an investigation of the effect of store design on consumer purchasing behavior in retail stores

7/27/2019 An Investigation of the Effect of Store Design on Consumer Purchasing Behavior in Retail Stores

1/35

An investigation of the effect of store design on consumer purchasing behavior in retail

stores

CONTENTS

Executive summary. 3

1. Introduction.. 42. Bibliography review. 6

2.1Defining the concepts 62.2The Mehrabian-Russell Model (M-R Model) 92.3 Indicative studies that are based on theoretical models 102.4The influence ofthe atmospherics of the shop. 152.5The influence of specific atmospheric elements of the shop.. 24

2.5.1 Music..252.5.2 Scents.292.5.3 Lighting.332.5.4 The architecture of the space..34

2.6The influence of colour.372.6.1 The influence of colour on the human body.412.6.2 The influence of colour on the human psychology..422.6.3 The influence of the colour of the packaging..442.6.4 The influence of colour in the shop.48

3. Research Methodology523.1The aim of the research.523.2Statement of research hypotheses.533.3Specimen collection..543.4Data collection553.5Designing the survey.55

4. Research results and analysis574.1The cosmetics market..574.2The influence of colour in the shop594.3The influence of the colour of the packaging.65

5. ConclusionsSuggestions.725.1Conclusions..725.2Practical implications of marketing.73

5.2.1 Implication for the retailer.735.2.2 Implications for the product manager.........75

5.3LimitationsSuggestions for future research76Bibliography.78

Attachments.90


2/35

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The present dissertation refers to the influence that the shop environment has on the

purchasing behavior of the consumer. The theoretical background on which this research is

based on consists of experiential research, laboratory experiments and field research, that

has been published in international scientific journals.

The purpose of this research focuses on the influence of colour on the emotional and

behavioural responses of the consumer within the store. Research was carried out in the

cosmetics domain, whereas the population specimen was limited to female consumers.

Surveys accompanied by visuals were used for the selection of data.

The results of the research lead us to the conclusion that different colours do have a

profound influence on the emotional state of the consumers in the shop and this, in turn,

influences the time that they spend in it, and their desire to approach and examine the

products and it also affects their intention to make purchases. Furthermore, this sameresearch proves that the colour of the packaging of the products influences their image as it

is perceived by the consumer.

The results of this research can be applied in both retail and wholesale marketing, since they

are a useful tool that assists the manager in building the image of the product or his shop

and thus allows him to achieve an increase in sales and acquire a larger portion of the

market.

1. INRODUCTIONContemporary retail shops have proven to be an ideal domain for the application of the

science of marketing, due to the immediacy to the final purchaser. Nowadays, retail shops

are playing a more and more important role in the purchasing behaviour of the consumer

not only in the distribution but in the general placement and promotion of the different

brand names. As a result, a large percentage of the sales of goods is due to marketing

policies that are implemented in the shops that have been designed by the manufacturers or

the retailers themselves.

Within the framework of retail marketing, a highly interesting domain is that ofatmospherics (the lighting, the colours, the architecture of the space, temperature,

backround music, scents) affect the purchasing behaviour in the shop. According to

research that has been published, these elements may have a positive or negative effect on

the attraction of customers and the realization of purchases from the specific shop. So it is

becoming more and more common to see managers resorting to atmospherics as a means

of increasing their customers.

This dissertation focuses on colours as a significant element of the atmosphere of cosmetics

shops and investigates its influence on consumer behaviour. The findings of this research

provide us with useful information regarding the colour preferences of consumers incosmetics shops, defining the emotions and responses that different colour product displays


3/35

have on customers. The desire of the consumers to approach specific areas of a shop, the

time spent in these, and their purchasing intentions are some of the variables that are

examined in the framework of this research. An extension of this research regards the

colour of the packaging of the product and the way it influences the image as it is perceived

by the consumers.

The goal of this research is to reach conclusions which will compel industrial companies as

well as merchants to pay attention to the positioning of their products and their shops. The

retailer, on his part, by studying the characteristics of his target market and the type of

products, can create the appropriate atmosphere in his shop, projecting to his consumers a

specific retail image, while the manufacturer may choose to make his products available

through those retail shops, where the atmosphere and the clientele match the image of the

product.

Regarding the layout of this dissertation, it consists of five chapters. Initially, a

recapitulation of relative articles which have been published in scientific journals is

considered to be useful. Then, the methodology which was used for the creation and

carrying out the research follows. Furthermore, there is an analytical presentation of the

findings. Finally, there is a summary of the findings of the research and a statement of their

implications on marketing of manufacturing and retail companies.

2. BIBLIOGRAPHY REVIEWIn international bibliography we can encounter an abundance of research articles concerning

the effect of atmospherics on the purchasing behaviour of the consumer. A significant part

of this research deals with the general influence that the atmosphere has on customer

behaviour. In fact, some researchers have made an effort to examine to what extent the

environmental psychology model of Mehrabian - Russell (1974) can be implemented on the

microenvironment of a retail shop. On the other hand, other researchers focus on specific

aspects of the shop atmosphere, like colour, music, lighting and scents.

Following, there is an inclusive recapitulation of studies that have been published in

international scientific journals. First though the concepts used must be defined.

2.1DEFINING THE CONCEPTSThe concept of atmospherics was first mentioned by Kotler (1973), who defines the

atmosphere of the shop as the deliberate designing of the areas of the shop so as to create

certain influences on the buyers.


4/35

Especially for the customer service, Biner (1992) suggests the use of the term service

scape, which is used to describe the style and the appearance of the area where the

interaction of the staff with the clients takes place.

The atmosphere is a property of the surrounding area and it is perceived from people

through the visual, aural, olfactory and tactile senses. So Kotler (1973-1974) created the

following dimensions of shop atmospherics:

Visual dimension: colour, lighting/brightness, size, shape Aural dimension: volume, tone Olfactory dimension: scent, freshness Tactile dimension: softness, smoothness, temperature

The atmosphere of a retail shop is part of the total product or service that the customer

purchases. More specifically, the suitable designing of the shop atmosphere is considered to

be a useful tool that can be used against the competition, especially when the competition isfierce and increasing, the differences in the marketing mix (line of offered products, price

and promotional actions) are marginal and the introduction of goods to the market are

targeted at different segments of the population, from different social classes and different

lifestyles.

The different elements which compose the shop atmosphere can influence the purchasing

behaviour of the consumer in different ways. Thus the atmosphere can sometimes operate

as a mean of attracting the customers attention and at other times it can be used to get

across messages concerning the image of the shop and it can also create certain emotionally

moving situations. In other words, the atmosphere plays the role of a special occasionalfactor (Belk, 1975), which contributes to the transformation of buying intention into

expressed purchasing behaviour.

The role of the shop atmosphere acquires great significance in the framework of marketing

services (Hoffman et al., 2002). The characteristics of servicescape influence the decision

making process of the buyers, such as repurchasing, consumption and assessment of the

services after the purchase. The atmospherics of a shop in customer services are an

indicator of the high quality of the offered services, minimizing the danger that is associated

with the specific market. Furthermore they facilitate the interaction and transactions

between the staff and the customers and they contribute to the provision of homogenizedservices, with the goal of customer satisfaction.

Generally, the term atmospherics refers to all the normal and non-normal characteristics of

the interior of a shop which can be altered by the retailer, with the ultimate goal to

manipulate the purchasing behaviour of the consumer in such a way, so as to accommodate

his best interest (Eroglu & Machleit, 1989). Some of those characteristics are the colour, the

music, the scents, the lighting, the staff, the architecture of the space and the interior

design.


5/35

Chart 2.1-1

Total presentation of shop atmospheric elements

External Environment

External signsEntrances

Shop windows

Size of the building

Colour of the building

Neighbouring shops

Shop location

Architectural style

Characteristics of the

surrounding area

External walls

Interior Decorating

Displays (POP material)

Signs and symbols

Wall decoration

Works of Art

Source: Turley & Milliman (2000), p.194

2.2THE MEHRABIAN-RUSSELL MODEL (M-R Model)The Mehrabian Russel environmental psychology model (Figure 2.2-1) is based on the

Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm which shows how an environmental stimulus can

cause the response of an organism.

According to M-R Model, the behaviour of a person in an environment can be expressed

either with approach or avoidance. The approach behaviour is expressed by the desire of a

person to approach, to prolong his stay, to wander, to explore, to interact or to return to this

particular place in the future. On the contrary, the avoidance behaviour is expressed with

reduced performance, feelings of stress and boredom, lack of friendliness and desire to

distance ones self from such an environment.

These behaviours are results of the emotional situations that a person experiences in a

particular environment. According to the M-R Model, all the emotional situations can be

expressed as a combination of two basic dimensions- pleasure and arousal- without the third

dimension, that of dominance being necessary as Russell and Pratt (1980) supported later

on.

Layout of Interior

Design and allocation of given

space

Positioning of products

Grouping of products

Additions and shelves

Installation of equipment

Positioning of cash registers

Waiting areas

Layout of departments

Circulation flow and queues

Furnishings

General Interior

Floors and carpetingColours

Lighting

Music

Scents

Walls and wall paper

Ceilings

Merchandise

Temperature

The human factor

Characteristics and appearance

of staff

Large crowds

Characteristics of customers


6/35

Environmental

stimulus

The concept of pleasure refers to the degree that a person is possessed by positive emotions

in a given environment, such as happiness, contentment and satisfaction. The concept of

arousal is associated with the excitement, awareness and encouragement for action that is

provoked by the conditions around him. Satisfaction and arousal interact in such a way that

supports the approach behaviour in a pleasant environment and the avoidance behaviour

when the environment is unpleasant.

Each emotional state of the person is provoked by the different environmental stimuli that

he is exposed to in a particular environment. Due to the deluge of stimuli and the difficulty

in organizing them in an orderly way, Mahrabian and Russell used the term information

load. In order to describe the degree of being new, the term novelty was used and finally

the term complexity refers to how complicated the environment is. The concept of

novelty involves the unexpected, the new, the amazing, and the unfamiliar. On the other

hand, a complex environment is characterized by a large number of characteristics, as well

as a high degree of mobility and change.

The information load of an environment is positively associated with the degree of arousal

that it provokes. However the response of each person to the stimuli of the environment

depends on the unique way in which the particular person responds to the perception of

external stimuli. Thus, people who have the tendency to filter the stimuli that they receive

and to choose the most significant ones are not easily distracted by an original and/or

complex environment.

Figure 2.2-1

The original Mehrabian Russell Model

(S) (O) (R)

Source: Tai and Fung (1997), p. 315

2.3 INDICATIVE RESEARCH THAT IS BASED ON THEORETICAL MODELSDonovan & Rossiter (1982) wanted to prove that the theoretical M-R model can constitute a

useful tool for the study of consumer behaviour in the retail shop. The goal of their their

research was to define the degree at which the consumers responses in a shop can be

predicted from the emotions that are provoked in the particular environment.

Emotional states

Pleasure - arousal

Behaviour:

Approach or avoidance


7/35

The selection of data was made using a survey: the participants were called upon to define

their emotional situation while they were in a central area of the shop and to express their

intentions regarding their behaviour in the shop.

The results of the survey confirmed that the various emotions that the consumers

experience in a shop can be narrowed down to two basic concepts of pleasure and

dissatisfaction and on arousal-containment. These emotional states affect the

intention for expression of behaviours approaching, or avoiding, which are

expressed in a shop with the time that the customer devotes to browsing in the

shop, the tendency to spend more money than he had originally planned to spend,

his willingness to talk to the staff, the pleasure that he derives from the realization

of his purchases and the possibility of visiting the premises again in the future.

In particular, the survey showed that a pleasant environment in a shop created in the

consumer the need to spend more money, whereas emotions of excitement and

awareness increase his desire to remain longer in the shop and to come in contact

with the sales staff. However, the challenge of emotional arousal has positive

effects only when the right conditions exist which create pleasant feelings in the

consumer.

Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn and Nesdale (1994), extending the above study, attempted to

examine the formation of the customers emotional situation during their visit to the

shop and to record the influence on their actual purchasing behaviour. In fact, the

findings of the study supported the conclusions of Donovan & Rossiter (1982),

stressing that the emotions of the customers of a shop dont only effect their

intentions or attitudes but also their purchasing behaviour. Furthermore, they

reached the conclusion that the emotional factor affects the disposal of more time

and money for making purchases, independently of the cognitive factor (awareness

of quality, price, line of product). It was also proven that the degree of psychological

arousal is negatively associated with the mood that the atmosphere of the shop

creates, when the environment is already considered to be unpleasant (eg. hospital)

to the point where emotional intensity leads to avoidance behaviors.

This is the same conclusion that Wirtz, Mattila and Tan (2000) reached as they introduced a

new variable, the level-target of psychological arousal called target-arousal level,

to interpret the interrelationship between pleasure and emotional intensity to the

degree of satisfaction of a customer service shop. In their study they supported that

the desired intensity level that customers demand depends on the specific service

that is offered. Thus, the ideal environment for a romantic dinner is calm, whereas a

theme park must be exciting. Having customer satisfaction in mind, the researchers

proved that the magnifying influence of arousal on pleasure is in effect only in

environments which require high levels of psychological arousal.

Sherman, Mathur and Smith (1997), in another attempt to investigate the Mehrabian-Russell

Model, turned to consumers, the moment they were exiting the clothes shops,

asking them to assess the emotions that were caused by different variables of the

atmosphere of the shop and to record their true responses. The study proved that


8/35

the human factor (number/ behaviour of staff members) and the designing of the

shop are associated with the customers mood, while the atmosphere is associated

with the degree of psychological arousal. More specifically, the creation of a good

mood has a positive effect on the image of the shop and on spending money, while

high emotional intensity has as a result to prolong the period of time spent in the

shop as well as making more and more expensive purchases.

Moreover, Baker, Grewal and Levy (1992) reached similar conclusions. They used the

experimental method (projection of video clips in the shop interior) to examine the

influence of two environmental factors: (a) atmosphere (lighting and music) and (b)

the human factor (number of staff/ friendliness) on ones mood, the psychological

arousal and the willingness to purchase part of the specimens that are on display.

Among the findings of their study, it is worth mentioning that the good mood of the

interviewees was a result of the interaction between the human factor and the

elements of the atmosphere. That means that a retailer can create the appropriate

conditions for a pleasant shopping experience, by emphasizing only one of the two

factors and maintaining the other at lower levels.

However, Babin and Darden (1995), pointed out that the retailer cannot expect the

atmosphere of his shop to have the same effect on the purchasing behaviour of all his

customers. In their study, they proved that the way that each consumer chooses to move

about within the shop, consumer self-regulation is the term they used, influences the way

he accepts the stimuli of the environment. For example, the shoppers that are influenced by

internal and external factors of the given situation -state oriented shoppers- rarely display a

structured behaviour in the shop and they are vulnerable to different stimuli (Kuhl, 1992).

High intensity stimulation has a greater influence on spending money in the above category

of shoppers as compared to action oriented shoppers who have thought about which

areas of the shop they need to visit and what they want to purchase in advance.

The findings of the Tai & Fung study (1997) are intriguing. They examined the application of

the Mehrabian Russell method in two CD shops in Hong Kong. One of the conclusions they

reached, among others, was that the model isnt that simple as it may seem, since the

relationship between the environmental stimuli and humans is two-way. That means that

the atmosphere of a shop, as the consumer perceives it, has a dynamic character, thus it not

only influences the behaviour of the shopper but is also influenced by the shopper. The

emotional state of the customer makes up the transitional stage in this interdependent

relationship.

Take for instance a shop which offers intense stimuli and as a result enforces the tendency

for exploration and wandering in it. As the shopper explores the shop and observes the

products, he feels greater pleasure, because he satisfies his curiosity. Simultaneously, this

pleasant mood positively influences his perception of the shop and the stimuli that he

receives in it and so the purchases are actually made.

Gilboa and Rafaelli (2003) examined the relationship between two environmental properties

-complexity and order- and emotions as well as the consumer behaviour of consumers in a

shop. Colour photos of different departments of two grocery shops were used to carry out


9/35

this study, after first being assessed for the degree of their complexity. The findings of this

study showed a positive correlation between order/harmony and the tendency of

consumers for approach. From this, it can be inferred that the displeasure experienced by

consumers during their shopping in grocery stores or super-markets may be a result of the

complex layout of the space.

Huffman and Khan (1998) had warned retailers not to make their shops overly complicated,

supporting that the larger selection of products, which aims at creating a competitive

advantage, may create confusion and overload of information in consumers. So instead of

increasing their excitement for making purchases, it is possible to cause delay in selecting a

product or the departure of the consumer from the shop without making any purchases.

Finally, another study worth mentioning is that of Greenland and McGoldrick (1994) who

made an attempt to adjust the indirect effects model in the field of financial services, with

the goal to compare the influence of the interior design in contemporary and traditional

type branches of banks on the opinion and behaviour of the clients. The model they used

differs from the model that Donovan and Rossiter (1982) used because it outlines with

greater clarity the network of influences between the environment of the bank branches

and the desired results on the clients (creation of image for the branch, satisfaction for the

services provided and perceptiveness to the sales techniques). Finally, it is evident that the

modern design of the interior has a positive effect on the emotional state of the customers

and on the assessment of the branch and the offered services.

2.4THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERICS OF A SHOPA large number of researchers have been occupied with the influence of the atmospherics of

a shop on different variables that concern the customer and his purchasing behaviour.

With the aim to facilitate this research, Gardner and Siomkos (1986) dealt with the

development of specific methodical approaches for the effective investigation of the

influence of atmospherics on the cognitive and emotional state of the consumers. As it was

concluded, the simulation of the atmospherics of the shop with the descriptive method

influences the perception and the psychological mood of the consumers, which influences

their purchasing behaviour as well as the opinion they shape as far as the products are

concerned. Moreover, role play and realization of experiments with the participation of a

third person dont seem to act impartially on the measurement of the influence of the

environmental variables.

Darden and Babin (1994) focused on the influence that the interior environment of a shop

has on the emotional state of the customers. They emphasized the importance of the

emotional character apart from the functional for the complete depiction of the

personality of a shop. They also found a high degree of correlation between the

emotional influence and the perception of the customers concerning the natural or

functional characteristics of the shop.


10/35

Just as Russell and Pratt(1980)proved that the type and degree of the emotional influence

that is exerted by the environment depends on the surrounding area, so Darden and Babin

reached the conclusion that every shop has a unique emotional value for the customer.

That means that shoppers are aware of the differences in the emotions that are provoked

when they are in different types of retail shops. It is also stressed that such differences can

be observed between different shops of the same type (e.g. Hondos Center and Sephora).

All in all, their study supports that consumers connect specific emotions with specific shops,

and that influences the opinion they form concerning the shop as well as their purchasing

behaviour. The emotional importance that a customer assigns to a shop combined with its

functional characteristics form the total shop image in the shoppers mind (Martineau,

1958). Especially when the offered product is in the form of services (health services,

educational services, transportation services), the customers have the tendency to base

their opinion of the shop and their expectations for the services provided on the

characteristics of the environment of the shop (Ward, Bitner & Barnes, 1992).

According to Langrehr (1991) the emotional response of a person to the environment of a

shop depends on his personality, the amount of stimuli that he is capable of handling, his

mood before he enters the shop as well as his mood while he is browsing about in it.

Similarly, Grossbart et al. (1990) proved that the environmental predisposition of each

person influences the way in which he responds to the atmospheric elements of the shop.

Machleit and Eroglu (2000) reached the conclusion that consumers experience different

emotions during their shopping when they are in different shops. They found that when

shoppers are in task-oriented environments which means they are in shops where they do

the necessary shopping for the week, the levels of excitement and pleasure are relatively

low. However they didnt clarify whether the negative emotions that are provoked by the

environment of a super-market or discount store are due to the buying conditions (time

pressure, buying routine procedure) or whether it is due to the characteristics of the

atmosphere (intense lighting, loud music, crowded corridors).

They also observed the correlation between the consumers expectations and their

emotional state when the atmosphere of the shop is different from the expectations that

the customers had before they entered it.

In another study regarding the factors that provoke negative emotions in the customers of ashop, Alain d Astous (2000) noticed that the degree of disturbance is associated with the

source that causes it as well as with the demographic characteristics of the consumers.

Specifically, the results of the study showed that among the stimuli that provoke

displeasure, those that refer to the atmosphere and the human factor plays a far more

important role than those that are associated with the designing and the layout of the shop.

It also seems that women seem to be bothered more by unpleasant events as compared to

men. As far as age is concerned, the study hasnt reached concrete conclusions: some

elements of the shop environment are more annoying for younger customers (e.g. lack of

cleanliness), while other factors bother customers of older age (e.g. loud music).


11/35

Examining more factors that influence the formation of the emotional state of the shoppers

during their visit to a shop, it is worth making a reference to the study of Dawson, Bloch

Ridgway (1990). They proved that the purchasing motives that compelled the consumers to

visit the shop had an influence on the emotions that they developed in the shop as well as

their purchasing behaviour. So customers with strong buying motives reported high levels of

pleasure and excitement and tended to assess the environment more positively.

Consumers dont always visit a shop with the motive to buy or collect information about a

product or service, but also for emotional reasons or to enjoy the shopping procedure

(Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). In the last case, that of hedonistic consumption, it is possible

for the atmosphere of a shop to substitute the product. Then the retailer, by arousing the

visual, aural, tactile, olfactory, and even taste senses, can create the suitable conditions, so

as to encourage the realization of impulse buying.

Babin and Attaway (2000) stressed the importance that a retailer must place on the layout

of the interior of his shop, in order to create value for the consumer who visits the shop. By

creating the suitable atmosphere and layout, the retailer can encourage the hedonic

shopping value or the utilitarian shopping value which is the effective realization of

preplanned purchases, depending on the target market. In this way, it is possible to attract

customers, to build strong long-term bonds with them and to increase the sales.

The layout of a shop interior of a department store and its effect on the excitement of the

customers and their desire to remain in the shop was the focus of Wakefield and Bakers

study (1998). Their findings were in agreement with the conclusions of Bellenger et al.

(1977), highlighting the significance of the natural environment of a department store in the

creation of a first impression and thus of an initial level of excitement in the consumer.

The strategic element of a shop interior which creates excitement is the architectural design,

whereas all the atmospheric factors except for the lighting and the temperature are

positively associated with the provocation of excitement and desire to remain in the shop.

Excitement may be provoked by music or an interesting layout.

Stoltman, Gentry and Anglin (1991) found that excitement which stems from visual stimuli

compels consumers to visit the shop more often and to make purchases. In fact, Rook

(1987) reached the conclusion that consumers associate impulsive shopping with the

emotions of excitement and psychological arousal. He reached this conclusion by conducting

a survey.

So far, it has been proven that the environment provokes various emotions in people, but

the mood of the consumer at the time he is exposed to the atmospherics of a retail shop

must be taken into account. The mood he is in at the given time can affect the way in which

he perceives the various external stimuli but also the way he react to them.

Gardner (1985) presented in a relevant article, the effects of the shop and of the behaviour

of the shop assistants on the mood of the customers, which in turn, influences the

purchasing behaviour. However he supported that while the environment influences the

mood of the people, the peoples mood may influence the way they perceive theirenvironment.


12/35

In a shop that sells services, the customers mood may have an effect on the way he assesses

the service process and the service product itself. It influences his memory of the whole

purchasing experience. It has been observed that customers who are in a good mood are

more eager to follow the recommendations of a salesman, to be more cooperative, more

agreeable and more satisfied from the services offered. In addition, clients who are in a

good mood have the tendency of positively assessing the level of customer service

acknowledging that their expectations were met. A possible explanation may be the fact

that a positive mood distracts a person from the detailed processing of the information that

he receives. In this way it is less likely that he will observe or criticize a possible negative

factor (Mackie & Worth, 1989).

It has been observed that a complicated environment disorients the customer and arouses

feelings of nervousness and annoyance. However, as Gardner pointed out later (1985), a

shop must be designed in such a way so as to change the customer mood the minute he

steps in and make it positive towards the retailer. Its all about the consumer experience.

Consumers tend to associate their visit to a shop with the feelings that they had at that

moment.

In general, buyers prefer to do their shopping in shops that make them feel pleasant and

they avoid shops that arouse negative feelings in them. Golden and Zimmer (1986) reached

the conclusion that people make their purchases in shops that they like and they like the

shops that they choose to make their purchases in.

In fact, Babin and Darden (1996), reached the conclusion that the creation of a negative

mood among the customers of a shop reduces the satisfaction gained by the offered services

whereas the creation of a positive mood increases the satisfaction gained by the offered

services. This occurs because negative emotions are far more powerful than positive ones.

However, it holds true, that the negative mood generates the tendency to avoid the specific

environment so customers want to leave as soon as possible and in some cases this leads

them to make hasty thoughtless purchases.

On the other hand, positive emotions are associated with customer satisfaction and increase

of the money spent on purchases in the shop. According to Gardner (1985), a positive mood

at the sales point will lead consumers to take action that will have a positive result even

though the same action does not always have the same result for different types of

purchases (trying on clothes). Sherman and Smith (1986) reached the remarkable

conclusion that the consumer mood can influence his purchasing behaviour even after he

has made his purchasing decision.

Concerning the products, Gardner (1985) mentions that the consumer mood influences the

assessment of the features of a product, the image of certain brands as he perceives them as

well as his preferences and his final purchasing decision. The assessment of a brand is

affected by the features of the environment where the consumer encounters the product

(Akhter, Reardon & Andrews, 1987). More specifically, when the consumer hasnt formed a

specific image for a brand (from advertising, promotional actions, comparative reports and

other resources) the image that he does form is greatly influenced by the atmospherics of a

shop as well as the shop employees.


13/35

Another interesting experiment is that of Swinyard (1993), who with the help of different

senarios tried to manipulate the mood of a group of students, in order to study the effects

on their purchasing behaviour. He was led to the conclusion that the psychological mood of

the consumer influences the realization of a purchase when the latter has high involvement

in the purchasing process and his experience from the shop is a positive one. One

explanation that may be given is the following. The customers of a shop who have high

involvement in the purchase of a product or service has to process more information and

thus his psychological mood may influence his selection, deciphering and assessment of

different environmental stimuli.

So the environment of the shop plays a significant role in the quality of the purchasing

experience, because even if a customer enters a shop in a good mood, his exposure to

negative stimuli may alter his mood for the worse with all the ramifications concerning his

purchasing behaviour.

Numerous customers go shopping while being in a bad mood. According to Maxwell and

Kover (2003), this segment of the consumers is not in the mood for searching, making

decisions for the purchase of goods or having high involvement in the purchasing process.

What they are interested in doing is making purchases that will improve their mood and

they show special interest in new products and services. The ideal shop environment for

them has a simple interior layout, which ensures easy access to all the products, pleasant

atmosphere (music, scent and lighting) and it doesnt require interaction with the sales staff.

In a study carried out by Sharma and Stafford (2000), it has been proven that the

atmosphere of a shop is reflected in the image that the customer forms concerning the

salesmen and the degree to which he is persuaded by them. The credibility of the salesmen

is influenced by the prestige of the shop that is reflected in the environment of the shop.

Consequently customers are more easily persuaded to make purchases by salesmen who

work in luxurious shops as compared to those who work in discount shops.

It has also been observed in shops which have a luxurious or prestigious interior, a reduction

in the number of the salesmen didnt seem to affect the purchasing behaviour of the

customers. This testifies that the atmosphere of a shop plays the most significant role in the

persuasion of the prospective buyers. On the contrary, at discount shops, where the

atmosphere is of no value, the increase in the number of salesmen can bring about a

significant increase of sales as customers are primarily persuaded by the promotional

actions of the salesmen.

Smith and Burns (1996) noticed that the merchandising that is applied on the aisles of a

super-market has an influence on the perception of the consumers regarding these specific

products. In fact, the increase in the number of different codes (SKUs) of a category of

products and the simultaneous reduction in quantity of each give the impression of higher

prices. In the opposite case small variety of products but in large quantities the

consumer forms the image of a shop with the massed-out look, the kind that offers

products at low prices.


14/35

Finally, Bawa et al. (1989) pointed out the role of the marketing within the shop

environment focusing on its ability to attract different customer types and influencing their

consumer behaviour. The results of their study proved that in shops with a wide variety of

products, consumers didnt display loyalty towards a name brand but were more likely to

desire to try out new products. In addition the existence of display cases, discount coupons

seemed to increase the consumers sensitivity towards prices and promotional activities thus

sabotaging their loyalty towards one brand.

2.5THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC ATMOSPHERIC ELEMENTS OF THE SHOPThe vast majority of researchers have focused on the influence of specific atmospheric

elements on the consumers purchasing behaviour such as scent, lighting, colour (there is a

section devoted to this element alone) and the architecture of the shop interior. These

elements stimulate the senses of a person and primarily the hearing, smell and vision.

All these studies have reached the same conclusions that the atmospheric elements have an

impact on the emotional and cognitive state of the consumer and as a result they influence

his behaviour in various ways. Thus, the correct manipulation and combination of the

atmospherics of a retail shop can direct the customers purchasing behaviour so as to meet

his sales target.

2.5.1. Music

Music is one of the factors which can differentiate the shop atmosphere. It is a particularly

attractive variable for the proprietor, it is cost efficient, it can easily be changed and it is

considered to have a profound effect on the customer behaviour. It is an undeniable fact

that music is a powerful stimulus which influences the mood of the individual and indirectly

the consumer purchasing behaviour (Bruner II, 1990).

For example in some restaurants, fast-paced music can be heard compelling customers do

all their activities faster thus reducing the time they spent seated at their table, especially

during the rush hour when the demand is high. On the contrary, during the early evening

hours, when business is slow, soft music is preferred as it relaxes the customers and directs

them to accompany their meal with a cocktail or a dessert.

The influence of the tempo of the music on the behaviour of the customers was studied by

Milliman (1986). He came to the conclusion that the use of slow-tempo music made the

atmosphere more relaxing, facilitating the behavioural approach directing customers to

extend the time they spend in the shop encouraging them to consume more drinks.

However there was no increase in the number of food orders that the customers ordered

while under the influence of the relaxing music. It is also worth mentioning that the number

of customers, who left from the restaurant because they didnt find a table immediately,

was not influenced by the tempo of the music that was playing. However, when they

substituted the relaxing music with extremely loud and repulsive music more customers left

from the shop.


15/35

Contrary to Milliman (1986), Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) found that the tempo of the music

is not the only factor that affects the consumption of beverages and food, but the music

preferences of each individual also play a significant role. These two factors combined can

have an influence on consumer behaviour.

In a past study, Milliman (1982) noticed that the fluctuations of the tempo have an impact

on the speed at which the customers move in the supermarket as well as the value of the

purchases that are actually made. So, his suggestion is for retailers to choose the music

according to the targets they want to achieve, since the behaviour of the customers can be

directed subliminally.

However, Chebat and Vaillant (2001), in a relative article, supported that music influences

consumer behaviour through cognitive processes. More specifically, slow tempo of music

creates brain alpha waves which, in turn, stimulate the cognitive process. For this reason

soft music is considered to be the ideal stimulation level for the initiation of cognitive

activity. This happens because music has the property of attracting a persons attention.

However if the music is too fast of too loud then it may distract the customer from the

persuasive arguments of the salesman, while on the other hand slow music facilitates the

cognitive response during the sales process.

In research carried out by Dube and Morin (2001), using 110 mall shoppers as their subjects,

it was observed that the different degree of pleasure that was caused by the music

influences the image of the shop that the consumer shapes and subsequently it influences

the customers response to the sales staff. Music is often used to improve the mood of

consumers and to have a positive effect on their emotional state at the time of the

purchasing process (Herrington & Capella, 1994).

The effect of the type of music (classical-modern) on the consumer behaviour of the

customers of a Liquor Store was investigated by Areni and Kim (1993). Following

comparative analysis of the results of their experiment they concluded that classical music

affected customers to spend more money. In fact, the higher amount of money spent was

on a more expensive selection of wine and not on more bottles of wine.

This view is in agreement with the views of McInnis and Park (1991) that the music has to

match the environmental framework where it is encountered, in order to affect the

customers and bring about the desired result. There is an underlying symbolic meaning toeach purchasing experience. If the consumer connects the consumption of wine with luxury

and prestige, then classical music creates a certain atmosphere, getting the message across

to the customer that the product is of high quality and high price. In conclusion, Herrington

and Capella (1994) supported that the music has to match the type of shop and the offered

product or service, as well as the time of the day and the target market segment.

Another practice that is commonly used in retail shops is zoning, which means having

different types of music in different parts of the same shop. The goal is to target different

segments of the consumer population, based on age, sex and preferences. Yalch and

Spangenberg (1993) noticed that by playing the suitable type of music in each section of aDepartment Store it improved the atmosphere and it compelled people to make purchases


16/35

and spend more money than they would. In addition, their analysis of the data showed that

there is a correlation between music and the age and preferences but there is no association

between music and sex.

In their previous experiment (1990), the same researchers confirmed that the perception of

the customers about the time spent in a shop differed according to whether the music was

in the foreground or background. When the music was not in agreement with the

customers preferences, the customers were more likely to claim that they had spent more

time in the shop than they actually had. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is the

fact that the shoppers are exposed to an unfamiliar environment (music which they dont

usually listen to) and thus they are more observant of what is going on around them and

they are capable of recalling more information from such an experience. As a result they are

under the impression that they have spent more time in the shop.

Hui, Dube and Chebat (1997) studied the effect of music on the responses of the customers

as they were queuing in a bank. What they noticed was that music had a positive effect on

the way customers perceived the offered services, without it having an effect on the

perceived time spent waiting for the service. On the contrary, the customers were under

the impression that they had spent more time in the bank when music was playing. As

Kellaris and Kent (1991) mentioned, the perceived time waiting increases when the music is

not to their liking. This event however doesnt have a negative effect on the approach to the

bank.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that music improves the emotional response to waiting in a

queue, only when it is in accordance with the customers tastes and preferences. This

happens because waiting creates negative feelings in general, so a strong stimulus such as

pleasant from the environment is needed, in order to limit the negative emotions. What is

remarkable is that classical music always enhances the image of a shop, even for customers

who may not like classical music.

2.5.2 Scent

Scent is an atmospheric element that has the capability of creating a more pleasant

environment for making purchases. Scent can be a competitive advantage for the retailer.

The recognition and the meaning of each scent is a complex procedure. In order to

understand this phenomenon, one must study psychology of memories and human

biological reactions. Among the five senses, the scent is considered to be more closely

associated with the emotional center of the human brain that is why the scent that is

dominant in the interior of a shop is considered to be one of the most powerful stimuli in

provoking emotional response in consumers (Wilkie, 1995).

The inundation of the interior of buildings with a perfume as a mean to influence human

behaviour is becoming more and more common. This can be illustrated by the fact that

Proctor and Gamble came out with devices that can be installed in the aisles of shops. In


17/35

addition, some shipping companies allow scents to circulate through the vents in order to

keep the managerial staff in a state of awareness (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2000).

An experiment was carried out by Nike concerning the purchase of athletic shoes. They

scented a changing room with a soft scent of flowers and another one with fresh air. In the

first case the likelihood of making a purchase was 84% more than in the second case. A

similar experiment was carried out concerning gambling machines in the Las Vegas Hilton

Hotel Casino. This study showed that a machine that had been scented with a special

perfume accepted 45% more money than another one that had been scented differently

(Siomkos, 2001).

Traditionally, some specialized shops, like bakeries, and shops that sell coffee, cigarettes or

nuts have relied on the scent of their products to attract customers (Bone & Ellen, 1994).

However, in the past few years many customer service shops as well as retail shops have

made sure to add a special scent to their interiors. The scent that is in the air, meaning the

scent that is not emitted from a particular object, is quite interesting because it can affect

the way the customer perceives the shop and its products, even those that dont have a

scent of their own.

In many articles it is supported that the scents influence the cognitive state more than the

emotional state of the consumer. Michon, Chebat and Turley (2005) found that the scent of

the air has an impact on the perception of the environment and not on his emotions. This is

in agreement with the findings of Bone and Ellen (1989) that had proven that the influence

of the scent on the customers mood is marginal. Chebat and Michon (2003) reached the

conclusion that scents are associated with experiences, thus their significance is in the

cognitive field rather than the emotional field.

More significantly, the latter observed that the scent of the shop contributes to the

formation of a positive image of the shop and indirectly to the formation of the image of the

products offered, which influence the expenditure on behalf of the customer. However, the

type of scent or its intensity doesnt seem to play an important role. The perception and

behaviour of the consumer is contingent upon the presence or absence of scent in the

atmosphere (Spangenberg, Crowly & Henderson, 1996). The existence of scent influences

the perception of time: the time that customers spend examining the products, queuing or

waiting to be served by the shop assistant seems to be less when the shop atmosphere is

scented.

Michon, Chebat and Turley (2005) also realized that the scent of a shop positively influences

consumers only when the shop is averagely crowded. This phenomenon may be due to the

fact that during rush hour, customers are exposed to far too many stimuli so as a result they

dont pay attention to the atmospherics factors. That is the reason that scents are more

noticeable by recreational shoppers, those who just want to browse. These shoppers have

more time available, they pay more attention to the environment and are more perceptible

to the environmental stimuli.

In addition, Mitchell, Kahn and Knasko (1995), carried out an experiment which concludedthat the influence of a pleasant scent in the air on the purchasing decisions of the consumer


18/35

depends on the agreement of the scent with the category of products. In the case that the

scent matched the category of products, the consumers devoted more time to the

examination of the products, examining all their functions and inquiring for more

information and variety, and they took all the factors into account before making their final

decision.

However, while the inundation of the air with a scent can boost the sales of a certain

product it may have a negative effect on the sales of another product. Consequently, the

effective scenting of the atmosphere of a shop must support the sales of all the products

that are offered in it (Chebat & Michon, 2003).

Moreover, Fiore, Yah and Yoh (2000) came to the conclusion that by placing a product on

display and giving it the appropriate scent it brought about a significant increase in the level

of pleasure derived during the purchasing experience in the sample of female consumers. At

the same time there was an increased tendency to approach the product, to express their

intention to buy it, and the price they were willing to pay in order to obtain it was higher.

However, the most influential factor concerning their purchasing intention was the element

of cognitive pleasure, the association of past experiences with the specific product or even

the fantasy of using the product themselves. The appropriately scented environment had a

direct impact on cognitive pleasure.

According to Morrin and Ratneshwar (2000) the presence of a pleasant scent in the shop

atmosphere improves the assessment of the products, especially when it concerns brand

names that are unfamiliar to the consumers, and it reinforces the recollection of the product

in the future. The results of this study indicate the way the human memory becomes

familiar with the brand names is either through the meticulous examination and assessment

of the products or through their association with an atmospheric element (in this specific

case, the scent).

Furthermore, Spangenberg, Crowley and Henderson (1996) reached a similar conclusion,

reporting that the inundation of the atmosphere with a scent had the tendency of improving

the perceived image of the least appealing products whereas the influence concerning the

products that had been initially positively assessed was marginal.

The Gestalt theory concerning the consumers perception of the retail environment was

taken a step further with the research of Mattila and Wirtz (2001) who, supported that thecustomers observe the environment of shops that offer services holistically and their

responses depend on the total of the stimuli that they are exposed to in these shops. Thus,

pleasant atmospheric stimuli have positive influence on consumer behaviour, when their

stimulating properties are matching rather than having no connection with each other. For

example, in a customer service shop the music (fast or slow beat) has to match the scent

(stimulating or relaxing). Generally, when the stimuli of the environment interact and

supplement each other so as to create a coherent atmosphere, the customers express a

higher level of satisfaction, tend to approach the products and make impulsive purchases.


19/35

2.5.3. Lighting

The lighting is another important element of the interior environment of a shop. Lighting

does not only play an aesthetic role , but a functional role as well because it facilitates the

display of the products, the reading of the tags, labels and signs and the circulation of the

customers.

There are different categories of lighting. The general lighting concerns the whole shop and

serves functional purposes. The local lighting is used in spots that require special treatment,

like display cases. Furthermore, a shop can have perimetric lighting on the walls, free-

standing light fixtures or decorative lighting units (Papavassileiou & Baltas , 2003).

In addition, Summers and Hebert (2001) installed additional lighting on products that were

on display in shops and they studied the reactions of this on the consumer behaviour, with

the assistance of a video camera. The results of this study showed that the level of lighting

influences the approach behaviour of the customers in such a way that under circumstancesof intense lighting the customers spend more time at the displays touching and holding the

products.

These findings matched the findings of an older study, carried out by Areni and Kim (1994),

who observed that bright lighting encourages the customers to examine and assess products

meticulously without having an effect on sales. It is worth mentioning that the lighting had

an effect on the products that were situated at eye level. This reveals that dim lighting

wasnt enough to carry out the functional activities, like detecting the price tags or

recognition of the product.

For this reason, lighting in the retail shop interior has to be relevant to the activities that are

carried out in it. The excessive, surplus light in all the areas of a shop does not only add to

the cost but also doesnt allow the creation of intense contrast for the promotion of the

products. Furthermore, it may cause damage to sensitive products, and it can tire out the

customers and have a negative effect on the customers behaviour (Economou,1997).

Especially in the interior of supermarkets, it has been observed that the appropriate lighting,

the kind that makes the customer feel comfortable in a pleasant atmosphere influences the

sales in a positive way (Self Service, 1997).

2.5.4. The architecture of the interior

The architecture of the shop has to do with the layout of the products and with the general

organization of the interior. The successful design of a shop depends on the existence of a

specific functional design template. It must take into account the easy access of the

products from the customer and the clear separation of the different departments. The

careful layout of a shop helps the customers with their orientation and also helps them find

what they are looking for. This gives them a sense of control (Bitner, 1992).

In continuation, Park, Iyer and Smith (1989) did research concerning the knowledge of shopdesign and combined it with the time that the customer has at his disposal to make his


20/35

purchases thus influencing his shopping behaviour. They carried out an experiment in a

supermarket, and found that the two factors mentioned above influence the level of

spontaneous purchases, these including brand or product switches as well as changes in the

quantity they initially planned to buy.

More specifically, they noticed that the knowledge of the interior of a shop, independently

of the time that a customer has at his disposal for shopping, has a positive effect on brand or

product switching. In fact, 1/3 of the unplanned purchases were made because of the

reminders of new needs during their stay in the shop and the processing of this new

information. The customers awareness of the layout influences the recollection of

memories associated with the aisles such as the position of the customers favourite brands.

On the other hand, when the customer is not familiar with the layout of the shop he has

difficulty in locating the different products and so he wastes a valuable part of his available

shopping time. The pressure of time contributes to the failure to make the planned

purchases both in terms of products and quantities and it also reduces the percentage of the

unplanned purchases because the customer doesnt have the time to process any more

information in the shop.

A basic principle in the layout of shops is that the amount of money spent by the customer

increases the longer he stays in a shop and the longer the distance he walks in the shop

(Papavasileiou & Baltas, 2003). As a result many shop layouts have a goal to maximize the

time the customer spends in the shop and to increase the distance he covers so as to be

exposed to as many purchasing stimuli as possible.

The architecture of the interior must facilitate browsing making it a pleasant and enjoyableexperience even if the customer hasnt come to the shop with the intention of making a

purchase (Lombart, 2004). A pleasant walk within the shop can encourage spontaneous

purchases, it can create loyal customers and improve the reputation of the shop via word-of-

mouth. Furthermore, the presence of a lot of people in a store contributes in a positive way

to the atmosphere making it appear as a place full of action rather than deserted. The

presence of a lot of people can be an indication and verification of quality. In reality,

customers dont find an empty shop appealing thus a tolerable amount of customers is

welcome.

On the other hand, crowding creates the image of an inexpensive shop (Langrehr, 1991)and brings about negative consequences, like a decrease in the time spent in the shop, a

decrease in the spontaneous purchases, and finally a decrease in the planned purchases or a

postponement for another date and this can even lead to change of shop (Grossbart et al.,

1990).

In an empirical study, Eroglu and Machleit (1990) used colour transparencies and different

scenarios to investigate the retail crowding perception in retail shops and its effect on the

customers purchasing behaviour. They realized that the sense of crowding became more

intense as the retail density increased. When there was high retail density the perceived

crowding was higher for those customers who had come to the shop to make specificpurchases while having limited time at their disposal task oriented shoppers compared


21/35

to those who had time to browse, non-task oriented shoppers. In the cases of crowding, the

pressure of time had a negative effect on the satisfaction of the customer from the shop

environment. When the shop was very crowded there was pressure of time which had a

negative effect on customer satisfaction.

Furthermore, Eroglu and Harrell (1986) had suggested that the expectations of consumers

regarding how crowded the shop is, have a reverse correlation with the perceived levels of

crowding and their satisfaction with the shop. If the consumer realizes that the shop is less

crowded than he had expected, then he wont be so dissatisfied with the conditions of the

environment. Also the shoppers who are pressured for time are more likely to be

dissatisfied from their purchasing experience in a crowded shop.

2.6THE INFLUENCE OF COLOURColour is a communicative element, it has its own language and it is an effective mean for

getting across messages and arousing emotions in humans.

The basic colours are red, blue and yellow. White and black are neutral colours, while the

rest, which are characterized as supplementary, are a combination of the basic colours, eg.

Red and yellow make orange, blue and yellow make green, red and blue make violet. Red,

yellow and orange are considered to be warm colours while blue and green are cool.

The symbolism of colours develops ideas and makes allusions within a given context. Take

yellow for instance; while it is considered a bright colour, it also has a negative aspect.

Studies have shown that yellow increases the nervousness and anxiety and makes babies cry

more. As yellow is the colour that the human eye sees faster, it is considered to be ideal for

drawing ones attention. However, a whole room that is painted yellow can provoke

negative emotional responses.

Red is considered to be the most stimulating colour. It increases the heartbeat and puts

people in a state of awareness. Green is right cross from red on the colour wheel and has a

calming effect on people. It is widely used in operation rooms in hospitals and in medical

equipment, to calm the patients, when they come round from anesthesia, and to reduce

their tendency for dizziness or vomit. Black is considered to be a strict but elegant colour,

especially when combined with white. Grey enhances the creativity of humans but it has

been observed that it is not preferred by people who live in areas with rainy climate. It also

symbolizes seriousness, success and power, properties which it ows to one of its two basic

elements, the black colour.

In the following chart there is a summary of the different meanings that are given to each

colour (Zotos, 2000):

Red

Cheerfulness, danger, vitality, power, provocativeness, bravery, excitement, heat, passion. It

is associated with anger, war, blood. It refers to and appeals to the memory of the

consumer.


22/35

Light blue

Peacefulness, tranquility, devotion, security, tenderness, coolness, melancholy, formality. It

is associated with cold, ice, distance, infinity and peaceful reflections. It primarily appeals to

the sensibility of the consumer.

Yellow

Optimism, brightness, hatred, happiness, spring. It is associated with the sun light, with

shine and radiance. It is the colour which attracts the attention of the receiver more than

any other.

Orange

Fire, heat, action, harvest.

Green

Peacefulness, tranquility, humidity, spring, youth, relaxation, immaturity. It is associated

with hope, meditation and nature.

Black

Mystery, death, mourning, gravity, austerity. It is associated with hatred, used to express

power but also elegance.

White

In the western civilization it means purity, innocence, cleanliness, clarity, sterilization. It is

associated with void, infinity, the inexplicable, while it is used to express absolute silence. In

the Far East it is considered to be a colour of mourning.

However, in different cultures, the same colour is preferred for different purposes and

alludes to different symbolism. The symbolic meaning which is connected with each colour

is the result of a long term process which is interpreted by historic, religious, political,

traditional, racial, aesthetic and preventive factors (Panigyrakis, 1999). The fact that

different colours carry a total of symbolic meanings which differ means that with the use of

a colour, if used correctly in a specific environment, we can get across complex information

in an effective way (Judd & Wyszeski, 1975).

While black is a colour of mourning in European countries, white in China and Japan plays

that same role. Green, which symbolizes Islam, in Muslim countries, is an especially

acceptable colour, while in the Far East it is associated with tropical illnesses and bad luck.

Red is the most popular colour in the Chinese market, while yellow and green are preferred

in most African countries.

Such diversity has an immediate impact on the communicative policy of an export business,

and quite often there is an imperative need to alter the colour of the packaging of a product

or the advertising message of a product. Basically, the target is not to distort the positioningof a product and to maintain the effectiveness of the advertising campaign, avoiding the use


23/35

of a colour which may have positive connotations in the cultural system of the export

company but may have negative connotations in the export market (Panigyrakis, 1999).

Usually, the selection of colours which are included in the flag of each country usually have

positive connotations for their residents, causing them to have a positive predisposition

towards the product that is promoted.

In a survey which was carried out concerning the preferences of consumers worldwide

(Heathe, 1997) they came to the conclusion that there are some colours which convey the

same meaning worldwide, but nonetheless there are differences between nationalities. For

example by choosing a colour that represents power, the white people preferred red, while

black Americans chose black and the Spaniards chose light blue. In addition, light pink

seemed to be associated with sensitivity for the white people whereas Africans chose white

for the same purpose. As far as formal attire is concerned, black and red are universally

acceptable colours. However black Americans prefer gold and silver, while the women from

Spain preferred orange, bright red and fuchsia.

The popularity of the colours develops throughout time under the influence of social,

economic, and political factors (Swain, 1996). As an example we can mention the

preference for khaki, grey and brown during the period of World War II and the replacement

of dark colours with pastel shades in the early 1950s. The evolution of the trends in colours

reflects the change in preferences, in the lifestyle and in the ideals and values of each

generation, but the prevalence of the cultural elements of each people remains.

In international bibliography, primarily in the field of physiology and psychology, we

encounter an abundance of studies focusing on the effect of colour on human behaviour. In

the marketing field, the studies concerning the effect of colour have concentrated on

advertisement and on the packaging of a product. The common element in all these studies

is the fact that colour can provoke certain autonomous biological reactions; it can have an

impact on the emotional state of an individual and draw his attention. The owners of

different shops have made good use of these studies, using colours that create the suitable

atmosphere in their shops for the realization of purchases.

2.6.1. The influence of colour on the human body.

The science of physiology has dealt with the biological reactions that are caused by different

colours. Gerard (1957) studied the psycho-physiological influences of colour on the humanbody by inundating red, white and blue bonds of light through a screen. Following

measurements, he concluded that the blood pressure increased under the influence of the

red light, while it was reduced by the presence of blue light. In the same way, the rhythm of

breathing was more intense while exposed to red light whereas it was less intense while

exposed to the blue light. Moreover, the red light made people blink with greater frequency

than the blue light.

In another experiment, Wilson (1966) measured the levels of stimulation or otherwise

known as psychophysics activation which corresponds to each colour. The results of his

measurements confirmed the initial hypothesis that red creates a greater stimulation thangreen. Clynes and Kohn (1968) found that the function of the brain is influenced by red


24/35

more than by any other colour of the same intensity. In fact, Clynes (9177) supported that

the colour red brings about stimulation of the human brain, by its very own nature.

Another scientist named Goldstein (1939) investigated the changes in the body posture of

mentally retarded patients during their exposure to large sheets of paper in different

colours. After numerous experiments, he found that specific colour stimuli made patients

change the placement of their hands. By alternating the colours blue and red, he noticed

that blue compelled people to stand in such a way so as to reveal introversion and

reservation. On the other hand, the position of the hands at the sight of the colour red

expressed a more extroverted and emotional behaviour. Goldstein also noticed that red

distorted the perception of size, length, weight, and texture as compared to the colour

green.

In addition, Nakshian (1964) carried out similar experiments on healthy people. He

concluded that red causes hands to tremble more than green does, and we also have a

higher speed in movement.

All the above studies lead us to the conclusion that warm colours (like red and yellow)

cause a natural stimulation while cool colours (like blue or green) have a more calming

effect.

2.6.2. The influence of colour on a persons psychology.

Numerous studies have proven the correlation between colours and human psychology. It

has been proven that different colours provoke specific emotional reactions in human

beings.

Furthermore, Gerard (1957) tried to explain the way in which colours are related to

emotions, resorting to commonly acceptable samples of normal responses. He further

supported that red and the feeling of anger stimulate the energetic capability of a person

and compel him to become active. That is why red and the feeling of anger are interrelated.

A further possible explanation refers to the phenomenon of synesthesia, which is the feeling

that is created in some body organ from stimulation which has an influence on another body

organ. In this way dark colours may be associated with weight, whereas red is connected to

heat. On the other hand there are those who believe that the association between colours

and emotions are simply based on the preferences of each individual. In other words, when

a colour and an emotion are at the same level of ranking on the scale of the individuals

preferences, then it is only natural for them to be interrelated. For example the colour red

may be associated with happiness, because they are both valued and preferred by people

(Terwogt & Hoeksma, 1995).

In a study that was carried out by the students at the University of Georgia (Kaya & Epps,

2004) emphasis was placed on the symbolic property of colours. Each individual associates

different colours with objects, people, places and situations. So the association of a

particular emotion with a colour depends on the personal preferences and the past

experiences he has had with that particular colour. For example a young woman answered


25/35


26/35

encourage criminality and suicide, while they obstruct optimism, inspiration and finally

success.

2.6.3. The influence of colour on the packaging of a product

The packaging is a powerful tool in the hands of the marketer, as it contributes to thecreation of a special identity and image for each product, whilst it strengthens the bond

between the consumer and a specific brand, especially for categories of consumer products

of low involvement (Underwood, 2003). Generally, the packaging is characterized as an

indispensable part of the communicative strategy of the product in the market segment that

it is targeted and it may make a determining contribution to the creation of a unique sales

suggestion.

In fact, retailers often use the packaging of their products as part of their interior or exterior

decoration, aspiring to the presentation of a specific shop image. They also use the

packaging of the products to encourage buyers to browse in the shop, in an effort toincrease impulse buying or purchases made near the cash register, like chewing gum,

chocolates and razor blades, during the customers stay (Panigyrakis, 1999).

The colour of the packaging of the product is one of the most important aesthetic

characteristics, as it communicates with the spiritual world of the consumer and it becomes

a direct stimulus for the purchase of the product. The correct selection of the colour can be

a determining factor in the impression it makes on the memory of the consumer, in his

desire to approach, touch or try out the product and in the final acceptance stage where he

goes ahead with the purchase. More specifically, it is argued that when a consumer sees a

product for the first time in an in-store display, about 60% of the first impression comesfrom its colour (Heath, 1997).

Quite often, the colour of the packaging has as its goal to get across specific properties of

the product, like cleanliness, luxury, power or natural origin. At other times, it targets the

recollection of situations, experiences and the arousal of similar emotions, e.g. a chocolate

in a red wrapper alludes to love, being in love thus creating positive emotions.

As for yellow, it is the most noticeable of all the colours and it gives the consumers the

impression that the product they are purchasing is a bargain (American Nurseryman, 1996).

On the contrary, black represents elegance and eccentricity and it is used to add high

prestige and class to the products. On the other hand, green is associated with nature and

usually conveys the message that the product contains natural ingredients. White means

freshness and purity as blue does too but it also implies honesty, self-confidence and

knowledge. Finally, red conveys power and vitality, making the stimulation of the consumer

more intense.

In a study (Sead & Gill, 2000) concerning the colour preferences of consumers cross-

culturally it was found that blue is the most popular colour while yellow is the least popular.

This unanimous preference for blue is likely related to the colour of the sky and sea two

dominant elements in the life of all peoples. Despite all the above, preferences for colours

change according to the given situations. These in turn are connected with specific


27/35

traditions of each culture. This is illustrated in the preference for red on Valentines Day or

the preference for green on St. Patricks Day.

Even though fashion does not change that often for the packaging of products as it does for

clothes, there are always some colours that are considered to be modern and others that

are outdated. In that way, white, even though it is a symbol of purity, it loses in the

popularity contest. This is partly due to the fact that the companies dont want their

products to be confused for Generics, which in most cases are available in simple white

packaging (Malliaris, 2001).

In an article (Marketing Management, 2003) it is mentioned that for the consumers, who

arent loyal to a specific brand the change of the colour on the packaging may draw the ir

attention and enhance their respect for this brand. Especially for small and steady

categories of products, such as flour, the new packaging is likely to lead to the purchase of a

product, when the message that it is conveying is in accordance with the initial positioning

of the brand. However in intensely competitive categories of products, such as cereals, what

is of utmost importance is the creation of a unique and impressive packaging. On the other

hand, for the loyal consumers of a brand name alteration of the colour on the packaging can

be confusing and it may reduce the recognition of the brand.

There are some striking examples from the American experience (Malliaris, 2001). We can

easily conclude that the commercial success or failure of a product may well depend on the

colour of its packaging. When the designers changed the colour of the Barrelhead beer can,

from blue to beige, the consumers believed that it had become more tasty and refreshing.

In reality, its taste had not changed at all. In the same way consumers believe that the

darker the orange colour is on the can or bottle of orange juice the sweeter its taste will be.

Even though it is difficult to make a correlation between the colour and the sales of a

product, the designers of Canada Dry claim that since they changed the colour of their

product Ginger Ale (no sugar added) from red to green and white, sales went up by 25%.

The reason being that the red colour that was on the can gave the impression that it was just

another Cola product. Ritz Crackers of Nabisco, upon celebrating their 50 years, slightly

changed their packaging. The new packet was redder and decorated with a golden ribbon,

as the target was for the Ritz Crackers to appear richer and become more attractive to young

consumers who possess a high income.

Another company, Microsoft, following the suggestions of their designers changed the

colour of its packaging from green to dark red and blue. This happened not only because

green doesnt draw the attention of the consumer but also because it is associated with

frozen vegetables or chewing gum and less with high technology products.

When the detergent Tide was created, in the mid-50s it was not per chance that they put a

white product in a bright orange box. This contrast between product and packaging had as

its goal to convey a message: this white detergent is associated with cleanliness, while the

orange packaging means strength and effectiveness.


28/35

Another study which refers to colour is that of Milotic (2003) who mentions in his article that

when a colour is combined with the suitable scent which contributes to its recognition, as it

gives an indication of what the soap will smell like. There is the case of Colgate Palmolive

which launched a new line of soaps, changing their ingredients but maintaining their colour.

So, for instance a white soap had the scent of chamomile, while a peach coloured soap had

the scent of almond. This disagreement between the colour and the scent had as result a

dramatic reduction in the share of the market of the specific brand.

2.6.4. The influence of colour within the shop

Colour is one of the atmospheric elements which are widely used to create a pleasant

environment and to influence customer behaviour. With the use of the appropriate colours

retailers dont only aim to draw the attention of the customers but also to attract customers

into the shop enhancing their shopping mood.

The influence and the effectiveness of certain colours may differ among different shops,individuals and circumstances. Research concerning the influence of colours on the

perception of a place showed that cool colours make a room seem larger and increase the

sense of spaciousness. On the contrary, the existence of warm colours on the walls of a

room, make it look smaller, while offering intense visual stimuli and high stimulation.

The big super-market chain stores pay attention to the correct selection of colours so as for

the customer to feel comfortable and calm (Siomkos, 2002). The warm feeling must be won

from the moment the customer enters the shop. In general pastel, clean colours, that are

considered to be relaxing by the customer. In special sections, it is common practice to use

specific colours, like blue in the fishmongers section, white in the frozen foods section,yellow or ochre in the bakery and green in the produce section.

In the U.S.A. there is a chain of shops that make pastries called Mrs Fielos. They owe much

of their success to the unusual red colour that they used for decorating their packaging. This

was quite risky, as brown is the colour that has been traditionally associated with chocolates

and pastries. Finally, due to the fact that most purchases of pastries are made

spontaneously by young women, they were attracted by the elegant and original decoration.

In addition, American psychologists found that pink, orange and in general the warm pastel

colours increase ones appetite.

One of the

an investigation of the effect of store design on consumer purchasing behavior in retail stores

Documents