an overview of the current research on stability of ships
TRANSCRIPT
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An overview of the current research on stability of ships and ocean vehicles: the STAB2018 perspective
Teemu Manderbacka, NAPA Ltd, [email protected]
Nikolaos Themelis, National Technical University of Athens, [email protected]
Igor Bačkalov, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Evangelos Boulougouris, MSRC, University of Strathclyde,
Eleftheria Eliopoulou, National Technical University of Athens, [email protected]
Hirotada Hashimoto, Kobe University, [email protected]
Dimitris Konovessis, Singapore Institute of Technology,
Jean-François Leguen, DGA Hydrodynamics, [email protected]
Marcos Míguez González, University of A Coruña, [email protected]
Claudio A. Rodríguez, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, [email protected]
Anders Rosén, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, [email protected]
Pekka Ruponen, NAPA Ltd, [email protected]
Vladimir Shigunov, DNV GL SE, Hamburg, [email protected]
Martin Schreuder, Chalmers University of Technology, [email protected]
Daisuke Terada, National Defense Academy, Japan, [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The paper provides an insight into contemporary research on ship stability and identifies the possible
directions for future research by reviewing a selection of papers published in STAB2015, ISSW2016 & 2017.
These works have been organized in different sections, according to the main thematic areas of research,
covering intact and damage stability, regulatory issues including probabilistic approaches, advanced
numerical methods for ship motion and stability failure prediction including roll damping, operational issues
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related to ship stability and environmental modelling. Furthermore, the educational potential of STAB/ISSW
is exemplified. This review paper is a joint effort within the SRDC (Stability R&D Committee).
Keywords: ship stability; ship dynamics; ship safety; STAB; ISSW; review
1. INTRODUCTION
Ship stability is an area of vital importance for the design and operation of ships and other
floating structures. Thus, it is a subject of continuous and extensive research aiming at enhancing
safety. The International Conference on the Stability of Ships and Ocean Vehicles (STAB), held
every three years, and the International Ship Stability Workshop (ISSW), held annually between the
STAB conferences, cover the key research topics related to the stability of ships, providing
significant contributions to the maritime community. Bačkalov et al. (2016) reviewed the most
relevant contributions reported in the STAB and ISSW proceedings of the period 2009-2014,
identifying and analysing the trends of research in ship stability. In the present work, a review of the
research presented in STAB conferences and ISSW workshops in the period 2015-2017 (which
includes STAB 2015, ISSW 2016 and ISSW 2017) is performed, and categorised in sections
covering all major aspects of ship stability.
During these conferences and workshops, a total number of 168 articles were presented,
including 103 in the main conference (STAB 2015), and 65 in the workshops, which are more
discussion-oriented events. Although as it can be seen in Table 1 through Table 3 the distribution of
articles in sessions in these three events has not been uniform, there are two topics which have
always had specific sessions, and that have concentrated a large amount of the research efforts
(including more than a 25 % of all the papers). These are the study and development of the so called
Second Generation Intact Stability Criteria (SGISC) (most popular topic on ISSW 2016 and ISSW
2017), and the evaluation of the different aspects of the vessel damage stability (most popular topic
on STAB 2015). These two topics are strongly related with the development of international rules
which promotes enhanced safety as well as enables progressive designs for enhanced performance.
A large amount of the research presented in the events reviewed in this work, has significantly
contributed to the International Maritime Organization (IMO) work on development of the SGISC
as well as to the IMO’s work on SOLAS 2020 damage stability regulations, highlighting the
importance of these series of conferences and workshops in the field of ship stability.
In order to carry out this review, the analysed articles have been divided in the six main topics
shown in Figure 1, together with an additional one in which the papers with a remarkable
educational value have been included. Research on intact stability is reviewed in Chapter 2,
concentrating the work related with the development of the SGISC, including the assessment of
dynamic failure modes with both simplified methods and direct calculations. In addition, the review
on the research on the analysis of the five failure modes considered in the SGISC, but outside of the
regulatory framework, is also considered in this section. Chapter 3 reviews the research on the
damage stability, presenting new methods for assessment of survivability contributing to the
regulatory framework. The possibilities for development of operational limitations and operational
guidance (in context of intact stability) as well as operational means for assisting the crew in cases
of flooding accidents, is the subject of the research reviewed in Chapter 4. Development of the
computational capabilities has enabled the application of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) in
practical ship stability research. Recent development on CFD methods and their application to roll
damping and special stability problems are reviewed in Chapter 5. Research of special ship types,
such as fishing and naval vessels, high-speed craft, and other ship types, which require specific
considerations, is reviewed in Chapter 6. The research on modelling of the sea environment,
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including wave conditions and wind, is reviewed in Chapter 7. The possible role of the recent
research in improvement of the education on ship stability is acknowledged and highlighted in
Chapter 8.
Table 1. STAB2015.
STAB2015-Glasgow #papers
Second Generation Intact Stability 17
Damage Stability 19
Dynamic Stability 11
Decision Support 4
Extreme Behaviour 13
Naval Ship Stability 7
Risk-Based Stability 4
Instability Other Than Roll Motion 4
Stability In Astern Seas 3
Liquefaction 3
Others 18
total number 103
Table 2. ISSW2016.
ISSW2016 - Stockholm #papers
Second Generation Intact Stability Criteria 6
Validation of numerical methods 3
Novel approaches to ship stability 3
Computational and stochastic methods 4
Damage stability of passenger ships 5
Roll damping 4
Operational aspects of ship stability 4
Stability of naval vessels 4
total number 33
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Table 3. ISSW2017.
ISSW2017 - Belgrade #papers
Challenges in the development of Second Generation Intact Stability Criteria 5
Onboard intact stability management using advanced technologies 3
Operational aspects of damage stability 3
Stability of naval vessels 3
Probabilistic computation in stability assessment 4
Stability and safety of inland and river-sea ships 3
Issues of stability modeling 3
Stability of fishing vessels 5
Stability of high-speed craft 3
total number 32
2. INTACT STABILITY
Regarding intact stability, in the period under review, the IMO work on preparing the Second
Generation Intact Stability Criteria (SGISC, SDC 3/WP.5, annex 1) dominated the research agenda.
In fact, the vast majority of presented papers is related either directly to the Criteria or to some of
the five failure modes which are dealt with in SGISC, thus being mainly focused on the vessel intact
stability in waves. Other intact stability – related topics, such as water on deck effects, analysis of
stability criteria on design, crew training in stability matters or still water stability issues, have not
gathered as much attention as they did in the past. Within the works directly related to SGISC, the
first group includes papers which focus on analysing the simplified stability failure assessment
methods used in the current Level 1 (L1) and Level 2 (L2) criteria of the SGISC (Umeda and
Francescutto, 2016). The second group focuses on studying the more advanced methodologies
which constitute the Direct Stability Assessment (DSA), representing the third-tier criteria in
SGISC. The third group of papers involves studies of the main five dynamic stability failure modes,
Figure 1: Distribution of number of papers in the categorization of this review paper.
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i.e. parametric roll resonance, pure loss of stability, surf-riding and broaching, dead ship condition
and excessive accelerations, but from a perspective outside of the SGISC’s framework. These
studies target the nonlinear dynamics in a stochastic wave environment or the capturing of stability
failure modes through mathematical models. Finally, the fourth category includes papers dealing
with probabilistic approaches for prediction of extreme events and capsizing dealing mainly with
the treatment of rarity. In the following subsections, the most relevant contributions in each of the
previous four categories are described.
Simplified dynamic stability failure assessment methodologies
Considering that in the years under review a draft version of the first two tiers of the IMO
SGISC has been accomplished, a very representative effort has been directed at testing the
applicability and consistency of these two first levels in the stability evaluation process set up in
these regulations. These studies consider many ship types, including for example Ro-Pax and
container ships (Krueger et al., 2015a), the well-known C11 class container ship (Liu et al., 2015,
Tompuri et al., 2017), cruise ships (Tompuri et al., 2017), a whole set of 17 vessels of different
types (Schrøter et al., 2017), a patrol vessel (Ariffin et al., 2015) and fishing vessels (Mata-Álvarez-
Santullano and Pérez-Rojas, 2015, Míguez González et al., 2015) and naval vessels (Petacco et al.,
2017), despite not being considered within the scope of SGISC.
In Figure 2, the results obtained for the 17 different vessels analysed in Schrøter et al. (2017) is
shown, where the five failure modes are evaluated for the full set of operational draughts and three
trims (levelled keel and bow and stern trim).
Figure 2: Results of the evaluation of the five failure modes contained in the SGISC for 17 different vessels
with the following nomenclature: Green - OK, only one GM limit for a given draught. Red - Not OK, several
GM limits for a given draught. Blue - Computational problems, no useful results. White - Not calculated,
criterion does not apply to ship (Froude number lower than 0.24). Yellow - Ship does not comply with
criterion (surf-riding). a - No results for smaller draughts. b - Results for smaller draughts only / no results
for higher draught. Adapted from Schrøter et al. (2017).
The need for this type of studies, that could be used for benchmarking of the user – implemented
codes especially in L1 and L2, is highlighted in Reed (2016, 2017), where the process of
verification, validation and accreditation of numerical tools is explained for L1 and L2 of the
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SGISC. Apart from the applicability and consistency studies described above, some other authors
have focused their work on studying more in depth the numerical methodologies proposed for the
L1 and L2 criteria for different failure modes.
Broaching and surf riding failure mode is tackled in Feng et al. (2015) and Umeda et al. (2015).
Although the former work focuses on fishing boats and small-size high speed vessels, and the latter
investigates larger ships (container ships, RoRo, PCC and naval vessels), both studies conclude that
surf-riding probability is greatly affected by the accuracy of calm-water resistance and the wave-
induced surge force, particularly with respect to the diffraction effects. Additionally, Feng et al.
(2015) find that surf-riding probability index is not sensitive to uncertainties in the propeller thrust
coefficient, wake fraction and thrust deduction coefficients, while wave force calculation and
especially the diffraction effect affect significantly the probability index. This last fact is shown in
Figure 3, which presents the critical surf-riding boundaries corresponding to a mid-sized purse
seiner, including and not the influence of diffraction in the wave – induced surge force.
Figure 3: Surf riding occurrence boundaries considering (blue line) and not (red line) the effect of diffraction
on wave induced surge force, as a function of wave steepness (H/λ) and wavelength to ship length ratio
(λ/L). Mid-sized purse seiner. Adapted from Feng et al. (2015).
During this period, contributions regarding parametric roll resonance, which has been
historically one of the failure modes that concentrated most of the research efforts, have reduced in
number, as the rest of failure modes have gathered more interest. Regarding parametric rolling,
Grinnaert et al. (2016a) assess the effect of the duration of the one-degree-of-freedom roll
simulation, initial roll angle and linearization of GZ curve in the computation of maximum KG
associated to L2 stability criteria for this failure mode. Their numerical results for two container
ships, a RoRo vessel and a tanker show that ten roll cycles are sufficient to achieve steady
parametric roll amplitudes, that initial roll angles greater than 5 have no influence on the maximum
KG, and that the linearization of GZ curve has little effect on the parametric rolling L2 vulnerability
index, especially when the GZ curve is close to linear up to 25 heel.
Peters and Belenky (2016) study the consistency of pure loss of stability L1 and L2 criteria for
large B/d ratio vessels using a large cruise vessel as a test case. The inconsistency found between
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the two levels is eliminated by including the weathertight superstructures within the vessel buoyant
volume in the GZ computation, which seems to be a reasonable solution for the case under analysis.
Figure 4 shows the hull forms of the vessel under analysis and the differences of the GZ curves in
waves when the weathertight superstructure is not included (b) and when it is considered (c).
However, the authors also suggest the inclusion of some operator model that would lead to a more
realistic L2 standard that, otherwise, could be largely conservative.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 4: (a) Case study cruise ship hull forms. (b) GZ curves for different wave steepnesses (H/λ) and wave
crest amidships. D = 17 m, KG = 19.78 m. No weathertight superstructures included. (c) GZ curves for
different wave steepnesses (H/λ) and wave crest amidships. D = 17 m, KG = 19.78 m. Weathertight
superstructures included. Adapted from Peters and Belenky (2016).
Peters and Belenky (2017) analyse L1 and L2 vulnerability criteria for dead ship condition and
point out that the different mathematical models used in these criteria frequently lead to
inconsistency, i.e. stricter L2 than L1. A methodology is proposed to allow some controlled level of
probability of inconsistency. Besides, the issue of integrity is raised: because L1 is based on the
Weather Criterion, making L2 less restrictive than L1, as usually, may lead to situations that loading
conditions failing the Weather Criterion are recognized as safe by SGISC.
Direct stability assessment (DSA) and operational guidance (OG) methodologies
The study of Direct Stability Assessment (DSA) methodologies has been mainly tackled by
Shigunov (2016, 2017), whose works have largely contributed to the development of the third–tier
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criteria of the SGISC. Shigunov (2016) studies two approaches to solve the problem of rarity in
DSA, extrapolation of the time to stability failure over wave height and reducing assessment to few
selected combinations of wave height, period and direction and ship speed (design situations).
Whereas the former method works well, the latter one shows significant scatter, therefore, it is
suggested to use different design situations for different stability failure modes. Shigunov (2017)
tests this suggestion for stability failures in beam seaway and confirms the suitability of the design
situations method. Several approaches to select design situations are proposed and compared.
Besides, a quicker solution, combining design situations with non-probabilistic safety criteria is
tested but shows very poor performance.
Figure 5 presents the design sea states (a), the short-term stability failure rate for a 14000 TEU
containership at GM = 1.0 m (b) and the correlation of simplified criteria with long-term stability
failure rate (c and d) in beam seas at different forward speeds.
Figure 5: (a) Design sea states (symbols: constant steepness, colours: constant seaway occurrence probability
density) vs. mean wave period, s (x) and significant wave height, m (y); (b) short-term stability failure rate of
14000 TEU container vessel in beam seaway vs. mean wave period, s (x) and significant wave height, m (y);
(c) and (d) simplified criterion (y), maximum failure rate in design sea states of constant steepness (c) and
constant seaway occurrence probability density (d), vs. long-term stability failure rate, 1/s (x). Adapted from
Shigunov (2017).
Hashimoto et al. (2017) tackle the influence of operational limitations on navigation when a
vessel is vulnerable to a stability failure. The authors investigate the influence of operational
limitations on the routing of C11 container ship in trade between Japan and US, using parametric
roll criterion, and consider effects of wave height, period and encounter angle and ship speed on the
vessel motions.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
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Analysis of dynamic stability failure modes
The third main group of papers comprises the studies of the five dynamic stability failure modes
from a perspective outside the framework of SGISC. The studies either focusing on the examination
of the nonlinear dynamics underlying the failure modes and the treatment of critical response under
a stochastic sea environment, or through utilising mathematical models aiming at capturing the
critical behaviour through numerical simulations.
Regarding surge dynamics and broaching, Themelis et al. (2016) examine surf-riding in random
sea through the concept of “high-runs’ events which are defined as the time periods where a ship
attains abnormally high speed due to waves’ effect, thus they are defined as a speed crossing
problem. Instantaneous wave celerity is used as a threshold value and its correlation with mean ship
speed is examined. The statistics of high-runs occurrence are investigated by direct counting based
on numerical simulations. From another viewpoint, Kontolefas and Spyrou (2016) study the
problem of time-dependence of nonlinear dynamics of surge motion in a multi-chromatic wave
environment, by identifying phase-space objects, the so-called hyperbolic Lagrangian Coherent
Structures (LCS). Spyrou et al. (2016) use this technique along with extended numerical
simulations for the identification of new bifurcation phenomena of ship surge dynamics as more
frequencies are added in the wave excitation. Figure 6 presents the erosion process of the surf-riding
basins provoked by LCS tangling, when the wave excitation is gradually transformed to irregular.
Figure 6: Transformations of phase space arrangement as one moves from a regular (s2=0) to a fully irregular
excitation (s2=1) which is controlled by a spectrum parameter. A JONSWAP spectrum with wave peak
period and significant wave height equal with 9.93 s and 7 m has been used, while ship’s nominal speed is 12
m/s. Adapted from Spyrou et al. (2016).
De Jong et al. (2015) perform extended numerical simulations of a 6 d.o.f. numerical simulation
model targeting broaching behaviour in following and stern-quartering regular waves and examine
the effect of ship speed, wave heading and steepness. Broaching zones are estimated, however the
issue of their utilisation in real wave environment remains open. Belenky et al. (2016a, 2016b) use
the concept of split-time method for the estimation of the probability of surf-riding and capsize due
to pure loss of stability in irregular waves. By this concept, two problems are set: non-rare and rare,
where a metric of the danger of the rare event is defined and computed utilising data from the non-
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rare problem (exceedances of an intermediate threshold) and statistical extrapolation techniques.
However, problems could be from the nature of each stability failure in irregular seas, such as the
time dependence of phase-space and roll stiffness
As it has been already mentioned, the interest in parametric rolling has slightly decreased in the
period under review. Most of the works dealing with the parametric roll resonance have focused on
the reliability of various mathematical models in predicting the phenomenon occurrence and on the
accuracy of estimating the roll amplitudes. Umeda et al. (2016a) propose a 5 d.o.f. mathematical
model considering manoeuvring forces for numerical prediction of parametric roll resonance in
regular oblique waves and compare the results with the free-running model tests. A 6 d.o.f.
mathematical model is used by Liu and Papanikolaou (2016) to predict parametric roll in regular
and triple-frequency head waves; the results are compared with semi-captive model tests. Ma et al.
(2015) compare results obtained by a 3 d.o.f. mathematical model with model tests for parametric
roll in regular head waves. Lu and Gu (2016) employ a 1 d.o.f. mathematical model, whereby the
calculated instantaneous wetted surface due to heave and pitch motions is considered in the
calculation of restoring variation. The numerical results are compared with free-running model
experiments, with emphasis on the influence of radiation and diffraction forces on restoring
variation. Rodríguez et al. (2016) develop a pre-calculated derivative model for fast parametric roll
prediction in irregular head waves which, in contrast to full hydrodynamic codes, does not require
high computational capacity.
Regarding pure loss of stability, Umeda et al. (2017) compare the performance of a coupled 4
d.o.f nonlinear model with model tests for a research vessel that sank while sailing in stern-
quartering waves. Results show a good correlation between the model and the experiments and
confirm that the accident could be due to pure loss of stability. The authors highlight the possibility
to use this tool for the direct stability assessment of pure loss of stability under SGISC framework
and confirm that, similarly to Peters and Belenky (2016), the bulwark and weathertight
superstructures should be included within buoyant hull due to the transient characteristics of the
phenomenon under analysis (see Figures 4 and 17).
With respect to stability in beam seas, Anastopoulos and Spyrou (2016) propose a stability
assessment method based on the “realistic wave groups” (sequences of waves with high probability
of occurrence in a given sea state). Figure 7 presents the correlation surface used for determining
the most expected wave heights of the wave sequency, obtained by regression analysis and best-
model-fit method of the so-called transition kernels.
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Figure 7: Correlation surface for the prediction of the “most expected” consecutive wave heights (hi) from
previous height (hi-1) and period (ti-1). Adapted from Anastopoulos and Spyrou (2016).
In another study of stability in beam waves, Anastopoulos and Spyrou (2017) estimate the
probability of exceedance of a critical roll angle, by assessing the probability of encountering wave
sequences exceeding previously identified critical wave groups. The wave groups approach could
be framework for treating the low probability of occurrence of failure modes, given the proper
association of group characteristics with the nonlinear dynamic character of ship’s response. It is to
be noted that very few papers addressed the excessive accelerations stability failure mode. Borisov
et al. (2015) suggest a L1 vulnerability criterion for excessive accelerations, which uses the roll
amplitude from the IMO Weather Criterion and examine a set of measures that could be
implemented in the proposed criterion to improve its accuracy. Another analysis of stability failures
in beam waves (Hinz, 2015) utilizes risk analysis to estimate the safety of a RoPax ship based on
the number of fatalities due to capsize in dead ship condition and compares the results of the
analysis with the stability assessment carried out with the presently used procedures (i.e. minimum
GM). The paper exemplifies that the consideration of the stability failures within the risk-based
framework could be a possibility to arrive at the appropriate safety levels, but not without
difficulties.
Probabilistic procedures
One of the key issues when examine stability failure through numerical simulations is the
treatment of the problem of rarity arising due to the low probability of encounter such events for the
expected sea environments and given the limited duration of simulations. The following studies
proposing statistical methods and models to overcome this issue. Campbell et al. (2016) further
develop the envelope peaks over threshold (POT) method to extrapolate the probability of
occurrence of extreme events over the response amplitude from limited time series, providing
application of the generalized Pareto (GP) distribution to approximate the tail of the roll amplitude
probability density function, recommendations for the definition of the threshold and for the
estimation of the shape and scale parameters of GP, and uncertainty estimates of the probability of
exceedance obtained by extrapolation. Smith and Zuzick (2015) apply statistical extrapolation of
the exceedance probability over response amplitude for large-amplitude roll and pitch motions, as
well as vertical and lateral accelerations, using the GP distribution. For validation, the extrapolated
values based on a subset of a time history are compared to the directly computed values. Belenky
(2015) describes mathematical methods to account for data dependency in computing the variances
of the estimates of mean and variance and proposes methods for their computation for an ensemble
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of independent records of different durations. Belenky et al. (2016c) study the tail of the probability
density distribution of large roll amplitudes, showing that the tail is heavy up to some roll amplitude
(close to the unstable equilibrium) and then becomes light, with the right bound at the unstable
equilibrium. It is shown that the tail structure is related to the shape of the stiffness curve. Weems
and Belenky (2017) perform perturbed motion simulations with a high-fidelity potential code to
provide input for solving the rare problem of critical roll rate as a part of the split-time method for
the example of pure loss of stability.
3. DAMAGE STABILITY
The main categories of studies are related with numerical methods for damage stability,
including validation studies using model tests, as well as accident analyses. In addition, the
survivability and safety assessment of damaged ships were studied.
Numerical and Experimental Methods
A series of model experiments to assess the flooding process in a ship like structure is presented
by Lorkowski et al. (2015), together with a validation of a numerical simulation method. The test
model (Figure 8) has adjustable bulkheads and multiple external and internal openings that could be
closed to test different flooding scenarios. Motions and floodwater levels are measured during the
calm water experiments. The numerical model assesses floating positions in a quasi-static manner
and employs a Bernoulli type flooding rate calculation with discharge coefficients, determined
experimentally. Two of the tested flooding scenarios are used to validate the method, while some
limitations of the numerical model are discussed.
Figure 8: Test model. Adapted from Lorkowski et al. (2015).
Lim et al. (2015) present results for free-running model tests of a damaged ship, both in head
and following seas. The focus is on the propulsion and manoeuvring performance of a flooded ship,
related to the Safe Return to Port (SRtP) requirements. It is noted that in damaged condition the
distinguishable roll period is identical to the wave encounter period, whereas in intact condition
resonance in the natural roll period is observed. Dankowski and Krüger (2015) present an extension
to a numerical time-domain flooding simulation method to properly deal with the roll dynamics
during the transient flooding in calm water. Validation results with model tests are also presented.
Manderbacka and Ruponen (2016) study the effects of the breach size and internal openings on the
roll motion during the transient flooding stage using dynamic simulation with lumped mass method.
Furthermore, the effect of the inflow momentum flux is studied. It is concluded that a quasi-static
approach is applicable when there are large internal obstacles in the flooded compartment. On the
other hand, when the breach is large and internal obstacles are small, accounting for the inflow
momentum flux becomes more important. Lee (2015) introduces a new simulation method for
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progressive flooding, based on a dynamic orifice equation, whereas the common practice is to use
quasi-static Bernoulli method. The new approach is shown to avoid numerical stability problems,
and it is demonstrated with the simulation of the Sewol accident. A CFD approach using URANS to
a zero-speed damaged ship in calm water and in waves is presented by Sadat-Hosseini et al. (2016).
This paper includes extensive validation of both flooding and roll damping characteristics against
model test.
Accident Analyses
Krueger (2016) presents an overview of using time-domain flooding simulation in the analysis of accidents.
Several cases are briefly presented, including the Costa Concordia and Sewol. The main conclusion is that
current time-domain flooding simulation tools, based on Bernoulli's theorem, are very useful for
investigation of marine casualties. However, it is also pointed out that the main challenge is obtaining
accurate data on the damage, actual loading condition, possible cargo shift and environmental factors. The
flooding of the Sewol ferry (Figure 9) is also studied by Lee (2015), as an example of using the dynamic
orifice equation for flooding simulation.
Figure 9: Visualizations of the simulation results (upper left; initial stage, upper right: when the coast guard
arrived, lower left: when the last rescue action, lower right: final state). Adapted from Lee (2015).
Survivability Assessment
SOLAS 2009 does not explicitly address the accumulation of water on car deck spaces. Thus,
many concerns have been raised regarding the level of safety required by SOLAS 2009 damage
stability regulations and the one provided by Stockholm Agreement. The SDC sub-committee of
IMO proposed amendments to SOLAS chapter II-1, including the survivability assessment of
RoPax ships. Among others, a new s-factor concerning the RoRo spaces has been adopted in the
new SOLAS 2020.
The particular s-factor formulation is investigated in Skoupas (2015). Calculations were
performed for two large RoPax ships. The results show that the revised formulation seems to
account the water on deck effect satisfactory, but a more systematic investigation is needed in order
to drawn consistent conclusions. Bergholtz et al. (2016) review existing, as well as proposed
amendments, to Ro-Ro passenger ship safety regulations from a holistic perspective. Operational
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issues, decision support systems and emergency safety procedures are significant contributors of
ship safety and need to be addressed in a systematic way.
Krueger et al. (2015b) investigate the effect on entrapped water in vehicle deck spaces of RoPax
ships. Given the fact that majority of relevant ship accidents happened in an intact ship condition
with respect to the watertight subdivision, water on deck is formulated as an intact stability criterion
and it is proposed to be covered by the intact stability regulatory framework. The proposed
methodology is quite simple in principle, and it can be applied on calculations pertaining water
accumulation due to firefighting. However, further development is needed with respect to the
amount of water and the resulting roll period as well as to the proposed criteria.
As naval vessels are designed and built to support high-end combat operations, survivability as
well as ability to ‘fight hurt’ is a vital design objective. A new probabilistic approach on estimating
the level of survivability of a surface combatant is presented in Boulougouris et al. (2016). The
proposed approach is applied in a generic frigate and the results are compared to the current in force
semi-empirical deterministic criteria. The assumed damage length is also discussed and proposed to
be refined in a more rational way in order to account current weapon threats.
An alternative formulation of the critical wave height, derived in the GOALDS project, is
presented by Cichowicz and Murphy (2016). The formulation includes the damage GZ curve
properties (GM, GZ area and range), as well as the total residual buoyancy of the ship. The
formulation from the HARDER project (and implicitly SOLAS 2009) is based on GZmax and
positive range of stability. A better agreement, compared to that of the HARDER formulation,
between predictions of the GOALDS formulation and measurements from model tests is presented.
Furthermore, the physical rationale behind the alternative formulation is outlined, as well as
examples of how it could be utilized in the design of ships.
The starting point of Paterson et al. (2017) is that the wave height distribution behind the s-
factor formulation of SOLAS 2009, derived from recorded accident sea states at the time of
collision, cannot distinguish between either operational area or ship type, and that new formulations
are needed to rectify this. A new s-factor formulation is thus proposed based on 129 accidents
involving passenger ships only, between 2005 and 2016. New s-factor formulations based on wave
height data of different key operational areas is presented. Finally, a large container ship is used to
determine an attained index for all the presented s-factor formulations, and it is concluded that all
new methods rendered a lower index than that of SOLAS 2009, in particular, the proposed
formulation of the new accident database.
4. SHIP SAFETY IN OPERATION
Stability during ship’s operational phase is influenced by various operational parameters such as
environmental or loading conditions that could lead to various instabilities. Human reactions in
emergency cases are very crucial and operational guidance is considered essential in all
circumstances. In the framework of IMO’s SGISC, the use of operational guidance/limitations will
be a necessity for the vessel which does not pass the different three tiers of the criteria. Under these
conditions, some authors have focused their work in this field. For example, Terada et al. (2017b)
test a methodology based on the use of a GPS with motion measurement capabilities and
considering Wave Buoy Analogy in order to predict ship motions and thus generating operational
information. In investigating suitable signal processing methods for analysing non-stationary
stochastic ship motions, as part of the development of guidance systems for heavy weather
operation, Iseki (2015) reports the development and application of Discrete Wavelet Transform
which can be considered as a very powerful tool, according to the results.
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Responding to the need for norming the manoeuvrability in adverse conditions, Shigunov et al.
(2016) address an assessment framework based on a simple mathematical model and allowing
alternative methods for components of forces (see Figure 10). Two procedures with reduced level of
complexity (comprehensive and simplified) were developed to determine the required installed
power as a function of ship’s deadweight, windage area, rudder area, propeller characteristics and
engine type.
Operational guidance is also important to prevent accidents related to stability failures. In this
respect, an investigation of a safety level regarding excessive acceleration is presented in Ogawa
(2015) based on a very serious marine casualty of a 8,750 TEU container ship during ballast transit.
Taguchi et al. (2015) reports the technical investigation of a Japanese pusher tug which capsize
during travelling without the box barge and propose a manual to explain precautions for pusher tug
boats in navigating solely, limitations on loaded fuel oil and wind and wave conditions as well as
appropriate way of steering. Operational stability of car carriers is discussed in Huss (2016) as
experienced by a shipping company and in relation to the corresponding rule development and
compliance. The sensitivity of this type of ships to stability variations in waves is highlighted
noting that the existing requirements in the Intact Stability Code and other IMO regulations and
guidelines so far, give very limited operational guidance. Stability management activities are
discussed including design measures, decision support systems on board, training and monitoring.
Modern passenger ships are equipped with loading computer as a statutory requirement.
Following a flooding accident, the loading computer can produce information on the final
equilibrium of the damaged ship for decision support. However, the timeline of the propagation of
the flooding including the estimation of events, e.g. submergence time of non-watertight openings
and time to capsize, is not assessed. More advanced decision support systems capable of assessing
the timeline are available but not yet in wide use. In this respect, Pennanen et al. (2017) compare
the outcome and performance of loading computer and advanced decision support system in
accident. Possible crew response and statutory requirements to the decision support systems are also
discussed. The Vessel TRIAGE method – intended for on-board use for assessing and
communicating the safety status of the vessel in accidents – is described together with a
demonstration of its use in a collision damage of a large passenger ship by Pennanen et al. (2016)
(see Figure 18). The safety status is determined by the most severe of similarly labelled threat
factors of which two, related to damage stability, are presented. In the demonstration case it is
shown that the predictions were influenced by crew actions, e.g. closure of an open watertight door.
Another method of assessing ship’s survivability on-board of a damaged ship is presented in
Ruponen et al. (2015). Floodwater level sensors are used to detect the hull breach and then
calculations of progressive flooding in time-domain are performed. Critical factors, such as stability
of the ship and the evacuation time are accounted for. The proposed method is tested with two
realistic damage scenarios for a large passenger ship. As an effective means to reduce the risk of
losing lives in case of a flooding accident, Karolius and Vassalos (2017) discuss methods on
improving active measures to reduce flooding and prolong the time to capsize, such as closing of
external/internal openings, counter-ballasting and recovery of buoyancy with deployable emergency
floating devices.
Fishing vessels have been historically characterized by a very large number of stability-related
accidents. Simplified stability guidance systems have been proposed by many authors as one of the
feasible solutions for providing stability information to the masters under the main premises of
simplicity of use and low cost. Scarponi (2017) presents application examples of the so-called
Wolfson simplified stability guidance, taking as a basis minimum freeboard and maximum sea state
and displaying the level of safety of the vessel in a color-coded poster (see top of Figure 11).
16
Examples of two sank vessels show that they were operating in dangerous conditions under the
criteria of this method. Míguez González et al. (2016, 2017) describe a methodology to determine
the natural roll frequency of the vessel and use it in a simplified computer stability guidance system.
This method, based on sequential spectral analysis of the vessel roll motion, is applied to a stern
trawler in regular and irregular head and beam waves, showing promising results (see bottom of
Figure 11).
Figure 10: Examples of assessment results in polar coordinates ship speed (radial coordinate) – seaway
direction (circumferential coordinate, head waves and wind come from top): along line A, required power is
equal to available power, line B corresponds to advance speed 4.0 knots, and along line C, rudder angle is
25°. Adapted from Shigunov et al. (2016).
17
Figure 11: Top: Example of simplified Stability Notice and guidance mark for a small sized fishing vessel.
Bottom: sample results from natural roll frequency estimations for a medium sized fishing vessel in irregular
beam waves and gusty winds. Adapted from Scarponi (2017) (Top) (Fig. 4) and Miguez Gonzalez et al.
(2017) (Bottom).
5. ROLL DAMPING, ADVANCED NUMERICAL METHODS AND SPECIAL
STABILITY PROBLEMS
Development and improvement of models used in seakeeping codes concern roll damping
(contributions due to bilge keels and wind, memory effect, stall effect for anti-roll fins and scale
effect), nonlinear wave-induced forces and models of anti-roll tanks. Simulations based on direct
numerical solution of flow equations are becoming a practical tool for the investigation of complex
phenomena: besides definition of roll damping, they proved their applicability for the simulation of
fluid motions in anti-roll tanks (ART), severe green-water events, parametric roll, behaviour of
granulated cargo and fluidisation of particle cargo.
Modelling of roll damping
Wassermann at al. (2016) compare roll damping defined from free roll decay and harmonically
excited roll, recommending the Froude energy conservation approach and Fourier transform,
respectively, for their post-processing. Katayama and Umeda (2015) propose a ‘memory effect’
correction to Ikeda method for the bilge keel component of roll damping. The memory effect
depends on the difference between the Keulegan-Carpenter (KC) number in the previous and
current swings. RANS and experimental results are presented for forced irregular roll motions.
Söder et al. (2015) propose an estimation method for aerodynamic roll damping and show that it is
of the same order of magnitude as the hydrodynamic roll damping. Yıldız et al. (2016) numerically
investigate the effect of vortex shedding and its interaction with free surface on bilge-keel roll
18
damping. A decrease in roll damping is observed at large roll amplitudes due to proximity of bilge
keels to the free surface. Söder and Rosén (2016) propose a framework for holistic multi-tier roll
damping prediction. A scale effect correction is proposed for roll damping due to bilge keels, based
on RANS simulations.
Wassermann et al. (2016) apply RANS to investigate forced roll motion of an ellipsoid equipped
with normal plates at various flow speeds, roll frequencies and amplitudes and plate dimensions and
propose an improvement of the empirical formula of Ikeda for roll damping due to bilge keels, valid
in a wider range of KC numbers. Besides, a procedure is proposed to extrapolate the frictional
component of roll damping from model to full scale. Rudaković and Bačkalov (2017) investigate
the applicability of the Ikeda methods for roll damping prediction to typical European inland vessels
and show that the simplified Ikeda method may considerably under-estimate the eddy-making
component or even provide negative values for full hull forms even with block coefficient within its
applicability limits.
Anti-roll devices
Cercos-Pita et al. (2016) combine a 6 DOF ship motion simulation code with an SPH numerical
method for fluid motions in a tank to investigate nonlinear dynamics of the system in regular beam
waves. The SPH solver is validated using experimental data. The results of simulations indicate
nonlinear effects, e.g. decreasing efficiency of the tank with increasing wave steepness and bending
of the response curves due to the hardening restoring of the vessel. Fernandes et al. (2016) simulate
two-dimensional flow around a wing profile with harmonically oscillating angle of attack using
RANS to study the behaviour of lift and drag with changing angle of attack and improve models of
anti-roll fins in seakeeping codes. A big improvement potential is found in predicting stall of fin
sections: whereas typical models are comparable to RANS results for upstroke motion, they vastly
under-estimate the stall effect for down stroke.
For efficient nonlinear time-domain simulations of responses of an anti-roll tank (ART), Carette
(2016) employs amplitude-dependent retardation functions, based on harmonic ART response data,
and Hilbert transform for time-dependent interpolations. Using the effective gravity angle (EGA) as
excitation parameter significantly improves the prediction when sway motion is significant.
Application of CFD in ship stability
Hashimoto et al. (2016) combine RANS solver with overset grids and free-surface level-set
method to investigate the wave-induced surge force in following waves and validate the empirical
formula used in the SGISC pure losssurf-riding criterion. Zhou et al. (2015) study parametric roll
with a potential-theory solver, where roll damping is defined with various methods (RANS
simulations of roll decay and forced roll in calm water, roll decay model tests and Ikeda method),
and direct RANS simulations of ship motions in waves and compare numerical results with
experiments. Galbraith and Boulougouris (2015) study parametric roll in regular head waves using a
RANS solver combined with an overset grid method.
Kawamura et al. (2016) develop an SPH flow solver to predict 6 DOF ship motions in waves
including severe water shipping (green water) events and validate it against model tests for a fishing
vessel, captive or fully unrestrained, in following and stern-quartering regular waves (see Figure
12). Agreement with tests worsens for sway force and roll moment (for captive model) and sway
and roll motions (for free sailing model). Gu et al. (2015a) simulate roll decay at zero speed with a
RANS solver to compare roll damping for various positions of the bilge keels along a two-
dimensional section of an FPSO.
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Gu et al. (2015b) simulate forced roll of a two-dimensional section and free roll decay of a
three-dimensional container ship at zero speed using RANS, showing good agreement with
experiments for the forced roll and less favourable for the free roll decay simulations. Begovic et al.
(2015) simulate free roll decay at zero speed for DTMB 5415 naval ship in intact and two-
compartment damage conditions. Comparison with experiments shows small error for the roll
period and poorer agreement for roll damping in both intact and damage cases. Gu et al. (2016)
compare two methods for tackling ship motions, sliding grid interface and overset grid, combined
with a RANS solver to simulate roll decay of a pure car carrier and 2792 naval ship at zero speed.
In comparison with model tests for the pure car carrier, the overset grid method better predicts roll
period, whereas the sliding interface method better predicts roll damping. For the 2792 hull, both
roll period and roll damping are better predicted with the overset grid method.
Figure 12: Water on deck from model tests (left) and numerical simulations (right) in 60 degree off stern
waves. Adapted from Kawamura et al. (2015).
Advanced cargo behaviour modelling
Ju et al. (2016) apply a FEM-based numerical method to simulate fluidization of particle cargo.
The method is validated vs. experiments for three-axial compression and cyclic direct simple shear
(DSS). The influence of the frequency and amplitude of oscillations and the initial degree of
saturation of cargo on the liquefaction onset is studied for a centrifuge test and a shaking table test.
Spandonidis and Spyrou (2016) study coupled motion of dry granular cargo with ship roll in regular
beam waves to identify critical parameters affecting response. The cargo is modelled as individual
particles, interacting through nonlinear elastic and frictional forces. The resonance of roll motion
with and without granular cargo is studied. For wave excitation below a certain limit, the presence
20
of dry cargo reduces roll amplitudes, whereas for larger wave excitation, the vessel can show larger
roll motions or even capsize due to cargo motions.
6. STABILITY OF SPECIFIC SHIP TYPES
Recognising the particular challenges faced by specific ship types, a number of authors have
addressed on their distinct stability issues. The types addressed during the review period included
fishing and naval vessels, high speed crafts, multipurpose ships, offshore support vessels (OSVs), as
well as river-sea ships and sailing yachts.
Fishing vessels
Stability related issues, both static and dynamic, mainly leading to capsizing, are among the
most common causes of accidents involving fishing vessels. In addition, flooding, especially of the
main fish holds and engine room, is also usually pointed out as another major reason. However, in
both cases, accidents occur in a sudden way, preventing the crew from taking any corrective action
or even being able to escape from the vessel. These statements are proven for the case of the
Spanish fishing fleet in Mata-Álvarez-Santullano (2015), through an extensive analysis of more
than 300 accidents occurring between 2008 and 2014.
In Matsuda et al. (2017), another extensive analysis, in this case using towing tank experiments
of 17 different vessels, shows that the Japanese fishing fleet is prone to experiencing dynamic
stability failures. These include pure loss of stability, broaching and bow diving, thus also
highlighting the importance of dynamic stability related accidents within the fishing fleet. The issue
of flooding is tackled in Atzampos et al. (2017), where the authors propose the use of a high
expansion foam system (Damage Stability Recovery System – DSRS, shown in Figure 13) to
reduce the flooding volume in high risk compartments, and thus increase the vessel survivability in
critical flooding scenarios. A test case using a coastal UK fishing vessel is presented, showing a
large reduction of risk by protecting the high-risk compartments (which, among others, include
engine room and fish storage areas) with this system.
Naval Vessels
Naval ship stability papers mainly focus on two topics linked to the improvement of naval and
merchant ship stability rules. The improvements of the Naval Ship Code, based partially on similar
to IMO’s Goal-Based Standards, underline the need for these two directions of work. The first is to
find the justification of current rules in order to know if they are to be changed or not. The second
is related to the associated tolerable risk and the probability of capsizing, similar to level 3 of IMO’s
SGISC.
21
Figure 13: DSRS Graphical Representation. Adapted from Atzampos et al. (2017).
Hayes et al. (2015) study the wind speed parameters used in merchant and naval intact stability
analysis. In particular the nominal wind speed and gust factor used is investigated. It is noted that
there are no clear and obvious justification for some of the values used. The authors explain the two
philosophies that lead to very different nominal wind speed and they propose the introduction of a
standardised set of wind speeds for stability analyses, which would make both naval and merchant
rules more transparent. Luquet et al. (2017) show that numerical aerodynamic calculations (CFD)
could be used in a near future to check or adjust the rules (see Figure 14). Creismeas et al. (2017)
compare the naval and commercial approaches on the impact of ice accretion on the stability of
ships, a topic of great significance given the increasing importance of polar navigation and
patrolling in polar areas.
Figure 14: Wave elevation (m, on the RHS) and transverse speed (m/s, on the LHS) around a frigate at +45°
heel angle. Adapted from Luquet et al. (2015).
22
Regarding the estimation of the operational capsizing risk, a number of researchers have utilised
numerical dynamic stability tools to investigate the performance of naval vessels. Verboom and van
Walree (2015) compare the accuracy of two time-domain, panel method, 6 d.o.f. codes to simulate
the large amplitude motions of a frigate operating in stern quartering seas. The first method is
partially body exact while the second method utilised is fully body exact. The comparison with
model tests proves the significant improvement achieved by using the second method. On the other
hand, Le Pivert et al. (2015) select a simpler solution and use one degree of freedom to derive
analytically the probability density function of roll angle, roll speed and roll excitation moment and
estimate the probability of capsize introducing a suitable criterion. A more sophisticated seakeeping
code, namely FREDYN is used in Perrault (2015, 2016) to estimate the probability of exceeding a
critical roll angle. A study is performed to find the most accurate correlation parameters to this
probability. A list of regressors are suggested where GZ parameters showed always strong
correlations over the set of ships tested (8 frigate-type ships). Attempts to check some naval ships
against SGISC is performed in Kahramanoğlu et al. (2015), Grinnaert et al. (2016) and Petacco et
al. (2017). Some inconsistencies are pointed between L1 and L2 criteria. It is also pointed that the
request of a maximum value of KG requested by the four other failure modes and the minimum
value for excessive acceleration, contradict in some cases.
High-speed craft
Depending on the prevailing conditions in the market, high-speed craft (other than surface
combatants) may not get sufficient attention at the STAB and ISSW events. During the review
period considered in this paper only a handful of papers on high-speed craft has been presented.
Most of these papers do not tackle traditional roll motion related stability phenomena, but instead
large amplitude heave and pitch motions, excessive vertical accelerations, and related operational
limitations, operational guidance and safety issues.Nevertheless, high-speed craft in planning mode
are subject to numerous hazardous, and from a modelling point of view challenging, dynamic
stability phenomena.
Katayama and Amano (2015) present model experiments with three different high-speed craft
hulls in regular and irregular head seas. Various aspects of the experimental setup, such as sampling
frequency, are discussed. The longitudinal distribution of the vertical accelerations and the vertical
acceleration stochastic process in irregular seas are characterized. Rosén et al. (2017) consider
vertical accelerations for high-speed craft in irregular head waves, both through model experiments
(see Figure 15) and time-domain simulations with a non-linear strip method. The results are
discussed in relation to the prevailing safety philosophy and semi-empirical design methods in the
IMO HSC Code and classification rules. A number of questions are raised regarding the validity of
these methods and the possibility of introducing direct methods is discussed. Also van Walree and
Thomas (2017) present simulations and model experiments with a high-speed boat which is free-
running in different relative angles towards the waves. Various operating limits, such as excessive
accelerations, water ingress and surf riding, are investigated. The simulations are performed with a
non-linear panel method, where very good correlation to measured motions is presented, and also
the accelerations correlate fairly well. Terada et al. (2017a) present a method which could be used
on-board high-speed craft for automatic avoidance of dangerous situations related to the craft
vertical impact accelerations. It is based on recursive fitting of a time series model to real time
measurement of the vertical accelerations on-board. The method is validated, and the influence of
various modelling parameters is investigated based on pre-recorded acceleration time series. Also,
de Alwis and Garme (2017) consider the situation on-board high-speed craft. A field study is
presented where both subjective data in terms of the crews’ experience of the operational
23
environment and various pain and fatigue symptoms, and objective data in terms of vertical
accelerations measured on-board, are collected. Clear correlation between subjective and objective
data is found and the methods used for the data collection are concluded feasible for further studies.
Figure 15: UNINA model experimental set up (photo at model speed V = 5.75m/s). Adapted from Rosén et
al. (2017).
Other ship types
Lübcke (2015) presents the investigation results for the accident of the multipurpose ship MV
ROSEBURG, which occurred in the Bay of Kiel, in 2013. As a consequence of improper loading
and subsequent incorrect on-board stability management, the ship with the timber cargo on deck
heeled due to wind gusts. This initial heel caused the sliding of cargo and failure of cargo securing
equipment, which in turn, increased the heel. As a result, the ship lost some 75% of the cargo, but
managed to avoid capsize. Chopra (2015) analyses the existing stability criteria of several offshore
support vessels through their limiting KG for several conditions and/or operational modes. Oliveira
et al. (2015) propose an alternative method to carry out inclining tests for offshore vessels in their
operational location, considering the environmental conditions and the effects of mooring and
risers. The method has been validated through model tests experiments and full-scale tests using a
semisubmersible unit (see Figure 16). Wang et al. (2015) analyse the response of taut mooring lines
subjected to single and bi-frequency parametric excitation. It is observed that, depending on the
damping level and the amplitude of the harmonic excitation components, the safe regions of the
stability chart may greatly change compared to those of single parametric excitation.
Figure 16: SS Model in LabOceano Basin. Adapted from Oliveira et al. (2015).
24
Mazarakos et al. (2015) investigate the dynamics of a TLP platform supporting three oscillating
water column (OWC) devices and a wind energy turbine using frequency and time domain
numerical models. Umeda et al. (2016a) address the occurrence of “false negatives” in the
application of Level 2 of pure loss SGISC to offshore supply vessels (OSV), through model tests
and numerical simulations (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Free-running model experiment of the OSV in astern quartering waves. Adapted from Umeda et
al. (2016a).
The river-sea ships are inland vessels suitable for restricted navigation at sea. Chatelier et al.
(2017) present research on the development of appropriate classification rules for river-sea ships
that would consider stability in waves and seakeeping of inland vessels. Angelou and Spyrou (2015)
present a mathematical model intended for sailing yachts behaviour prediction. The model aims to
estimate the variation of forces and moments acting on sails, caused by the wind-induced sails
deformation and recognize the influence of these variations on the course-keeping instabilities in
downwind sailing.
7. MODELLING OF ENVIRONMENT
To evaluate the stability appropriate, the modelling of environment such as ocean waves, winds
and so on is important. Gankevich and Degtyarev (2015) present a theoretical method to estimate
velocity and wave pressures of potential flow under given information of a wavy surface elevation.
This work proposes a new method for the efficient calculation of the velocity and the wave
pressures of potential flow in actual sea, which cannot be handled by numerical calculation of
elliptic equation. It is demonstrated that the velocity and the wave pressures of potential flow in the
actual sea state can be reproduced by the wavy surface elevation generated by an autoregressive
model. This method can use the real time evaluation with respect to waves around a ship. Reed et
al. (2016) present a new modelling procedure with respect to incident irregular waves for use in a
time-domain numerical ship-motion simulation code, using an autoregressive modelling procedure,
which is a type of the statistical modelling procedure. The procedure has several significant
advantages compared with the classical Fourier series modelling, such as the Longuet-Higgins
model, where the most important presented to be the computational time. Regarding to an
evaluation method of the wind force, Ariffin et al. (2016) examine several assumptions of the
weather criterion code based on a new wind tunnel experiment method considering the effect of roll
motion. Two models are used; a merchant ship with simple geometry and a naval ship. They have
pointed out that experimental values of roll angle are lower than those predicted by the criterion.
On the other hand, from the viewpoint of the operational aspects, the monitoring of the ocean
waves is also important. Susaki et al. (2017) propose to estimate the crests of incident waves in real
time using radar. Specifically, the wave period can be estimated with an error of 7.0% and error of
6.6% compared with the wave buoy data by the radar mounted on the actual ship. It is also
25
mentioned that it is possible to predict the wave profile of the incident wave to encounter, but
verified results exist for wave heights below 3 m.
8. EDUCATION
In the previous reviews of papers presented at STAB conferences and ISSW events (Bačkalov et
al., 2015 and Bačkalov et al., 2016), a growing concern was expressed that the contemporary
research on ship stability and engineering education on this subject do not advance at the same
pace. Therefore, the research and the educational process become increasingly disconnected and the
implementation of research results in university courses on ship stability turns into a challenging
task. The papers highlighted the potential deficiencies of “classic” ship stability education, which
could result in lack of knowledge necessary for proper understanding of complex stability problems
that are nowadays gradually becoming an integral part of engineering practice. The papers also
indicated some possibilities for facilitating these difficulties in teaching process. Yet the question
how to attain the required level of ship stability knowledge through university education remained
open, which in turn instigated the initiative to include this topic in the present review paper as well.
The present review focuses on the role of STAB and ISSW events in improvement of education
of young professionals. The main objective of this section is to highlight those papers, among those
presented in STAB2015, ISSW 2016 and ISSW2017, which could be helpful in bridging the gap
between the research and the education on ship stability. This includes papers that could assist in
understanding of the future (or even present) stability rules on a conceptual level; papers that could
help in implementation of advanced computational methods; and papers that put the well-
established methods and approaches to test and re-examine the boundaries of their application.
An overview of the process of development and the current status of the SGISC is presented in
Umeda and Francescutto (2016), offering an insight into the underlying assumptions and reasoning
behind the formulation of standards to be used in novel regulatory requirements and providing
information necessary for proper understanding and, consequently, successful implementation of
rules. The paper of Peters and Belenky (2016) has a similar significance for the educational process.
Focusing on pure loss of stability failure mode, the authors discuss the consistency of vulnerability
levels of SGISC and consider the options for resolving such issues. Moreover, the paper offers a
broader view of requirements that intact stability criteria should comply with in order to be
successfully applied.
The implications of use of different mathematical models of the same phenomenon in analysis
of ship stability in waves are the subject of Peters et al. (2015). Shigunov (2016) addresses the
problem of rarity of stability failures and deliberates upon accuracy and suitability of two possible
approaches that could be used in probabilistic direct stability assessment of ship stability. Both
papers treat novel methods, typically above the scope of classis ship stability courses, and offer
lessons on importance of proper mathematical modelling of stability phenomena and thorough
understanding of underlying assumptions and boundaries of models’ application, which students
often fail to consider.
While presenting a procedure implemented in software intended for decision support in flooding
events, Pennanen et al. (2016) reintroduce the concept of floodable lengths curve to safety of
passenger ships (see Figure 18). Although this could unintentionally create some confusion in the
classroom over the role of floodable lengths in the present subdivision and damage stability
regulations, the paper is interesting from the educational point of view, as it invokes benefits of
using this somewhat neglected tool which is still taught in ship stability courses. On the other hand,
Smith and Silva (2017) propose a method for assessment of applicability of linear strip-theory
26
seakeeping approach in high sea states. In both cases, the papers deal with the revaluation of well-
known methods that are standard parts of the naval architecture curricula.
Figure 18. Color coding for flooding extent based on the floodable length curve as a part of the Vessel
TRIAGE decision support system methodology. Adapted from Pennanen et al. (2016).
In the previous review papers (Bačkalov et al., 2015 and Bačkalov et al., 2016), the lack of
literature suitable for university education in ship stability was stressed as one of the main
challenges. Some books, however, authored by the prominent researchers and members of the
STAB community, were indicated as valuable references in the teaching process. The new
installment in the Contemporary ideas on ship stability series (see Belenky et al., 2019) providing a
comprehensive yet careful selection of research in the field should be added to this list. Also, the
present review paper is aimed at providing an accessible overview of current research for students
and young professionals entering the field of ship stability, dynamics and safety.
It is interesting to notice that most of the authors of the papers herein recognized as valuable
from the educational point of view are neither (active) teachers nor they are (presently) affiliated
with academic institutions. This emphasizes the substantial educational potential of the STAB
conference and ISSW events. Therefore, as a final point, the authors of papers that are going to be
presented in the future STAB and ISSW events are invited to consider the importance of their work
for education of prospect generations of engineers and, where applicable, to strive to present their
results in a pedagogical manner. The teachers, on the other hand, are invited to embrace the
abundance of knowledge on the subject, contained in the proceedings of ship stability conferences
and workshops and to join and take active part in the work of international ship stability community
gathered around STAB and ISSW.
9. CONCLUSIONS
STAB and ISSW are the most comprehensive scientific events addressing the issues of ship
stability, dynamics and safety. Although valuable research on these topics is published also outside
of STAB community, the present review aims to provide a helpful insight into contemporary ship
stability developments. The paper summarises research published in STAB and ISSW proceedings
since 2015 following the previous review work of Stability R&D Committee, Bačkalov et al.
(2016).
The research was significantly stimulated by the current regulatory developments. A
considerable number of papers concerned simplified assessment methodologies (level 1 and 2) of
27
SGISC, e.g. consistency between these levels. However, only few papers concerned comparison of
level 2 with model tests or numerical simulations, and very few papers dealt with Direct Stability
Assessment (DSA). Very limited number of investigationsNo papers concerned consistency
between level 2 and DSA (since DSA guidelines were finished only in 2019), thus this should
become an important research area in the future.
On the other hand, work on SGISC has stimulated developments in related fields beyond the
regulatory framework. In particular, a great number of papers concerned in-depth analysis of the
five dynamic stability failure modes, which generates knowledge for future regulatory
developments. A significant amount of work on probabilistic approaches for extreme events and
capsizing, problem of rarity and statistical extrapolation methods will not only contribute to the
implementation of DSA and Operational Measures within the SGISC but also provide a scientific
basis for future developments. Finally, this work has stimulated attempts to improve or develop new
simple methods for the prediction of roll damping: although this task was not completed, it will
remain an important topic for future applied research. Parallel to DSA development in SGISC,
direct stability assessment attracts increasing attention for naval vessels.
Ship safety in operation is being addressed in an increasing number of papers. On the one hand,
this is related to regulatory developments, to address operational limitations and operational
guidance within the SGISC, but also extends well beyond that, concerning, in particular, real-time
simulations to address intact stability and decision-support for damaged ships in a flooding
accident, based on progressive flooding simulations in the time domain. Improved data collection
capabilities, better onboard observations and improving weather forecast are making the real-time
operational guidance increasingly feasible. Operational measures to improve safety are becoming a
key research topic for the future.
During the covered period, damage stability has attracted less attention, and concerned in-depth
refinement of the advanced aspects of damage stability, such as simulation of transient flooding,
dynamics of water on a vehicle deck and s-factor formulation for RoRo vessels, refinement of s-
factor accounting for ship type-specific accident data, and resistance and propulsion characteristics
of damage ships for safe return to port requirements. There has also been research towards
development of a new, probabilistic, approaches for naval vessels. Most of the research on damage
stability has concentrated on passenger ships, especially large cruise ships and Ropax vessels. This
trend is expected to continue, but hopefully focus will be also on safety of damaged cargo vessels.
CFD increasingly becomes a practical tool in ship dynamics and stability: apart from becoming
a feasible practical alternative to model tests for the definition of roll damping, both for intact and
damaged ships, recognised in SGISC, it has become a practical tool for in-depth study of complex
flow phenomena: progressive flooding, anti-roll tanks and fins, green water behaviour, parametric
roll and broaching-to, as well as complex cargo behaviour, instead of or additionally to model tests.
Concerning particular ship types, a substantial number of papers dealt with naval vessels, mainly
with the objective to eventually determine tolerable risk for the Naval Ship Code. Few papers
concerned fishing vessels and high-speed craft (in the context of vulnerability to dynamic stability
failures), perhaps due to lower budgets for these types in combination with the complexity of the
problem. In the case of fishing vessels, another main reason for this, is the lack of an international
mandatory regulatory framework and the fact that SGISC, which drove many of the research efforts
during these years, are not intended to be applied to these vessels.
The STAB and ISSW events can play a significant role in the education of young professionals:
at least six papers were found to be helpful in bridging the gap between the research and the
educational process. However, there is a general concern that some important topics still need to be
28
addressed from the teaching and learning perspectives, in particular, probabilistic approach to
damage stability, which is found to be difficult to be implemented in practical teaching. It would be
appropriate to expect that a solution to this issue would be proposed by the STAB community.
10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This collaborative effort has been undertaken by a group of members of the “Stability R&D
Committee” (www.shipstab.org/stability-r-d-committee-srdc/). Stability R&D Committee (SRDC)
is an international committee created for promoting and supporting research, collaboration and
exchange of information in the field of ship stability, particularly among, but not limited to, young
individuals.
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the organizers of the 13th International
Conference on Stability of Ships and Ocean Vehicles (STAB 2018, Kobe, Japan) for the
opportunity to present the original version of this work.
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