analog and digital communicaitons
TRANSCRIPT
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Chapter
Overview of Analog and Digital Technologies
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Chapter Objectives• Explain the basic concepts of analog
and digital technology • Show the importance of frequency
spectrum to communication along with an explanation of the concept of bandwidth
• Give an overview of the interface technology between analog and digital technology
• Describe the process of digitizing data, audio, image and video
• Discuss quality retention in digital transmission
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Overview of Analog Technology
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Areas of Application
• Old telephone networks• Most television broadcasting at
present• Radio broadcasting
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Analog Signals: The Basics
Cycle
Time
Signal
Amplitude
Frequency = Cycles/Second
A typical sine wave
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Amplitude and Cycle
• Amplitude– Distance above reference line
• Cycle– One complete wave
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Frequency
• Frequency– Cycles per second – Hertz is the unit used for expressing
frequency• Frequency spectrum
– Defines the bandwidth for different analog communication technologies
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Information Representation Using
Analog Signals• Information can be represented
using analog signals• Analog signals cannot be
manipulated easily• Analog signals must be digitized
for computer processing– They must also be presented in binary
form for computer processing
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Analog to Digital Conversion
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
A to D Converters, Digital Signal Processors (DSP)
etc.
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Data Transmission Using Analog Technology
Digital0s and 1s
Analog0s and 1s
Digital-to-Analog Modulation and vice versa
Computer Modem
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Voice Transmission Example
Voice
Carrier Wave
AM Radio Transmission
Analog-to-Analog Modulation
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Frequency Spectrumand Bandwidth
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Frequency Spectrum Defined
• Available range of frequencies for communication
• Starts from low frequency communication such as voice and progresses to high frequency communication such as satellite communication
• The spectrum spans the entire bandwidth of communicable frequencies
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Frequency Spectrum
Low Frequency High Frequency
Radio Frequency
CoaxialCable
MHz
SatelliteTransmission
MicrowaveMHz
Voice
KHz
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Frequency Spectrum
• Low-end– Voice band
• Middle– Microwave
• High-end– Satellite communication
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Signal Propagation
• Low frequency– Omni-directional
• High frequency (In general)– Unidirectional
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Bandwidth Definition
• Bandwidth, in general, represents a range of frequencies
300 MHz 700 MHz
Bandwidth is 400 MHz
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Usage of the Term Bandwidth
• To specify the communication capacity– A medium such as a coaxial cable is
associated with a bandwidth• To indicate the bandwidth of a
technology– Voice grade circuits have a bandwidth
of 4 KHz (0-4000 Hz)
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Digitization Consideration
• Sample at twice the rate of bandwidth for acceptable quality digitization of voice– Sampling rate for voice transmission
is there 8000 Hz• If each sample is represented by 8-
bits, the bandwidth required for transmission is 64000 bps – Approximately 64K bps
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Communication Capacity
• Bandwidth is indicative of the communication capacity
• Communication speed is proportional to bandwidth– Shannon's law
• Units used to represent bandwidth are Hz, bps etc.
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Coaxial Cable Example
• Bandwidth of 300 MHz • Comparison with twisted pair
– Higher bandwidth– Supports faster communication
speeds
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Limiting Factors on Communication Speed
Communication SpeedBandwidth Technology
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Impact of bandwidth and Technology on Communication
Speed• Bandwidth limitation
– Use better technology such as data compression used in modems to increase speed of communication
• Bandwidth and technology limitation– Move to higher bandwidth media such
as fiber cables
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Speed Dependency on Bandwidth and Technology
Medium 1
Technology Medium 2
Higher Bandwidth
Medium 1 example can be shielded twisted pair and medium 2 example can be fiber.
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Implication
• Whenever a new technology with higher communication speed is introduced, it is first introduced on a medium of higher bandwidth– Example: Optical fiber
• It is then moved to a widely used medium with further advancement of the technology– Example: Copper wire
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
An Overview of Digital Technology
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Areas of Application
• Computers• New telephone networks• Phased introduction of digital
television technology
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Digital Technology • Basics
– Digital signals that could be assigned digital values
• Digital computer technology– Digital signals – Binary representation
• Encoded into ones and zeros
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Digital Advantage
• Processing using computer technology
• Programmable services• Better quality due to being able to
reconstruct exact digital patterns at the receiving end
• Faster communication speeds are possible
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Digital Signal
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Pulse
Time
Sig
nal
Str
eng
th
Pulse Duration
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Digital Terms
• Pulse• Pulse duration• Pulse amplitude• Signal strength
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Clock Speed and Pulse Duration
PulseDuration
MHz
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Clock Speed and Execution Speed
• Pulse duration is inversely proportional to the clock frequency
• Faster the clock speed, the smaller the pulse duration
• Smaller the pulse duration, the faster the execution in general
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Clock Speed and Communication Speed
• Faster the clock speed, smaller the pulse duration
• Smaller the pulse duration, smaller the time taken to transmit one bit of information
• Therefore, faster the clock speed measured in MHz, faster the communication speed measured in Mbps in general
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Clock Speed and Computer Operation
• Computer operations are timed by a clock, namely by the clock speed measured in HZ
• Faster the speed, the smaller the pulse duration
• Computer operations are timed by the pulse duration
• Therefore, faster the clock speed, faster the computer operation– A 3 GHz computer is faster than a 2 GHz
computer
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Digital-to-Analog and Analog-to-Digital Conversion
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The Need for Conversion
• Analog-to-Digital Conversation– Connection of a computer to an
analog communication line • Digital-to-Digital Interface
– Connection of a computer to a digital ISDN line
– Connection of different networks using a router
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Digital-to-Analog Interface
Comp.Sys. 1
Comp.Sys. 2Modem Modem
DigitalSerialRS-232C
DigitalSerialRS-232C
AnalogITU V.90
POTS
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Digital-to-Digital Interface
Comp.Sys. 1
Comp.Sys. 2
DSLRouter
DSLRouter
DigitalIEEE 802.3
Digital IEEE 802.3
Digital Internet
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Digital to Digital Interface
Network 2 Network 1Router
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Digital to Digital Interface
• In general, in digital to digital interface, protocol conversion takes place– Example: Connecting an Ethernet
network to a campus backbone network using a router
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Overview of Digitization of Information
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Digitization of Information
• Information need to be digitized for computer processing and the transmission of information
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Components of Information
• Alphanumeric data• Image• Audio• Video
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Digital Information Processing
Data
Audio
Image
Video
Digitized and Encoded
DigitalTransmission
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The Advantages of Digitization
• Information can be processed by the computer
• Easy transmission of information over the Internet and other computer networks
• Minimize loss of quality during transmission
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Digitization Of Alphanumeric Data
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The Basis
• Alphanumeric data is digitized using well established coding systems
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Codes Used in the Digitization Of Data
• Coding Standards– ASCII – EBCDIC– Unicode
• ASCII Code example– A=1000001
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The Unicode
• Replaced the ASCII coding system in microcomputers
• All variations of the Latin language– English– European languages
• Chinese and Japanese• 18 Major languages
– Eg: Tamil
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Unicode Possibilities
• It is a 16-bit code as opposed to the ASCII code that is basically an 8-bit code
• It is therefore possible to have 65,536 variations in UNICODE
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Communication With ASCII And EBCDIC
• Latin languages can be transmitted in coded form
• Other languages– Bit-mapped image transmission– Requires considerably more
bandwidth– An exception is the use of true-type
fonts to display the characters of a language not supported by ASCII
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Communication With Unicode
• Binary encoded transmission– Latin languages– 18 major languages– Chinese, Japanese etc.
• Transmission itself requires less bandwidth
• Universal usability of software in all the supported languages
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Unicode Advantage in WWW Transmissions
Client
TamilWeb Site
Internet Explorer Browser retrievingTamil pages on a client supporting Unicode.
Tamil pages are transmitted in their binary encoded form.
Site created using all the tools such as theMS-IIS.
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Transmission of Tamil Pages as Images on WWW
ClientTamilWeb Site
Internet Explorer Browser retrieving Tamil pages similar to images.
Binary image transmission of Tamil pages.
Web pages scanned andstored as images.
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Using Downloaded Fonts to Host and Transmit Tamil
Pages
ClientTamilWeb Site
Internet Explorer retrieving Tamil pages.
Site createdwith tools such as MS-IIS.
Download and installthe Tamil fonts.
Binary encoded form.
Bandwidth requirements are low.
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Foreign Language Web Page Options
• Store the page as an image• Use a font for the language, if
available• Use Unicode to develop the web
page
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UNICODE Usage
• Currently all the computers support UNICODE
• Also, the operating systems and the applications also support UNICODE
• Both hardware and software support is necessary for the successful implementation of UNICODE
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End of Module
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Module
Digitization Of Audio
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Digitization Of Audio: Overview
• Take samples of audio at pre-determined time intervals known as the sampling rate
• Represent the sampled audio with digital signals– Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
• Encode signals into binary code– Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) that
incorporates PAM as well– Required for computer processing
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Digitization of Audio: Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)Audio
9 8 7 6 7 9
Digital Signals must further be encoded into binary signals for computer processing and transmission.
Sampling Interval
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Digitization and Encoding of Audio: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• PCM is a two step process• First the audio is sampled and
represented by digital signals• The digital signals are then
encoded in binary form
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Binary Encoding of Signals in Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)
9 8 7 6 5 6
1001 1000 0111 0110 0101 0110
The integer numbers have effectively been coded into zeros and ones. The ones and zeros now contain the audio information encoded in a form that could be processed by a computer.
PCM
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Salient Points on the Digitization Of Audio
• Sampling rate and the number of bits used for representing the samples will determine the quality of the audio
• Quality is retained in transmission because only codes are transmitted
• Audio can be recreated to the original quality by extracting the pattern from the digital code
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Sampling Factors
• Sampling interval determined by sampling frequency– Measured in Hz
• Sampling depth– Measured in bits
• Sampling channels– Mono or stereo, for example
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Sampling Example
• CD quality audio– 44 KHz– 16 Bits– Stereo
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End of Module
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Module
Audio Quality, Bandwidth and Streaming
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Factors Affecting Quality
Number of bits used for binary encoding. Example: 4 bits allow 16 amplitude variations to be represented.
9 8 7 6 7 9
Sampling Interval
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Effect of Sampling Frequency
• Higher sampling frequency– Smaller sampling intervals– Frequent sampling– Better quality because the audio
pattern is captured better– Higher bandwidth required for
transmission– Higher disk space required for storage
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Computation of Bandwidth Requirement for
Transmission• Problem:
– Compute the audio streaming rate for a voice grade circuit given that the number of bits used in the sampling is 8
• Background information– A voice grade circuit has a bandwidth
of approximately 4000 Hz• General rule
– For acceptable quality, the audio must be sampled at twice the frequency of the voice grade bandwidth
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Reason for Sampling at Twice the Frequency
• Two peaks in each cycle– Half of a cycle is above the datum line– The other half of the cycle is below
the datum line• Therefore, sample the audio at
twice the frequency rate
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CD Sampling?
• Sampling in this case is done for higher quality– 44 KHz– 16-bits– Stereo
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Problem Representation
79 68 57 46 57 79
1/8000 Seconds (8000 HZ twice the frequency of the voicegrade circuit) or 2X4000 samples per second
8 bits are used enabling 256 amplitudes to represent the human voice which is considered to be adequate.
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Bandwidth Computation for Voice
• Number of samples – 8000 per second
• Number of bits per sample– 8
• Bandwidth requirement– 8X8000 bps = 64,000 bps– Approximately 64K bps
• 64K bps is the speed of a single ISDN (B) channel designed to carry voice
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Bandwidth of Voice Circuits
• Generally speaking, the bandwidth requirement for uncompressed voice circuit is 64 Kbps
• An example is the ISDN – B channel that was originally intended to carry voice– Its bandwidth is 64 K bps
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Examples in Audio Quality and Bandwidth
Requirement
• CD quality– 44,100 Hz, 16 bit, Stereo– 1376K bps
• Radio quality– 22,050 Hz, 8 bit, mono– 176K bps
• Telephone quality– 11,025 Hz, 8bit, mono– 88K bps
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Recording Quality and Bandwidth Requirement
Demonstration
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Recording Used in this Example
• Settings for recording– 11K Hz, 8 bit and mono
• Audio bandwidth requirement is 88K bps
• Streaming is required to send the audio alone over the Internet
• Approximate bandwidth required for both video and audio is 133K bps
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Audio Transmission In WWW
ClientReceive audio usingInternet Explorerand a plug-in to receive the audio stream.
Audio streaming requires compression.
Real-time audiobroadcast supportusing streamingserver module.
28-56K bpsWebSite
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Delivery of Instruction Over the WWW
Client
WebSite
Receive audio/video usingInternet Explorer and MediaPlayer.
Audio/Video streaming.
Store streamed audio/video using Windows Media.
28-56K bps
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Streaming Classroom Lectures on CD
• Bandwidth requirement as computed earlier is
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Internet Ramp Bandwidth Computation
WWW
A T1 line operating at approximately 1.354M bpscan support approximately 10 connections in theory.
In practice, 7 connections which is 70 percent of 10connections can be supported with due consideration given to bandwidth bottlenecks.
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Types of Multimedia Transmission
• Unicasting• Multicasting• Broadcasting
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Sampling Considerations In Communications
Sender Receiver
Digital audio transmission
Adjust quality (sampling interval and bitrepresentation) to suit bandwidth availability.
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Audio Files
• Audio can be stored in different formats– Uncompressed or raw file format
(wav)– Compressed format – Streaming format
• Streamed audio is also compressed • It is also designed for real-time delivery
of audio
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Audio File Format
• wav file format– Basic file format in audio storage or raw file
• rm file format– Real audio’s streamed file format– Streamed file
• wma file format– Microsoft’s audio streamed file format – Streamed file
• mp3 file format– Compressed file
• aac file format–
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Quality Retention in Digital Transmission
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Quality Retention
• Quality is retained in digital transmission because only the codes are transmitted
• Quality is subject to some deterioration in analog transmission because the wave pattern is transmitted
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Analog Audio Transmission
Audio Priorto Transmission
Audio withInterference
Transmission
Audio After Filtering
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Passage of Analog Audio Over Analog Lines
AnalogAudio
AnalogSignals
AnalogSignals
AnalogAudio
Telephone
Telephone
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Recreation of Audio from Analog Signals
• A difficult task• Complex algorithms are used to
filter noise etc. for better audio transmission
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Signal Passage in Digital Audio Transmission
Encode
TransmitRecreate
Decode
Audio
Audio
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A Sample Digital Audio Transmission Path
AnalogAudio
DigitalAudio
DSLModem
DSLModem
DigitalAudio
AnalogAudio
SoundCard
SoundCard
DigitalNetwork
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Sound Generation
• Sound is recreated at destination– Using FM synthesis– Using wave table generation
• Noise is not an issue in digital communication although it is an issue in digital transmission– The reason, once again, is due to the
fact that only codes are transmitted in digital transmission
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Better Sound Generation
• Wave table generation provides better sound reproduction that FM synthesis
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Digital Advantage in Audio Transmission
• Only codes are transmitted• Original encoding is recreated• Original audio is reproduced• Again, sampling rate and number
of bits used in each sample will determine the quality of audio transmitted
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Digitized Signal Transmission Over Analog
LinesEncode
TransmitRecreate
Decode
Audio
Audio
Sampled Signals
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Sample Digital Audio Transmission Path Over Analog
Lines
AnalogAudio
DigitalAudio
Modem
Modem
DigitalAudio
AnalogAudio
SoundCard
SoundCard
AnalogPSN
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Audio Transmission In WWW
Client
WebSite
Receive audio usingInternet Explorerand Windows Media Player.
Audio stream over analog/digital line.
Real-time audiobroadcast supportusing Windows Mediastreaming server module.
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Analog to Digital Converter
• A to D and D to A converter• The chip that is responsible for this
conversion is known as the DSP (Digital Signal Processor) chip
• It is used in sound cards, modems etc. wherever there is a need for A to D and D to A conversion
• The mass use of this chip in various devices has led to a drastic drop in the price of the chip and the devices
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Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
DSP
Digital Analog
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Digitization Of Image
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Image Digitization
• Image can be of the form black and white, gray scales, color
• Factors that influence the digitization of image are as follows– Resolution measured in pixels – Color depth expressed in number of
color variations
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Digitization Of Image: Overview
PixelHorizontal Resolution
Vert
ical R
eso
luti
on
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Digitization of the Letter L
Number of bitsdetermine the amount of information that couldbe stored.
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Digitization Of Image: The Process
• Divide the image into a grid of pixels that may be considered as the sampling points of the image
• Digitize information on each pixel• Store and transmit
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Resolution
• Horizontal resolution– Number of horizontal pixels
• Vertical resolution– Number of vertical pixels
• Image resolution– Horizontal by vertical resolution– Ex: 640 by 480
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Digitization of Black and White Image
• White– A pixel lit represents a 1
• Black– A pixel not lit represents a 0
• Storage required per pixel– 1 bit
• Storage required for 640 by 480 resolution image– 640 times 480 bits = 307,200 bits =
38.4K Bytes
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Digitization of Image Using Gray Scales
• A pixel may take a value between 0 and 15 for 16 gray scales
• A gray scale of 3 can be coded as 0011 and the others similarly using this 4 digit code
• The bandwidth requirement for the transmission of a 640X480 image in this case is as follows:– 640X480X4 = 153.5K Bytes
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Digitization of Color Image
• Image coding – Each pixel may take a value between 0 and
255 if 256 colors are to be represented• Storage requirement
– Digitizing of images requires substantial number of bytes and hence large storage space for processing
• Bandwidth requirement– Higher bandwidths are required to transmit
color images
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Bandwidth Computation for Image with 256 Colors
• Resolution is 640X480• 8 bits are required to represent
256 colors• bandwidth requirement for the
transmission of one image is as follows:– 640X480X8 = 307.2K Bytes
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The Effect of Color Depth and Resolution
• Compare VGA, SVGA and XGA – XGA provides the highest resolution
• Practical implication– More colors less resolution if bandwidth or
storage is the limiting concern– Example
• 256 colors at lower resolution• 16 colors at higher resolution
• Rule– Higher the resolution the lower the number
of colors available in general given the resource constraints such as bandwidth constraints
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Factors Affecting Bandwidth Requirement in Image
Transmission
• The higher the resolution, the higher the bandwidth requirement for transmission
• The higher the color representation, also known as color depth, higher the bandwidth requirement
• For true color, 24 (32) bits are required to represent each pixel
• The file sizes in raw image capture can thus become very large
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Compression of Digitized Images
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Compression of Digitized Images
• Compression is required to reduce the size of the image file
• Large blocks of unchanged data in an image (background) offers an opportunity to compress the image
• Image files are almost always compressed
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A Few Compression Formats
• GIF• JPEG• MIC (Microsoft Image Composer)• PCD (KODAK) - Used by Corel• Uncompressed file exist in the form
of bit mapped file with the extension of .BMP
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Image File Format Extensions
• File formats often represent the compression procedure being used such as jpg representing the jpeg compression technique
• Examples:– Bmp – uncompressed file format– Gif– jpg– pcd– tiff– pcx
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Loss-less Compression and Others
• Some compression formats offer loss-free compression of the image
• Others sacrifice minimal loss for the sake of reduced storage and bandwidth requirements
• Fortunately, the loss is not easily detected by the naked eye
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Image Transmission Considerations
Sender Receiver
Adjust image to suit available bandwidth.
Adjustable features are as follows.- Resolution- Color depthAdjusting the size also reduces the bandwidthrequirement because of a corresponding reductionin the number of pixels required to representthe image.
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A Peek At Data Compression
• 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - - - - - -0 1 1 1 1 1 11 …... 0
• THE ABOVE CAN BE COMPRESSED INTO = #9000$0#– 9000 bits are compressed into 8
characters that require approximately 64 bits for transmission
– 9000 ZEROS ARE CODED INTO #900$0#
#600$1#
INTERPRET WITHIN THE # SIGN
600
NUMBER COUNT1
CHARACTER BEINGTRANSMITTED
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Compression Result
• In the previous example, 9000 bits are compressed into 8 characters
• If 10 bits are used on the average for transmitting each character, the 9000 bits of information is now compressed into 80 bits for transmission
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Modem Implication in Image Transmission
• Modems also compress the data stream to achieve higher transmission speeds
• Because of the fact that the images are already compressed, the full speed benefit may not be realized when images are transmitted over a modem connection
• An already compressed image file does not, for instance, offer itself well to further compression in the modem
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End of Module
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© N. Ganesan, Ph.D. , All rights reserved.
Module
Digitization Of Video
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Digitization of Video
• Digitization of video is an extension of the process of digitizing an image
• It amounts to the transmission of certain number of still images known as frames per second
• Obviously, digitized video requires higher bandwidth for transmission and more space for storage
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Frame Rate
• 30 frames of images per second, in general, defines continuos motion
• In communications, 25 frames per second is considered to be continuous motion
• 15 frames per second is currently used in video conferencing over digital lines for acceptable reception of video
• It is also possible to engage in video conferencing at a frame rate of 5 frames per second
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Computation of Bandwidth for Raw Transmission of
Video
• Image resolution is 640X480• Number of colors is 256 (8 bit)• Acceptable reception requires 15
frames per second• Therefore, the bandwidth for the
raw transmission is as follows:– 640X480X8X15 = 36.86M bps = 4.6M
Bps
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Compression Standards Used in the Digitization of
Video• MPEG 1, MPEG 2, MPEG 3 and MPEG 4• Windows Media Video• Real Media• Indio• QuickTime• ActiveMovie• AVI
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Streaming Formats for Video
• Various streaming formats are supported by different vendors– RealVideo
• Microsoft’s streaming format– wma (Windows Media Audio)– wmv (Windows Media Video)– Active Streaming Format (ASF)
• Apple’s QuickTime format• Etc.
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Overview of Video Transmission in Video
Conferencing• Minimum speed
– 3 to 5 frames per second• Acceptable speed
– 15 frames per second• Transmission techniques
– Data is compressed – Only changes to the frame are
transmitted
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Bandwidth Optimization in Video Conferencing
• Minimize Windows for maximum efficiency– Transmit less number of pixels in
minimized form• Decrease the resolution
– Has the same effect as above• Decrease the number of colors
displayed
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Communication Links for Video Conferencing
• Possible on analog lines using 56,000 bps transmission speed but not desirable
• Digital lines are preferred and the guidelines are as follows:– Possible at 128k bps using ISDN lines– Acceptable at 384k bps – 1M bps and above offer good quality
video transmission
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ISDN Line Suitability
• ISDN B channels can be assigned on a dynamic basis depending on the bandwidth requirement at any point in time during video conferencing
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Video Conferencing Products
• Intel ProShare• CU-See Me• Picturetel• C-phone• etc.
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End of Module