Brahman women, who remain virtuouswives even though they have been abandoned bytheir husbands, share a dream from Siva (I.19-20). a king and queen worship Siva in order toobtain a son, and he appears in both their dreams,predicting they will have a son. Later the queendreams that Siva gives her a fruit, and this is taken asconfirmation of the first dream (II.136).

Shared dreams also occur in Buddhist storiessuch as the Mahavastu, in which the Buddhas father,wife, and aunt all have dreams portending his

Serinity Young is Research Associate in the Department ofAnthropology at American Museum of Natural History, NewYork. The author can be contacted at sy108@earthlink.net

departure from home (II.129-131). Another type ofshared dream is one that transcends time, as whenthe Buddha has five dreams said to be the samedreams had by Buddhas of earlier eons recorded inLalitavistara (I.296-297). A second example of this typeis the conception dream of the Buddhas mother thatis said to have been dreamt by the mother of thepreceding Buddha, Dipamkara, mentioned inMahavastu (I.205). Additional examples of suchtranstemporal shared dreams are contained in theLotus Sutra and the Arya svapna nirdesa namamahayana sutra (bKa gyur, vol.25, text 48), whichdescribe the dreams of Bodhisattvas. In theseexamples shared dreams are used to dramatize theessential sameness of all Buddhist heroes; theirprogress along the path leading to enlightenment ismarked by dream signposts. Correspondingly, shareddreams also appear in stories about famous Buddhistreligious figures in Tibet. One group of such dreamscentres on Padmasambhavas departure from homewhen both his adopted father and his wife havefrightening dreams.

An especially rich text in terms of dreams andfolk beliefs is the popular biography of the Tibetanyogi and poet Milarepa (eleventh through twelfthcentury). This text is actually structured by thedreams that begin and end it, as well as anchor itspivotal centre, when Milarepa passes from being adisciple to becoming a guru himself. It also containsthe shared dreams that Milarepas guru, Marpa, andMarpas wife, Dakmema, have the night beforeMilarepa arrives to ask Marpa to be his guru. Marpadreams of a vajra (a tantric ritual implement), whileDakmema dreams of a stupa (Buddhist reliquary),religious symbols appropriate to announcing aBuddhist saint.Conception DreamsSome of the dreams presented thus far are alsoexamples of the conception dream, a type of dreamfrequently encountered in the biographical literatureof the Buddhists and Jains. Equally famous are the

DREAMS*

Serinity Young

D R E A M S

Maya, the mother of Buddha, having a dream

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dreams of Queen Maya, theBuddhas mother, and QueenTrisala, the mother of Mahavira,founder of the Jains. In her dream,Queen Maya sees a magnificentwhite elephant, which, by strikingher right side with its trunk, is ableto enter her womb. This dream isunderstood to be a prediction of thebirth of a son who will be a worldruler either through kingship orrenunciation. Many versions ofMayas dream are among the earliestimages preserved in Buddhisticonography and texts, andrepresentations of this dream keptup an even pace with the spread ofBuddhism. The Buddhist belief inconception dreams is also well documented in laterTibetan biographies, probably due in equal part to thepopularity of Mayas dream and earlier indigenousbeliefs.

In the Jain case, on the night that Mahavira entersQueen Trishalas womb she has fourteen sequentialdreams of a white elephant, a white bull, a lion, thegoddess Sri, a garland, the moon, the sun, a largeflag, a vase, a lake, the milk ocean, a celestial abode,a heap of jewels, and a fire. When Queen Trishalatells her dreams to her husband and asks him tointerpret them, he says they mean that the couplewill have a son who will be a great king. The nextday, however, the king sends for the official dreaminterpreters who, citing dream interpretation books,say the dreams mean the child will be either auniversal emperor or a jina (a Jain hero). Of particularinterest is Trishalas behaviour after her husbandinterprets her dream. She says, These, my excellentand preeminent dreams, shall not be counteracted byother bad dreams. The narration continues, Accordingly she remained awake to save her dreamsby means of [hearing] good, auspicious, pious,agreeable stories about gods and religious men(Jacobi, 1968: I.240). Her words and actions arereminiscent of similar ritual activities from the Vedicperiod, though here they are in relation to auspiciousdreams.Propitiation and DiagnosisSome of the earliest references to dreams arecontained in the Rg Veda, in which several hymnsappeal to various deities to dispel the effects of evildreams (II.28.10, V.82.4-5, VIII.47.14-18, X.36.4, andX.16.4). In the Arthava Veda otherappeals for protection from baddreams are directed towardhealing plants and salves (VI.9,IV.17, and X.3), in part due to arelated belief that dreams canreveal the onset of illness.Ancient Indians also sometimesdreamt of the dead, but forthem, as in many other cultures,contact with the dead is pollutingand such pollution can occur indreams as well as in the waking

state. One of the ways to get rid ofdream pollution is to transfer it toanother object or to associate thedream with something ephemeral.Examples of this kind of thinking arefound in the Taittiriya-Araiyaka,which recommends a particular grassfor removing the effects of baddreams (X.1.7), and in the AtharvaVeda, which states, We transferevery evil dream upon our enemy(VI.46).

The medical texts of ancientIndia, the Caraka Samhita and SusrutaSamhita (CS and SS), which are stillin use today as part of the Ayurvedicsystem of healing, use dreams as a

diagnostic tool. Sudhir Kakars recent work hasshown the persistence of these ancient ideas and theAyurvedic approach to the whole person, in whichdreams are considered a meaningful part of theperson. This is not an idea unique to ancient India-dreams were used as a diagnostic tool by such well-known ancient Greek doctors as Galen andHippocrates, as well as by ancient Mesopotamiandoctors. Significantly, the CS contains manyexamples of premonitory dreams of disease anddeath that are similar to those seen in the epics andfolktales.

In the SS, dreams seem to be caused by illness aswell as being symptoms of it; certain dreamsappearing to a healthy person indicate the onset ofillness. In other words, a dream may be the firstsymptom. Fortunately, the text also hasrecommendations to avert the influence of dreams,such as reciting the Gayatri, meditating on a holysubject, or sleeping in a temple for three consecutivenights. It also recommends that an evil dreamshould not be related to another, although this ischallenged by the evidence of Indian folk and literarytexts, in which the detailed telling of dreams,especially those thought to be inauspicious, is a stockdevice. This does not, however, preclude someonefrom keeping silent about his or her dreams, and therecommendation itself would seem to be connected tothe idea that saying the dream out loud willcontribute to or hasten its dreaded effect. The mainpoint, though, is the notion that dreams have alingering effect that can be avoided by appealing todivine power, an idea that persists from Vedic timesto the present.

As we have seen, thislingering effect may also be asource of pollution (such ascontact with the dead) or it maybe viewed as part of the effluviaof the night that must be purifiedor washed away during morningablutions. The philosophical textstreat dreams as effluvia whenthey assert a negative position,mainly referring to them asuseless illusions or as useful only

Marpa, the founder of the Kagyu Schoolof Tibetian Buddhism

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9for signifying how real and powerful a force illusion(maya) is in waking life.

In spite of the lively interest in dreams in theVedas and related texts, few dreams actually occur inthe epics, and then they play a very minor role. Twodreams that do occur in Valmikis Ramayana are ofminor characters; however, both announce deaths,using the same images contained in the ancientIndian medical texts, for example, seeing a womandressed in red, dragging someone toward the south.The few dreams in the Mahabharata also belong tosecondary or even liminal characters such as Karnaand Bhisma. Dreams are, however, ubiquitous in theTibetan epic of Gesar (Kesar), in which the herocontinually receives dream visitations from Buddhistdeities who offer him advice which he follows.DivinationBecause they link the internal and subjectiveemotional life of an individual with what appears tobe objective outer events and symbols, dreams arebelieved to be a particularly potent form of

divination. Thedreamer is totallyengaged in thedream activity and,upon awakening,feels compelled todescribe theexperience and toseek aninterpretation thatresolves it. The objective qualityof dreams isperhaps mostclearly expressedwhen dreamers saythey saw (drs) thedream rather than had a dream.

This use of language expresses the idea that dreamsare experienced as given to individuals rather thancreated by them and emphasises the external ratherthan the internal origin of the dream, thereby lendingthem a possibly divine authority. This thinking isexpressed in hymn 4.9 of the Atharva Veda thatappeals to an eye ointment, anana, for protectionfrom troubled dreams, and in the Tibetan Tangyur(vol.25, text 48) that recommends preparing andusing a certain eye ointment when seeking anauspicious dream.

At the same time, dreams are a useful narrativedevice, acting as a deus ex machina to shift theaction, define character, and express the inevitabilityof what follows. Not infrequently, they are thevehicles for divine appearances that reassure theaudience not only of the immanence of divinity, butof the gods enduring concern with the affairs ofhumanity. More research needs to be done on allthese aspects of dream life, especially throughinterviewing living people about their dream beliefsand experiences.

ReferencesBays, Gwendolyn, tr., 1983. The Voice of the Buddha: The

Beauty of Compassion. (Original: Lalitavistara) Berkeley,California: Dharma Publishing.

Bhishagratna, Kaviraj Kunjalal, 1963. Sushruta Samhita.Varanasi, India: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series.(2nd edition).

bKa gyur., 1980. Vol. 25, text 48. Oakland, Calif.: Dharma.Bloomfield, Maurice, tr., 1979 (1897). Atharva Veda. Delhi:

Motilal Banarsidass.Bolling, G.M., 1913. Dreams and Sleep (Vedic) . In James

Hastings, ed., The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,vol.5. New York: Charles Scribner.

Esnoul, Anne-Marie, 1959. Les Songes et leur interpretationdans lInde. In Les Songes et leur interpretation (Dreams andTheir Interpretation) Paris: Editions du Seuil.

Griffith, Ralph T.H., tr., 1971 (1889). The Hymns of the Rg Veda.Varanasi (India): Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office.

Jacobi, Hermann, 1968 (1884). Jaina Sutras. New York:Dover Publications.

Jones, J.J., tr., 1949-1956. Mahavastu. London: Pali TextSociety.

Kern, H., tr., 1963 (1884). Lotus Sutra, or Saddharmapuidarika(The Lotus of the True Law), 278-279. New York: DoverPublications.

Lhalungpa, Lobsang P., tr., 1984. The Life of Milarepa.Boulder, Colo., and London: Shambhala Publications.

OFlaherty, Wendy Doniger, 1984. Dreams, Illusion and OtherRealities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Sharma, Jadish, and Lee Siegel, 1980. Dream-Symbolism inthe Sramaiic Tradition: Two Psychoanalytical Studies in Jainistand Buddhist Dream Legends. Calcutta: Firma KLM.

Sharma, R.K., and Bhagwan Das, tr., 1977. Caraka Samhita,II.545-550. Varanasi (India): Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series.

Shastri, H.R., tr., 1953-1957. The Ramayana of Valmiki.London: Shantisadan.

Tagore, Ganesh Vasudeo, tr. (n.d.) Kurma Purana. Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass.

Tawney, C.H., tr., 1924. Kathasaritsagara (The Ocean ofStory). London: Chas. J. Sawyer.

Tsogyal, Yeshe, 1978. The Life and Liberation ofPadmasambhava, tr.[Kenneth Douglas and GwendolynBays from the French of Gustave-Charles Toussaint.]Berkeley, Calif.: Dharma Publishing.

Van Buitenen, J.A.B., tr., 1975-1978. The Mahabharata. Vols.2 & 3. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

Young, Serinity, 1999. Dreaming in the Lotus: Buddhist DreamNarrative, Imagery, and Practice. Boston: WisdomPublications.

* We sincerely thank Professors Peter J. Claus,Margaret A. Mills and Sarah Diamond, the Editorsof the South Asian Folklore An Encyclopedia (2003,New York and London: Routledge) and the authors,Jerome H. Bauer, Mark Nichter and Serinity Youngfor giving us permission to reprint these articles.

South Asian Folklore: An EncyclopediaEd i ted by M argaret A . M i l l s,Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond2003, pages xxx + 710 N ew York,London: Routledge.

D R E A M S

Milarepa, a twelth century poet-saint of Tibet

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(This article was originally published in the encyclopedia ofSouth Asian Folklore (2003), pp. 166 - 169.)

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T he indigenous communities in India are the original inhabitants of the natural region and they have been maintaining a historicalcontinuity with pre-industrial societies by followingtraditional patterns of life. Scattered all over thecountry, they constitute around 8.8 per cent of thetotal population and with a few exceptions, themajority of them are forest dwellers. Their socio-cultural identity has remained unaffected by forces ofcolonisation, modernisation, and globalisation. Theyhave preserved their culture through their indigenousknowledge systems, which authenticate the presenceof their rich socio-cultural and medical heritage. Thesacred rituals and healing practices are very muchvisible in their culture. Erosion of indigenousknowledge has been taking place in India for the pasttwo hundred years and there is no effort by thegovernment to promote and protect theseanonymous but unique knowledge holders of thesociety. The contribution of indigenous knowledge inthe modern systems of medicine has beenunderestimated and it is ironical that the scientificcommunity has treated the foundation of scientificmedicine as unscientific .

This article emphasises on the revival of folkmedicine tradition that is happening with the help ofpharmaceutical companies, voluntary organisations.Folk knowledge about pharmaceutical diversity is asold as civilisation itself. The first historical evidenceof traditional knowledge about medicinal plants hasbeen found in Rg Veda. In fact, the Atharva Veda, atreatise on folk medicine traditions, explains variousherbal formulations that are still in use. Even in themedieval period there was an exchange of traditionalmedical wisdom between Arabs, Chinese, andIndians. However, it was during the British rule thatthe exploitation of natural resources and unfriendlyforest laws adversely affected the indigenouscommunities access to medicinal plants and heraldedan era of gradual knowledge erosion. The colonisersideological principle of scientific forestry was basedon the conception that all traditional practices ofconservation were wasteful and they would destroythe forest wealth. The conservators of the post-colonial period also promoted the same legacyfurther.

In fact, the allopathic system of medicine waspromoted and legitimised during the British rule,

whereas the traditional systems of medicine receiveda major setback. Deforestation during this period ledto the disappearance and extinction of severalmedicinal plants and the reduced access to naturalresources further aggravated the situation. Variousdevelopment projects taken up in the post-independence period have displaced thousands oflocal and tribal communities. When indigenouspeople are forced to displacement, the unrecordedtraditional knowledge they carry with them willbecome completely useless in view of new ecosystem.And, the forced resettlement of indigenous and tribalpeople in a different ecological zone poses a greatthreat to the existence of their indigenous knowledgesystem and intellectual property rights. In addition,the communities tend to lose vast amount ofunrecorded traditional knowledge because of theageing of the elders and maintenance of secrecy

about medicinal plants and forest products. There isan urgent need to collect, document and preservethis medicinal knowledge keeping in view of thefuture generations and this needs to be doneimmediately with the help of individuals,government agencies, and non-governmentalorganisations.

The gradual erosion of traditional knowledge hasserious repercussions on the subsistence patterns,that is, it reduces the self-sufficiency of indigenouspeople by making them depend on urban societies.In the absence of basic healthcare facilities in villages,the traditional medicine practices provide analternative health security to millions of people. TheWorld Health Organisation (WHO) estimates thataround 80 per cent of the world population dependon traditional medicine for some aspects of primaryhealth care. However, there is a need for an objectiveevaluation to get maximum benefit of the traditional

Jyoti Kumari is a freelance researcher and doctoral candidateresearching Environmental History of Colonial Punjab at theRajiv Gandhi Foundation in New Delhi. The author can becontacted at jyotikm202@rediffmail.com

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Jyoti Kumari

Kani people and TBGRI scientists after the first transferof licence fees and royalties in 1999

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medicine system. The indigenous and modernsystems of medicine are not mutually exclusive butrather complementary, and a combination of themcan render development more cost effective, equitableas well as more sustainable. The traditional literatureand folklore of indigenous medicine and medicinalpractices have positively contributed to thediscoveries of many allopathic medicines, such as,Morphine, Digoxin, Ephedrine and Reserpine. TheRaulfia, a pharmaceutical product for lowering bloodpressure, is manufactured from the extract ofsnakeroot plant, which has been used by indigenouscommunities for centuries. The folk knowledge aboutcinchona bark led to the discovery of Quinine forcuring malarial diseases.

A number of research institutions and non-governmental organisations working on herbalmedicines and indigenous systems of curing havebeen exploring and promoting the value of traditionalmedicines. Jagran, a not-for-profit organisation inRajasthan, is promoting indigenous healers; the useof Banjauri plant (Vivoa indica) as an oralcontraceptive by the Bihar tribals has been confirmedby scientists of the Indian Institute of Science and theGeorgetown University Medical Centre, Washington;the Catholic Health Association of India in AndhraPradesh has successfully developed a medicine basedon tribal formulations to cure kala-azar (the CentralDrug Research Institute has confirmed itseffectiveness). The Foundation for Revitalisation ofLocal Health Traditions in Bangalore has been doingcommendable work in documenting and encouragingthe cultivation of medicinal plants. The revival oftraditional medicine is extremely difficult under thecurrent system of intellectual property rights. Thedeveloping countries are unable to institute their ownlaws on such rights since they are under the pressureof national and multinational companies which havebeen exploiting this knowledge for their own profit.As far as patent laws are concerned, it is mandatoryfor the patent holder to disclose the source or originof information regarding the property. There is noprovision for providing compensation or recognitionto the original knowledge holders and it has resultedin disproportionate sharing of benefits.

The nexus between pharmaceutical companiesand policy makers highlights the implications ofknowledge exploitation and they promote each otherat the cost of traditional knowledge of the localpopulation. Thecontroversybetween the Ongetribe of Andamanand the IndianCouncil of MedicalResearch (ICMR)over the discoveryof herb that curescerebral malaria is acase in point. InDarjeeling, thepharmaceutical and

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herbal companies arecommercialising thecultivation of medicinal plantsand in the process, manyspecies have been lost evenbefore their true value wasrecognised. The alreadyexplored knowledge ofindigenous people must beprotected through national orinternational laws and theymust be recognised as uniqueor the only possessors of this

knowledge. There should be a fair arrangement ofprofit sharing between indigenous communities andpharmaceutical companies. But this would requirerecognition of intellectual property rights of tribalcommunities by the government and corporations,which disagree with the notion that indigenouspeople should be paid for their knowledge. However,one example of such profit sharing arrangement isthat the local Kani tribe in Kerala is given recognitionas discoverer and knowledge holders of the medicinalplant, Trichopus zeylanicus travancoricius, which givesthe drug called Jeevani, by the Tropical BotanicalGarden and Research Institute (TBGRI). After givinglicense to a local drug manufacturer, the TBGRIshared fifty percent of the license fee and royalty onthe drug with the Kani tribe. Though the wholearrangement is not free from controversy, it is stillthe first and only example of giving recognition to theintellectual property rights of an indigenous tribe. Formeeting the future needs of rare medicinal herbs, thedocumentation of traditional medicinal knowledgehas long been suggested by national andinternational organisations. The Indian governmenthas set up a Traditional Knowledge Digital Library tofacilitate wider access to this knowledge and to saveit from bio-piracy. However, there are no provisionsfor any compensation for the communities whoseknowledge has been stored in it and will now befreely available at global level without giving the localcommunities their rightful due. Access to thisknowledge should have had enough safeguards toprotect the interests of indigenous people. If newdiscoveries are made on the basis of this knowledge,then there should be a proportionate benefit sharingamong the patent holders and knowledge holders.The whole process would become successful onlywhen it is legally controlled.

ReferencesGosling, David L., 2001. Religion and Ecology in India and

Southeast Asia. Routledge, London.UNDP, 2001. Human Development Report 2001: Making New

Technologies Work for Human Development. OxfordUniversity Press, New York.

Sharma, Devinder, 2002. Digital Library on IndianMedicine Systems: Another Tool for Biopiracy . Economicand Political Weekly, June 22.

Shukla, R. S., 2000. Forestry for Tribal Development. NewDelhi: Wheeler Publications.

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Arokyapaccha plant (Trichopus zeylanicus)

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68 Caesalpinia Sappan Sappa Wood Pathimugam69 Canarium Cummune Java Almond Tree Jangli Badam70 Canarium Strictum Black Damar Karuppu Gunguliam71 Canscora Decussata - Shankhini72 Capsicum Frutescens Chillies Milagai73 Carthamus Tinctorius Saf-flower Kusumphool74 Carum Carui - Shimayi-shombu75 Carum Capticum Bishop Weed Omam76 Carum Nigrum - Ajmud77 Cassia Tora - Ushittagarai78 Celastrus Staff Tree Valuluwai79 Chenopodium Album Goose Foot Parupu Kire80 Cichorium Intybus Endive, Wild Chicory Kasini Virai81 Citrus Medica Citron Maphal82 Cassia Absus Chaksoo Mulappalvidhai83 Coccinia Indica - Kovai84 Cocculus Cordifolius Heart-leaved Moonseed Sindilkodi85 Cocculus Suberosus Indian Berry Kakakulli86 Coptis Teeta Gold Thread Peetharohini87 Corylus Avellan Hazel Nut Findak88 Coscinium Fenestratum Tree Turmeric Mara Manjal89 Cotula Anthemoides - Babuna90 Croton Tiglium Purgative Cotton Nervalam91 Cryptocoryne Spiralis East Indian Root Nattu-Ativudayam92 Cucumis Trigonus Bitter Gourd Kattu-Tumatti93 Curculigo Orchioides Black Musale Nial-Panai-Kizhangu94 Curcuma Amada Mango Ginger Arukamlaka95 Curcuma Aromatica Wild Turmeric Kasturi Manjal96 Curcuma Zedoaria Round Zedoary Kichili Kilangu97 Cynodon Dactylon Bermuda Grass Arugu98 Cyperus Pertenuis Indian Cyperus Mutta-Kachi99 Cyperus Rotundus Nut Grass Korai Kizanghu100 Datura Alba Thornapple Umatham101 Delphinium Denudatum - Jadwar102 Dendrobium Macrael - Jivanti103 Dolichos Biflurus Horse Gram Kollu104 Eclipta Alba - Karisalai105 Elaeocarpus Ganitrus - -106 Elaeocarpus Tuberculatus - Rutthraksham107 Elettaria Cardamumum - Elakkay108 Embelia Ribes - Vayu-Vilamgam109 Euphorbia Lathyris - Burg-Sadab110 Euphorbia Pilurifera Australian Asthma-Weed Amum-Patchaiaressi111 Eurycoma Longifulia - Usi Thagarai112 Exacumlawii - Marukozhunthu113 Feronai Elephantum Elephant or Wood-Apple Vilvapazham114 Ferula Assafuetida - Perungayam115 Foeniculum Vulgar Indian Sweet Fennel Shombu116 Gardenin Gummifera Dikamali Dikamalai117 Garlinia Mangostana Mangosteen Mangostan118 Garlinia Morella Indian Gamboge Rival Chinipal119 Gelidium Cartilagineum Agai Agai -120 Gentiana Kurroo - Katukarohini121 Gloriosa Superba Superb Lely Kanveli Vadai122 Glycine Suja Soybean -123 Glycyrrhiza Glabra Sweet Wood - Liquorice Ati-Maduram124 Gymnema Sylvestre - Siru-Kurunja125 Gynocrd Odorata Hind Chaulmugera126 Hedysarum Gangeticum - Sarivan127 Helianthus Sun Flower Surya Kiranti128 Helicteres Isora East Indian Screw-Tree Valumbirika129 Hemidesmus Indicus Indian Sarsaparilla Nannari130 Herpestis Monniera Thyme-Leaved Neer Brahmi131 Hibiscuc Cannabinus Brown Indian Hemp Oulimanji132 Hibiscus Abelmonschua Musk-Mallow Kasthuri Vidhai133 Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis Chineses Rose Sembaruthi134 Holarrhena Antidysenterica Kurchi Kasppu-Vetpalarishi135 Hydnucarpus Wightiana Jangli Badam Nirattimuthu

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1 Abies Weebbiana Himalayan Silver Fir Talispatri2 Abrus Percatorius Jequirity Gundumani3 Acacia Arabica Babul Tree Karuvelum4 Acacia Catechu Catechu, Black Catechu Kasikatti5 Acacia Concinna - Sheeyakay6 Acacia Farnesiana Cassia Flower Avarampoo7 Acave Americana American Aloe Anekatalai8 Achyranthes Aspera Rough Chafftree Nayuruvi9 Aconitum Ferox Indian Aconite Vashanavi

10 Aconitum Heterophyllum Indian Atees Ativadayan11 Acorus Calamus Sweet Flag Vasambu12 Adhatoda Vasika Malabar Nut Adhatodai13 Adiantum Capillus-Veneris Maiden-Hair Fern Hansraj14 Adina Cordifulia - Manja - Kadambe15 Aegle Marmelos Bael Fruit Vilvam16 Aerua Lanata - Sirupulayur17 Agaricus Campestris - Naikoddai18 Aglalia Roxburghiana - Priyangu19 Ailantus Malabarica - Mattipal20 Aloe Littoracis Small Aloe Musambaram21 Aloe Vera - Kattalai22 Alpinia Chinensis Lesser Galangal Chitharathai23 Alpinia Galanga Galangal Perarathai24 Althaea Officinalis Marsh Mallow Tukme Kitmee25 Amarantus Gangeticus - Thandukkirai26 Amarantus Viridis - Kuppaikkirai27 Amomum Sublatum Ceylon Cardomum Periyayelaky28 Anacylus Pyrethrum Pellitory Akkirakaram29 Andrographis Paniculata The Creat Nilavembu30 Andropogon Muricatus Cuscus Grass Vettiver31 Anisochilus Carnosus Thick-leaved Lavender Karpooravalli32 Anthemis Nobicis Chamomile Babuna33 Apium Graveolens Celery Ajmoda34 Argyreia Malabarica - Paymoostey35 Argyreia Speciosa Elephant Creeper Samudra Pachai36 Aristolochia Barcteata Worm-Killer Adu-Tinna-Palai37 Artanema Sesamoides - Neermulli38 Asparagus Adscendens - Tannirvitan Kilangu39 Asparagus Racemosus - Shatavari40 Atylosia Barabata Mashaparni Peruidukol41 Baliospermum Axillare - Adavi-Amudan42 Balsamodendron Mukul Salaitree, Gu-Gugul Gukkulu43 Balsamodendron Roxburghi - Kumuda44 Bambusa Arundinacea Bamboo Moongilarisi45 Barringtonia Racemosa - Samutra Palam46 Basella Alba Indian Spinach Pachalai47 Bassia Longifolia Mohua Illupai48 Benincasa Cerifera White Gourd Melon Kalyan-Pooshini49 Berberis Aristata Indian Barberry Mara Manjal50 Bergera Koenigii Curry Leaf Karuveppilai51 Betula Bhojapattra - Bhuja Palva52 Bixa Orrellana Anotta Seed Jaffra Vedai53 Blepharis Edulis - Utanjan54 Boerhaavia Diffusa Sperading Hog-Weed Mukkaratai55 Bombax Malabaricum Silk Cotton Tree Elevam56 Boswellia Glabra Indian Olibanum Mani Kundrikam57 Brassica Alba White Mustard Vendadugu58 Brassica Campestris Rape Seed Kadugu59 Brassica Nigra Black Mustard Kadugu60 Brunella Valgaris Lavender Flower Ustukhudus61 Bryonia Epigoes Bryoms Akashakarudan62 Bryonia Seabra - Musumusukkai63 Butea Frondosa Bastard Teak Murkampoo64 Butea Superba - Kadimumukan65 Caccinia Glauca - Gaozaban66 Caesalpinia Bonduc Molucca Bean Kazhar-Shikkay67 Caesalpinia Bunducella - Gajakay

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136 Hydrocotyle Asiatic Indian Pennywort -137 Hygrophica Spinosa - Nirmulli138 Hyoscyamus Niger Henbena Kurarani Omam139 Illicium Verum Hook Star Aniseeds Anasipoo140 Impatiens Balsamina - Terada141 Impomoea Hederaceae Pharbitis Kodikakkatan142 Indigofera Aspalathoides - Siva-Narvaymbu143 Indigofera Tincoturia Trueindigo Neeliouri144 Ipomoea Digitata Bidarkand Vellai Kilangu145 Ipomoea Turpethum Turpeth Root / Indian Jalap Shivadai146 Jasminum Angustiflolium - Kattu Malli147 Juglans Regia Walnut Akrottu148 Kaempferia Galanga - Kachhola Kilangu149 Kyllinga Monocephala - Nirbishi150 Lallemantia Royleana - Tukme - Balunga151 Lavandula Stoechas Arabian or French Lavender Dharu, Alaphajana Dharu152 Lawsonia Alba Henna Maruthonri153 Lepidium Sativum Cress Alivirai154 Lippia Nodiflora - Poduthuvalai155 Litsea Sebifera - Maida-Lakti156 Macrotomia Benthami - Gaozaban157 Matricaria Chamumice - Babuna158 Matthiolaincana - Todri Safeed159 Melia Azadirachta Neem Vembu160 Melissa Paruiflora - Badurangboya161 Mesua Ferrea Cobras Saffron Sirunaga Poo162 Mimosa Pudica Senitive Plant Thotta Suringi163 Mimusopa Elengi - Magudampoo164 Mollugo Cerviana - Parpadgam165 Mollugu Lerviano - -166 Momordica Charantia Bitter Gourd Pavakka-Chedi167 Morindia Citrifolia Indian Mulberry Nuna168 Moringa Oleifera Drumstick Seed Murangai Vidhai169 Morus Nigra Mulberry Shetuta170 Mucuna Pruriens Cowhage or Cowitch Plant Poonaikkali171 Murraya Koenigll - Karuveppallai172 Myrica Nagi Bay Berry, Box Myetle Marudam Pattai173 Myristica Fragrans Nutmeg Jathikay174 Myristica Malabarica Bombay Mace Rampatri175 Myrtus Caryophyllus Cloves Kirambu176 Nardostachys Jatamansi Musk Root Jatamashi177 Nereta Ciliaris - Zufa178 Nigella Sativa Small Fennel or Black Cumin Karunjeeragam179 Nymdhaea Lotus - Lilly180 Ocimum Album - Ganjankorai181 Ocimum Basilicum Sweet Basil Tiruniru Pachai182 Ocimum Sanctum Holy Basil Tulasi183 Oldenlandia Corymbosa Two-Flowered, Indian Madder Parpadagam184 Onujma Bracteatum - Gauzhban185 Origanum Majorana Wild Marjoram Maruvamu186 Osbeckia Cupularis - Chirkualathi187 Parmelia Perlata Stone Flower Kalpasi188 Pavonia Zeylanica - Chitta Mutti189 Pedalium Murex - Peru-Nerinjal190 Pedalium Murey Pau Neurnji191 Peganum Harmala Syrian Rue Shimai-Azha-Vanai-Virai192 Permina Integrifolia - Munnay193 Petruselinum Satiucm Parsley -194 Peucedanum Graveolens Dill Sadakuppi195 Phaseolus Royburghi Black Gram Ulundu196 Phoenix Dactylifera Edible Date Perichchangayi197 Phyllanthus Niruri - Kizhkay Nelli198 Physalis Minima Cape Gooseberry Siruthakkali199 Picrorrhiza Kurrooa - Katukarogani200 Pimpinella Anisum Anise, Sweet Fennel, Aniseed Shombu201 Piper Alum White Pepper Vella Milagu202 Piper Chaba - Chavyam

203 Piper Longum Long-Pepper Thipplee204 Piper Nigrum Black Pepper Milagu205 Pistacia Lentiscus Mastiche Tree Rumi Mastaki206 Pistia Stranotes Tropical Duck Weed Akasa Thamarai207 Plantago Ispagula Ispaghula, Isapgol Seeds Ishappukolvirai208 Plumbago Rosea Rose Coloured Lead Wort Shivappu Chittramulam209 Pongamia Glabra Indian Beech Pungamaram210 Premna Herbacea - Siruthekku211 Prunus Mahaleb - Priyangu212 Psidium Guyava Guava Goyyapazham213 Psoralea Coryifolia Babchi Seeds Karpokarishi214 Ptychotis Ajowan Bishops Weed Omam215 Pueraria Tuberosa - Bidarikand216 Punica Granatum Pomogranite Madulam217 Putranjiva Roxburghi - Karupali218 Pyrus Cydonia Quince Shimai-Madalaivirai219 Quercus Infectoria Oak Null, Magic Nut Machakai220 Randia Dumtorum Emetic Nut Marukkallan-Kai221 Raphanus Sativus Radish Mullangi222 Rauwolfia Serpentina Sarpagandha Chivan Melpodi223 Rheum Emodi Himalayan or Indian Rhubarb Variyattu224 Rhus Succedanea Galls Karkada Singi225 Ricinus Communis Castor Oil Plant Amanakku226 Rosa Damascena Damask or Persian Rose Rojappu, Golappu227 Rubia Cordifolia Indian Madder Manditta, Manjitti228 Ruta Graveolens Garden Rue Arvada229 Salacia Reticulata - Koranti230 Semecarpus Anacardium Marking Nut Tree Shenkottai231 Smilax China China Root Parnagichekkai232 Solanum Jacquinii Wild Eggs Plant, Bitter Sweet Kandan Kattari233 Solanum Nigrum - Manathakkali234 Solanum Trilobatum - Thuthulai, Tudavullay235 Spermacoce Hispida Shaggy Putton Weed Nutti Choorie, Narrai-Churi236 Sphaeranthus Hirtus Eastindian Globe K Vishukrianthi237 Spilanthes Oleracea - Akalkem238 Sterculia Foetida - Penai Mavum239 Strax Benzoin - Sambirani240 Strychnos Nux-Vomica Nux-Vomica, Poison Nut, Quaker Yetti-Kottai241 Strychnos Potatorum Clearing Nut Tree Tetan-Kottai242 Sulanum Trilobtum - Thuthuvalai243 Swertia Chirata - Nilavembu244 Swertia Decussata - Shilajetu245 Symplocos Racemosa Lodh Tree Lodhrapattai246 Tabernaemontana Coronaris - Nandhiavattan247 Taraktogenos Kurzii - Niradimuthu248 Taxus Baccata Himalayan Yew Talispatri249 Terminalia Belerica Beleric Myrobalans Tanrik-Kay250 Terminalia Chebula Myrobalan Kadukay251 Tinospora Cordifulia - Shindilkodi252 Toddalia Aculeata - Milagaranai253 Toddalia Bilocularis - Devadaru254 Trachydium Lehmanni - Shekakul255 Trichosanthes Cucumerina - Pudel, Kattup-Pepudal256 Trigonella Foenum Graeceum Fenugreek Vendayam257 Valeriana Officinalis True Valerian Asaroon258 Vateria Indica White Dammer Tree Vellai-Kungiliyam259 Vernonia Anthelmintica Purple Fleabane Kattu Shiragam260 Lochnera Rosea Aharanthus Roseus Nithia Kalyani261 Viola Odorata Wild Violet Vayilethe, Vayilettu262 Viola Serpens - Banafsha263 Vitiex Negundo Five Leaved Charti Tree Nochi264 Vitis Vinifera Grapes Draksha265 Withanis Somnifetra Winter Cherry Amukkuram266 Woodfordia Floribunda - Dhathiripoo267 Wrightia Tinctoria Sweet Indrajao Veppal Arisi268 Zingiber Officinale Dry Ginger Sukku269 Zizyphus Vulgaris Jujub Berries Unnab270 Myristica Fragrans Nutmace Jathipathri

Courtesy: R.N. Rajan & Co., Exporter, Importer and Pharmaceutical Supplier of Herbs #1, Kumarappa Maistry Street, Chennai - 1

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P rint culture and oral temple tales of the past century have largely been responsible for shifting the Siddhas from the most peripheralcrevices of Tamil religious imagination into thelimelight of a nationalistic religious awareness.1Local television programming offers the convenienceof a daily consultation with Tamil Siddha doctors inthe comfort of ones living room. A growing numberof temples now seem to have taken on their tokenSiddha tomb to celebrate the ever-imminent return ofthe deathless ones. In the modern imagination theSiddhas offer an ancient spiritual science for amodern secular world, a technology of the ancestorsto surpass that offered on the neo-colonial globalmarket. But is there some coherent theocraticintegration beyond the vogue of pop-parlor speechand name-dropping the words Tamil Siddha as akind of magic invocation of cultural authenticity?

The Tamil Siddhas have no central authority orunifying doctrine. Though there are innumerabletexts claiming to represent some nebulous TamilSiddha tradition, there is no single philosophicalorientation propounded in their works. Rather,innumerable philosophical threads are stretched,interwoven and unwoven again in a phantasmagorictapestry of subjectivities, as all the while tantralooms large in the background as the loom on whichthe tapestry is woven. So while frustrating allattempts to attribute to them a cogent cosmologicaltheory, there is a kind of buoyant, free-floatingquality to their processes of relating to life and thegreater universe. This takes the form of anunapologetic celebration of the immediacy ofsubjective experience and the fluid application of avariety of mutually exclusive philosophicalviewpoints all simultaneously arrayed before thereader.

This brief introduction presents, an albeit,simplistic survey of some of the major thematicelements that the Tamil Siddhas emphasise andinvariably reinscribe with their own unique visionaryexegesis. It is in this context that this paper touchesupon the irreconcilable social conflict that has ragedoutside the Tamil Siddhas and the perpetual roletheir imaginative process takes in reconciling theconflict the rages within.

The Tamil Siddhas remain an ill-defined,incongruous body of religious specialists found inthe southern part of India whose origins can be onlytenuously traced back to the seventh or eighthcentury. Here they form a distinctive part of a larger

movement that spread throughout South Asia, fromSri Lanka in the South to Tibet in the north, betweenthe seventh and eleventh centuries. Hindu,Buddhist, and Jain Siddhas everywhere share certaincommonalties mostly in the realm of (subtle) bodyimage, transmutational wonder tales, and physicaland mental manipulations of yogic savvy. A ll ofthem are part of a pan-Indian tantric yogamovement which Eliade described as formulatingover a five hundred year period (between seventhand eleventh centuries), but fully flowering onlyafter twelfth century.2

Within the South Asian literary context the nameSiddha originally denoted one of the eighteencategories of celestial beings. These beings of semi-divine status were said to be of great purity and theirdwelling was thought to be in the sky between theearth and the sun. Later they became associated witha class of more adept human being, often anaccomplished yogi. The term had been derived fromthe Sanskrit root sidh meaning fulfilment or achievement, so the noun came to refer to onewho had attained perfection. Because the Tamil

language lacks the aspirated consonants of Sanskritso the word has been written and pronounced bythe Tamils as cittar. This has led the Tamils toassociate the word more with the Sanskrit term cit,meaning consciousness. 3

This appellation is evident even in the Shaivitedevotionals known as the Tevaram hymns of the sixthand seventh centuries that would later become partof the Saiva Siddhanta canon. Here the term isapplied not only to one of the 18 categories of divinebeings but also to God Shiva himself, who is a cittar because the very nature of God isconsciousness. Likewise, it describes the devotee asalso being a cittar since his consciousness is alwaysimmersed in the divine presence. By the twelfth tothirteenth century the term has taken on new

Layne Little is a Fulbright scholar and doctoral candidate in theSouth Asian Studies Department at the University of California,Berkeley. The author can be contacted at anjaneya11@yahoo.com

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TAMIL SIDDHAS:

TANTRA, ALCHEMY, POETICS AND HERESY

WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF WIDER TAMIL SHAIVA WORLD

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meaning as we learn from the writings ofPerumparrapuliyar Nambi who describes the GodShiva as the cittar alchemist who is working strangemiracles in the city of Madurai.4

Essentially though, the term siddha or cittarhas the same connotations as it does when referringto the 84 Siddhas of Vajrayana Buddhism, the NathaSiddhas of North India, or the medieval alchemistsknown as the Rasa Siddhas. It is a movement bornof a synthesis of Vajrayana Buddhism, ShaiviteTantrism, Indian Alchemy, magic, and the HathaYoga and Pranayama disciplines expounded by theascetic saint Goraknath. A lthough, in the presentera, the term is often applied to any form ofunorthodox mystic or saint. And certainly the termhas a newfound currency amongst (usually non-Brahmin) Tamil religious organisations and templeinstitutions, as well as the pop-culture yogainstitutions flourishing in the west.

A perplexing aspect of the Tamil Siddha cult isthat the text which is identified as the root text of itstradition had been also amended to the orthodoxSaiva Siddhanta canon (Tirumurai) to give theSiddhantins a philosophical orientation that couldhold up against the Sri Vaisnavas Vashishtadvaitadoctrine of Ramanuja. Though difficult to measurethe full extent of interpolation that the text hasundergone to make it more form-fitting for theconservative sectarian context, the Tirumantiram (7 -8th century AD) maintains a significant number ofreferences that are unmistakably well rooted in thiswider South Asian Tantra/Siddha complex.

Both sectarian groups emphasized differentaspects of the teaching and could spin a theologicalline that became more and more widely divergent.The Siddhas would be scoffing at temple worship,reliance upon Brahminical authority, andproclaiming the injustice of caste; while the SaivaSiddhantins would berate the Siddhas much asM. Srinivasa Iyangar did in 1914 when he wrote thatthe Siddhas are mostly plagiarists and impostorsand in addition, Being eaters of opium & dwellersin the land of dreams, their conceit knew nobounds . At times the Siddhantins have evenengaged in an organised effort to eliminate theSiddhar faction. For example, one movement,observed in the latter half of the nineteenth century,systematically sought out any copy of the writings ofthe heretical Siddha-poet Sivavakkiyar, and promptlydestroyed them.

The rift between the two orders may have beenrooted in the Saiva/Shakta dichotomy that conflatedgender conflict to cosmic proportions. Many of theSiddhas propitiate Shakti or the creative potency ofthe primordial essence while Shiva is elevated to a( no-where ) position of absolute abstraction, as heis worshipped as vetta veli or vast space. Thegoddess alone is envisioned in her manifestations5hidden both within the shifting tides of externalforms as well as abiding within the body itself. Hereshe can be coaxed and subdued, manipulated anddirected. As the serpent power Kundalini, flowingthrough the subtle body, she can propel theconsciousness of the Siddhar into union with theAbsolute. Though the orthodox Saiva Siddhantinmay content himself with the worship of Shiva in the

temple through the rituals of the priest, the Siddhaplacates the goddess to intercede on his behalf andexpand the consciousness of the Siddha beyond alllimitation, where he may become Shiva himself.Notions, such as this, being fundamental to theTamil Siddha, may have struck the Shaiviteorthodoxy as heretical. But one should not overlookcaste conflict and more terrestrial political dynamics.

Many of the Tamil Siddha compositions whetherdefining philosophical viewpoints, yogic practices, orpresenting alchemical recipes for herbal tinctures and

base metal amalgams areriddled with tantricimagery, references toKundalini, and clues tocontrol the dangerousfeminine power throughbreath manipulation or therecitation of the Goddessssecret names. Because ofthe enigmatic nature of theSiddha imagery, and theirphilosophy often beingstructured in directdefiance of human logic,few scholars have venturedto address the TamilSiddhas and then only asmere curiosities. But itseems that the stylistic

inconsistencies of the Siddha authors may also havesteered scholars away from these works. There arevibrant jewels shining in the rough but even themore popular siddha works are riddled with endlessrepetition, nonsense words that clumsily maintainthe rhyme scheme, and jarring incongruities in thenarrative portions of the texts.

One of the most basic characteristics of Tamilcomposition, and one that is also relevant to Siddhapoetry, is the tendency to layer the work so thateach word or image builds upon the last. Becauseeach component image is presented so as to beviewed autonomously and in relationship bothsequentially and to the totality of the verse, theimages of the poem may appear to some as beingslightly disjointed and contradictory. Though thisseems to undermine the aesthetic quality and over-complicate the simple act of enjoying poetry, theTamil Siddha compositions pattern this imagery toexpound the subtle complexity of their shiftingviewpoint or to map out the terrain of the innerlandscape which is dominated by the dormantserpent energy.

While much of the recent explosion of interest inthe Siddhas centres around modern inventedtraditions offering tenuous ties to the olderestablished Siddha orders, many of these groups didnot come into their own until the 12th century. Andthough the image of a unified succession of TamilSiddha sages is particularly tenuous, Tirumular ispervasively revered in the diverse literary world ofthe Tamil Siddhas. The Saiva Siddhantins hadincluded him as one of the 63 canonised saints ornayanmars, and his work, the Tirumantiram wasposthumously represented by them as fully definingthe Tamil Saiva tradition of the time. This text also

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became the 10th book of the Saiva Siddhanta canon,the Tirumurai. Though it was the one work outliningthe philosophy of the Siddhantins, the sect hasalways had a difficult time fully integrating the manypassages which discuss the worship of the Goddessand the Kundalini Yoga practices so characteristic ofTantrism. On the other hand, the Siddhas haveviewed these same passages as the most critical informulating their esoteric doctrines on the arousal ofthe serpent energy.

As we can see in verse 730, the Siddhantins wereconfronted with the tantric orientation of theirphilosopher Tirumular, when he relates that it is thehuman body itself that is the temple of the GoddessShakti...In Shaktis templeif you controlthe left and the rightyou can hear a lutein the centre of your face.And Shiva will come outdancing sweetly.I swear upon Sada Nandiwe have spoken the truth.

Here Tirumular discusses the basis of KundaliniYoga whereby the breath, carrying one of the vitalairs known as prana, flows into the solar and lunarcurrents which run from the right and left nostrilsdown to the base of the spine and are there broughtinto union. The point of this union is at the rootchakra Muladhara, the first of six chakras or nerveplexuses through which the Kundalini energy willflow. This energy is moved by the union of thesesolar and lunar streams of vital breath that haveentered the central current at Muladhara and willascend upwards through the six chakras, eachcorresponding to a higher and more expansive stateof consciousness. The individual awareness issublimated into divine union at the crown of thehead. It is a kind of inner journey towards theinfinitude of the Divine, but begins only after thetwo streams flow into the central current as we learnfrom verse 801 of the Tirumantiram...Left handRight handBoth hands...Change!He who eatswith the hand of worshipneed not be depleted.The conscious onescapable of abandoning sleepneed not die...

they can live forever.The term used

to denote thehand of worshipis Tutikkai. Tuti is averb meaning toworship, kai isthe noun meaning hand . Together,as Tutikkai, theexpression alsomeans the elephants trunk.This interpretation

is equally viable in that Ganesha, the elephant-headed god of gateways and new beginnings, is saidto reside in the body at the base of the spine, at theroot chakra Muladhara where the two currents flowtogether and enter central current Shashumna.Shashumna is sometimes envisioned as the trunk ofGanesha raised aloft and holding the full-blown lotusof enlightenment, Sahasrara, at the crown of thehead. What is eaten is amrita, conceived of as boththe nectar of spiritual ecstasy and the elixir ofimmortality.

Tantra appears in its more seminal form aroundthe 4th century, but its real beginnings seem to reachback much earlier.6 Elements of tantric thought hadalready pervaded the south by the time of Tirumular,as they had seeped into yogic theory and practice atsome antecedent time and even impacted templeritual and the budding bhakti cults. Tantra was moredeeply rooted in a fluid set of symbolic constructsthan a static enunciation of doctrine. It represents aprofound refinement of the symbol systems ofHindu-Buddhist South Asia. Its emphasis on theexperiential aspects of the individuals religiousexperience collided with the Shaivite orthodoxy likethe Gnostic heresy did with the early ChristianChurch as it sought to establish an internal self-policing system of sanctioning only those subjectiveexperiences that towed the orthodox line.

In an effort to demonstrate that the macrocosm isreflected within the microcosm, Tantra began toemphasise that the universe, in all its totality, iscontained within the body of the individual. Itsuperimposed universal symbols over the humanbody to help demonstrate this relationship. Thespine, along which the shashumna or centralchannel ran, became the cosmic axis. A ll the Godsthat oversaw the mechanism that is this universewere hidden in the lotus centres of the bodyschakras, like blossoms flowering on the vine of thespine. But it was the portly god Ganesha, whoguarded the gate to the inner world. He became apatron of Kundalini yoga in the South and wasinvoked by the female Siddha mendicant Auvaiyar,in this excerpt from her 14th century work VinayagarAgaval. Here she relates how the elephant-headedgod has reconciled the dualistic nature of theuniverse as the various manifestations of Shiva were

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taught to be part of her inner savouring.He has concentrated my mind,clarified my intellect,and said, Light and Darknessshare a common place.He presses me downinto the grace giving ecstasy.In my earhe renders limitless bliss.He has revealed Sada Shivawithin the sound.He has revealed the Shiva Lingamwithin the mind.And he has revealed that...The smaller than the smallest,The larger that the largest,stands within...like ripe sugarcane.

In about 1661, as Aurangzeb set about to expandhis kingdom throughout the subcontinent and freethe land of heretics, he was at the same timeextending his protection to an obscure Hindumonastery in the Punjab. At the time in questionAnand Nath, the abbot of the monastery and aNatha Siddha alchemist, was providing the greatest

Mogal persecutor ofHinduism in history aregular supply of treatedmercury which promisedto confer longevity.7Simultaneously in thedeep south the TamilSiddha alchemist Bhogar,who had supposedlymigrated from China8along with his guruKalangi Nathar, waspurportedly establishing ashrine to the GodMurugan on the top ofPalani Hill.9 It was herethat he is thought to havecomposed his 7000 verseson Kundalini Yoga,alchemy, and Siddha

medicine. By medieval times Indian alchemy hadcome into vogue much like tantra had done almost amillennium earlier. And though the Indianalchemists also sought to develop the chemicalprocesses of transforming base metals into gold as inEurope and the Middle East, they often emphasisedthe pursuit of bodily perfection and the preparationof the elixir of immortality as the Chinese alchemistshad sought. They often viewed their experience ofthe inner processes of Kundalini Yoga as mirroringthe chemical process of the alchemical work.

Nearly a thousand years after Tirumular, Bhogaris still wrestling with the serpent energy, even in themidst of his alchemical operations. Though now, theKundalini is personified as the consort of Ganesha,the Goddess Vallabai...9The green-hued Vallabaiwill become subservientand bow down.She ll tell youthe appropriate time

for the appropriate chakra.If the basis of Muladharais perfected...You can go anywhere,wandering freelythroughout the three worlds.The dull-hued bodywill mellowand shine.All impuritieswill be removedand the six chakraswill become visibleto the eye.The gold-coloured alchemywill heed your every word.In the Sleepless Sleepall subtletycan be perceived.Look and see.

In a particularly odd verse of Bhogar, we findhim describing a visionary experience involving theingestion of an unidentified substance and thewearing of mercurial amalgams.80 Bhogars Leap Into the UniverseAs the Principle of Intelligence itselfI leapt into the cosmos.Shiva clearly elucidatedthe nature of this universe.For the sake of all beingsthere is a paththat becomes a vehiclefor the five senses.The universe that appeared before mewas arranged in layers.Grandfather (Tirumular) said, Enter the tenth one.I took what was given me10and put it in my mouth.And a bunchof mercurial amalgamsI tied onto my wrist.Off I went.Entering the universeof fire and light.

Consciousness was seen to ride the vehicle ofbreath into union with the absolute in the SahasraraChakra at the top of the head. The Siddha could,through the intercession of the Goddess, placated bymanipulation of the breath, expand consciousness tothe point where it becomes what is called the MahaCitta or Great Awareness which is the God Shivahimself. Here is one of the closing verses of Bhogarsdiscussion of Kundalini Yoga94Invite the breath,the outer space,to come within your house.If you are unwavering,placing it thereas though you wereputting oil in a lamp,...They shall meet.Breath and Godbecoming one.Like wind becoming breaththere is no individual intelligence.The Great Awareness becomes Siva.He and breathmerge into one.

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It is this light becoming breaththat redeems the soul.Surely this is the truthof Siva Yoga!

In the last century the poet-saint Ramaligar hadmuch to do with bridging the Siddha-Saiva gap andmaking the Siddhas more palatable to themainstream Tamil religious world.11 Ramalingar wasborn in 1823 near Chidambaram, arguably thegreatest of all Saivite temples. Naturally, theheretical nature of his teaching and the growingnumber of his disciples caused the protest of templeofficials and a variety of Saiva Siddhanta institutionsthroughout the region. Eventually they were forcedto call in Arumuga Navalar from Jaffna to put an endto Ramalingar. As a Tamil scholar and Saivite

authority, theorthodox religiousleaders throughoutthe area, wereconfident that hecould expose thefallacy ofRamalingars teachingand defrock theheretical saint.Arumuga quickly setabout organisingpublic meetings toprovide a platform onwhich to abuseRamalingar and a

horde of pamphlets were circulated issuing publicwarning about this dangerous little man. Eventuallythough, Arumuga was forced to take legal action andfiled a suit against the saint. The gentle Ramalingarwas dragged into court, but eloquently speaking inhis own defense, easily won the case.

The nature of Ramalingars heresy is found to beall the more insidious when we learn that he alsocherished and called his own the devotional hymnsof Saiva Siddhanta saints other than Tirumular. Oneof these, sometimes hailed as the 64th nayanmar, wasManikkavasagar, who had a profound influence onRamalingar and Siddha devotionalism in general.Manikkavasagars name means He whos utterancesare rubies and in the 9th century he beautifullywrote this mini creation myth in flowing verse...Becoming sky and earth,Wind and lightBecoming flesh and spirit,A ll that truly isand all that which is notBecoming the LordHe makes those who say, I and mineDance in the show.Becoming sky,and standing there...How can Ipraise Him?

In this final work of Ramalingar, we see adifferent side of the heretical Siddhas. Not theenigmatic ramblings or harsh riddles of the ascetic,but a tender ode, that views the Siddhas experienceof union as the distilled essence of lifes sweetness.

In this poem Ramalingar praises Manikkavasagar andweaves his verse with a complex echoing of sound ashe speaks again and again of the sweetness of hismystic absorption experienced when hearing thepoetry of the saint. This fervent merging, savouredby the ecstatic Ramalingar is described with theadverbial participle kalantha, from the verb root kalameaning to flow together , to make as one , as italso denotes a sexual union.One with sky Manikkavasagar,your words...One with me when I singNectar of sugarcaneOne with honeyOne with milkand one with the sweetnessof the fertile fruitOne with my fleshOne with my soulInsatiableis that sweetness!

Although Ramalingars hymns were penned inpraise of the God Siva, they were often addressed toa feminine audience with unqualified personaldesignations such as Amma or Akka , Mother orSister . Perhaps indicating that the hymn was meantfor an internal, intimate and distinctly feminine forcethat could propel the invocation along the properchannels of the inner cosmos, towards Sivas secretabode.

The fact that his songs began to be sung in theschools, villages and even the temples of 19th centuryChennai, began to outrage the orthodox SaivaSiddhantins in the area. He, as with manyoutspoken Tamil Siddhas, was somewhaticonoclastic, not adequately deferential to temple orBrahminical tradition. He did not perpetuate thetraditional modes of linga worship. Forgoing theobjectified image by capturing the subjective gazeitself, he perpetrated the greatest of heresies byblatantly revealing the true face of God veiled withinvolumes of tantric lore. At the shrine he establishedat Vadalur, behind the curtain that housed the holyof holies, he established a single flames light toilluminate a mirror that would reflect the image ofthe worshipper as the secret face of god and finalmystery of the Tamil Siddhas.

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Notes1. This introduction to the Tamil Siddhas was written

nearly ten years ago and reflects many of themisconceptions surrounding the siddhas that were popularat the time. A lso its circulation on the internet surelyadded to over simplifying the subject with faults that areentirely my own. Ive tried to briefly rectify the overtlyerroneous statements that I had made and have attemptedto elaborate on some of the more reductionistic portions ofthis work.

2. Most of the Tamil Siddha works popular today werewritten only in the last two centuries. A significantpercentage of works purported to be rediscovered aremodern forgeries.

3. R. Venkataraman, 1990: 1, 2.4. Ibid.: 3. See the Tiruvilaiyadal sections 13, 42 & 45.5. As Manonmani, Valai, Vallabai, Parai, Parapparai, etc.6. Some see the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad as containing

enough of the key elements of tantric cosmology to representthe earliest strain of a definitive Tantric tradition completewith the hitta functioning as a proto- shashumna nadi,anticipating the more elaborate kundalini system to come.

7. David Gordon White, 1996: 1, 9.8. Bhogars 7000 tells of his repeated visits to China but

does not provide even a single cultural detail thatdemonstrates he has any first hand knowledge of theregion, its customs, etc. Now in popular secondarysources on the Tamil Siddhas the China origin of Bhogar isstrongly refuted with the characteristic nationalistic fervourof the present day.

9. Bhogar makes no mention of Palani in his 7000 andhas always been associated in the Tamil Siddha literaturewith Sathuragiri mountain. Further, the Palanitalapuranam(the Mythic History of Palani) makes no mention of itssupposed founder (though it does make passing referenceto Gorakhnath).

10. Presumably he is referring to one of his gulikais, apill often made of treaded mercury in solid form.

11. Another notable entry into the modern literarysphere comes when freedom-fighting poet, SubramaniyaBharathi, called himself a cittar, invoking a religious-revolutionary persona that was intrinsically Tamil.

ReferencesEliade, Mircea, 1969. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.

Princeton: Bollingen.Francis, T. Dayanandan, 1990. The Mission and Message of

Ramalinga Swamy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.Little, Layne, 1994. Shaking the Tree: Kundalini Yoga,

Spiritual Alchemy, and the Mysteries of the Breath inBhogars 7000. Available also at http://www.levity.com/alchemy/...

Venkataraman, R., 1990. A History of the Tamil Siddha Cult.Madurai: Ennes Publications.

White, David Gordon, 1996.The Alchemical Body: SiddhaTraditions in Medieval India. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Zvelebil, Kamil V., 1973. The Poets of the Powers. London:Rider.

1975. Tamil Literature. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O T H E T A M I L S I D D H A S

S.Vedavathy is President of Herbal Folklore Research Centre atTirupati. The author can be contacted at vedavathy@hotmail.com

FOLK MEDICINAL WISDOM OF

CHITTOOR DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH

S. Vedavathy

S ome of the folk medicinal treasures found in Chittoor district in Andhra Pradhesh are given here:Tagubothulaku Natu Mandu (Psidium gujava) -Myrtaceae (Medicine for alcohol addic