Agnieszka Bochnak

2770

Analysis of Languages in Contact on the

Example of Franglais

Thesis presented in part fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Philology – Applied Linguistics

at the Tischner European University in Kraków

Written under the supervision of

Aleksander Gomola, PhD

Kraków, November 2012

2

Agnieszka Bochnak

2770

Analiza języków w kontakcie na przykładzie

Franglais

Praca licencjacka na kierunku: Filologia - Lingwistyka stosowana

w zakresie: Biznes i komunikacja międzykulturowa

Praca napisana pod kierunkiem

Dr. Aleksandra Gomoli

Kraków, listopad 2012

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Table of contents

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4

2.Theoritical Part ...................................................................................................................... 5

2.1. ”Pure” Language – How Languages Influence Each Other ............................................ 5

2.2. Languages in Contact ...................................................................................................... 6

2.3. Lingua Franca and Pidgin ................................................................................................ 7

2.4. Vernacular vs. Vehicular Language ................................................................................ 9

2.5. Language Domination ................................................................................................... 10

2.6. Language and Globalisation ......................................................................................... 11

2.6.1.The Case of Globish .................................................................................................... 12

2.7. Influence of English on Other Languages ..................................................................... 13

2.8 Anglicisms and Borrowings ........................................................................................... 14

2.9. Language in Business .................................................................................................... 16

3. Franglais ............................................................................................................................. 18

3.1. Introduction and Meaning ............................................................................................. 18

3.2. History of Franglais ....................................................................................................... 19

3.3. Franglais and Law ......................................................................................................... 21

3.4. English in France ........................................................................................................... 23

3.5. Franglais in Literature and Mass Media ........................................................................ 24

3.6. Borrowings and Stylistics .............................................................................................. 27

3.7. Franglais – a Threat or a Sign of Development? ........................................................... 30

4. Questionnary – Analysis .................................................................................................... 32

4.1. Part 1. ............................................................................................................................. 33

4.2. Part 2 .............................................................................................................................. 38

5. Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 40

6. Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 43

7. Appendix ............................................................................................................................. 54

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1. Introduction

The aim of this bachelor project is to study the phenomenon of Franglais – the

mingled combination of English and French, which is becoming an increasingly visible issue

in the French language. In the thesis I will pay particular attention to the comparision of using

Franglais in various fields of life, but especially I will study Franglais in the context of

today’s business language. My aim is to focus not only on the linguistic aspect, but also to

indicate a social and cultural influence of using Franglais. The gained knowledge will

certainly help me to raise awarness of the power of language and the dynamics of its change.

In the first chapter I will present some theoretical statements which are essential to the

discussion of the main topic. I will start by presenting the issue of „pure“ language. Then I

will move to the issue of languages in contact as well as I will mention lingua franca and

pidgin. Then, basic theoretical definitions concerning vernacular and vehicular language will

be compared. Next, I will present the case of language domination and its importance not only

in the linguistic area, but also in the business world. Consequently, I will introduce the topic

of globalisation and the case of Globish at present day. At the end of my theoretical part I will

mention the influence of English on Other Languages as well as the language in business will

be discussed.

The second chapter will focus on Franglais and a variety of topics that are associated

with it. By presenting a brief history of Franglais I will show the relation between French and

English through centuries. Then I will continue on showing the legal point of view concerning

Franglais and, as a consequence, law regulations that were imposed because of the issue.

Next I will focus on the impact of Franglais nowadays, by taking examples from litterature

and mass media. Finally , a disputable topic will be discussed, namely Franglais as a threat or

a sign of a development.

The last chapter of the thesis aims to analyse Franglais and its present use among

French population in France. The attention will be paid to people who work in international

corporations in France. For this purpose a special questionnaire will be conducted. The

questionnaire divides into two parts: the first one focuses on the English language; where

French population has learned English, how fluent they are in speaking English and in what

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circumstances they use the English language at work. The first part aims to verify the

awareness of French population on the English language and its use at work. The second part

focuses more on everyday life situations. Its aim is to demonstrate how the French community

uses English nowadays, but most important, how they consider the use of anglicisms in the

French language.

The thesis ends with the bibliography in which I will put all sources that helped me in writing

the thesis. In this part one can find the main authors that inspired my work, as well as adresses

of publications, websites or some back-numbers. At the end of the work I will put the

appendix which will include the original questionnaire thanks to which the analysis of the

chapter 4 was made.

2.Theoritical Part

2.1. ”Pure” Language – How Languages Influence Each Other

No language can be classified as “pure” language. From the beginning of the

humankind and as soon as people started to speak more than one language, languages have

been in contact. The process has resulted in an impressive number of 6000 languages on the

planet today. However, a half of them are in danger of extinction and every 15 days one

language disappears (Hagège in L’Express 2000). As a matter of fact, some languages are

more exposed to the danger of extinction than others. The most corresponding examples of

languages which are in danger are those that are used only by a few speakers, for instance

native languages from South America or an Australian folk.

No language has ever been an entirely homogenous language. It is hardly possible that

any language has developed in a total isolation from other tongues. It is because a language is

not only a set of words; on the contrary, it has some cultural and historical context, or even

psychological references (Bostina-Bratu 2010). This issue results in affecting the today’s

languages and creating varieties in the linguistic world. This is the case of creating in one

country the population of two or more languages speakers. And whereas many countries

assumed to be monolingual, there is no doubt that we can recognize many people of these

monolingual countries as bilingual or even trilingual. Given that a language may be used by

so many different speakers, it is especially important to understand the cultural context behind

the language they speak. The case of English and French does not differ. As in the following

chapter one will observe (see chapter 3. Franglais), the history of these two countries, with

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many invasions throughout centuries and interferences in their cultures, all this has

significantly influenced their languages and as a consequence, has an impact on a variety of

borrowings both from English into French as well as from French into English.

The important thing is to remember that every invasion and every adoption of other

culture leads to new streams in language patterns, and because of that it is hardly believed that

“pure” language has ever existed.

2.2. Languages in Contact

As previously mentioned, languages affect each other on different levels, causing new

patterns in the linguistic area. In the simply way a language contact occurs when one speaks

more than one language in the same time at the same place (Thomason 2001:1). The language

contact occurs mainly in face-to-face contact, when people can easily exchange information

one to another. However, thanks to recently developed technology ,the Internet era and the

more and more noticeable effect of globalisation, people have an access to such tools as

different writings, radio, television and much more, thanks to which the contact with different

languages is easy to obtain. There is also a constant growth of mixed races and cultures,

emigration and exogamy, and thanks to these social practices languages are constantly

influenced by other languages and cultures. All this causes some changes in one of more

languages that are in contact. One can distinguish two groups of relations between languages:

the first one occurs when both group are equal, it means both have equal status in the society

and there is no domination of one language above the other. This relationship is called

adstratal relationship and borrowings occur both ways equally. The other group refers to

those groups of languages where one dominates the other. The dominant language is called

superstratum language and the other substratum language(LaPolla 2009: 228).

The pioneer of languages in contact’s theory, Uriel Weinreich, in his book Languages

in Contact: Findings and Problems(1968) presents the problem of approach and profoundly

explains the mechanism and structural causes of interference. In most of the cases when

languages come into contact it happens because of speakers interference. Different languages

mean different grammar, vocabulary or syntax, features which play a crucial role in

Weinreich’s analysis. If one wants to know a foreign culture, one has to learn a foreign

language. The founder of modern anthropology, or better known as “Father of American

Anthropology” (Holloway 1997), Franz Boas, has initiated the concept of studying a

language and a culture together and a research between the language and the culture. The

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topic cannot be forgotten in the study of Franglais, where the English interference into French

is caused mainly by cultural and historical interferences of these two countries throughout

centuries. After Boas the topic was followed by many linguists and anthropologists. The most

known student of Boas, as far as linguists are concerned, was Edward Sapir, an American

linguist and anthropologist. The importance of the language in the society, in our life and

reality, Sapir thoroughly emphasizes in one of his works: “Human beings (...) are very much

at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their

society (...) The fact of the matter is that the 'real world' is to a large extent unconsciously

built upon the language habits of the group” (Sapir 1958 [1929], p. 69) .

2.3. Lingua Franca and Pidgin

To understand the phenomenon of Franglais and other language combinations it is

necessary to mention the case of lingua franca. The first definition of the term, according to

the French dictionary Le Petit Larousse(1996) refers to the sabir which was used from 13th

till

19th

centuries in Mediterranean ports. (1996:603). In fact, the first people to use lingua franca

were merchants and sailors in the Middle Ages. They used it as a means of communication

and a tool for conducting business in other cities and ports.

A different definition of the term presents the Collins English Dictionary. According

to it lingua franca refers to “a language or a way of communicating which is used between

people who do not speak one another’s native language”(Collins2003:838). Simply speaking,

lingua franca occurs when people use a language which is not their native one in order to

communicate between each other. A similar definition of the term is proposed by Firth (1996:

240) who sees lingua franca as a “contact language between persons who share neither a

common native tongue nor a common national culture, and for whom English is the chosen

foreign language of communication”. Yet, it is important to notice that the author highlights

the meaning of lingua franca as a language between people who do not share the same

culture.

Through centuries different languages functioned as lingua franca. The most popular

ones were Latin and French; today it is certainly English. The first powerful lingua franca was

Latin. Used as the language of the former Roman Empire and the Christian church, it reigned

in Europe until the 16th

century. Being the only language taught in schools, as well as the

language employed in the Roman Catholic Church, it became lingua franca without any

difficulty (Crystal 1995: 48). However, its power became to fall off together with the decline

8

of the Church and the growing strength of France and England in Europe. French became a

new lingua franca, spreading through the elite in the field of economy, diplomacy and

commerce. It preserved its vitality until the middle of the 20th

century, or more precisely, till

the end of the Second World War. After that the world witnessed the era of economic and

technological domination of the United States and English took control over the world

(Crystal 2003:127). Yet in the 18th

century, one of the American Founding Fathers and the

second President of the United States, John Adams, predicted the importance of the English

language, by saying in 1780 that “English is destined to be in the next and succeeding

centuries more generally the language of the world than Latin was in the last or French is in

the present age” (Adams 1780 quoted in Crystal 2003: 74).

Nowadays English is lingua franca of the modern world. As Crystal mentions in his

book, around 25% of a world’s population can speak English fluently or in an understandable

way(2003:6). Even without knowing Crystal’s survey one can observe that English is the

language most frequently used for communication purposes, especially in big international

companies and business environment. To understand the phenomenon of English as the

contemporary lingua franca one should take a look at Kachru's Three Circles of English

(1985). According to his observations, one can divide English into three categories:

the Inner Circle,

the Outer Circle,

the Expanding Circle.

The Inner Circle refers to English as a native, primary language. It is used by about 320-380

million speakers, most of them being from the United States, the United Kingdom and

Australia (Crystal 2003: 60-61). The Outer Circle concerns colonized nations that use English

as a second language. Whereas in the first circle English is used in all contexts

communication, in the second, the Outer Circle, English is an additional language to speak

among communities that are multilingual, such as India or Singapore (2003: 60-61). In this

case the aim of the English language is to create an intranational, means within the country, as

well as international communication. The number of speakers in the Outer Circle varies

between 300–500 million (2003: 61). As far as the Expanding Circle is concerned, it refers to

those nations that take English as an international language and learn it in order to

communicate with the Inner and the Outer Circle. The Expanding Circle concerns most of the

rest of the population and it estimates to have about 750 million speakers (2003:61).

However, there are some doubts about the effectiveness of this division. As it was mentioned

9

before, nowadays English is concerned as lingua franca. Yet, Kachru’s study does not

acquire the function of English as lingua franca. Other researchers claim that “The model

does not appear to take into account the fact that English has acquired a new dominant

function world-wide: that of lingua franca between all three circles, but especially within the

Expanding Circle” (Mollin:42).

The other issue characterising lingua franca is a restricted vocabulary, as well as a

simplification of grammar and spelling. Taking into consideration English as lingua franca,

there is a diversity of using it, depending on the region, country or continent. The position of

lingua franca can be ambivalent. On the one hand, it brings positive aspects, such as the

ability to communicate between three circles discussed earlier in this section of the paper. On

the other hand, it can generate problems for people speaking English as their mother tongue.

Because of the unnecessity of learning a foreign language, it often happens that Anglophones

do not take much interest in foreign cultures and they are believed to be more self-centred

than other nations (Frath 2010).

It is also important to mention pidgin languages which, in contrast to lingua franca,

were invented mostly for commercial reasons. They are characterised with even more

simplified rules of grammar or vocabulary than in the case of other language varieties. The

use of this simplified language appears when two speakers want to communicate and they do

not have a common language to understand one another. When a pidgin becomes the native

speech of a community, it is nationalized into a creole (Crystal 2003: 40). Creole might also

occur when the young generation learn pidgin as their first language. Both pidgin and creole

have limited vocabulary and simplified grammatical structure.

2.4. Vernacular vs. Vehicular Language

Having considered some of the reasons for which English is perceived as lingua

franca, it is also important to mention two notions that will be helpful in further discussion:

vernacular and vehicular languages. Whereas the first term refers to a mother tongue spoken

by the natives, the second describes ”a contact language between persons who share neither a

common native tongue nor a common national culture and for whom English is the chosen

foreign language of communication” (Firth 1996: 240). The reasons for using vehicular

language may be different: a person can use it while making business with other nations or

during trips to other countries. It can also be a tool for communication within a group of

10

people (for instance, scholars or doctors) coming from different places in the world. It also

happens that in some countries people use vernacular or vehicular languages in everyday life.

A switch between language variations is used differently by individuals. Some people

prefer to use vernacular language as often as possible but, as it will be explained in the next

chapter about Franglais, there is a new tendency, namely, that people are likely to switch from

a vernacular into a vehicular language even in everyday, familiar talk with friends and

relatives. Consequently, Christian Mair (Brochure2011:20), one of the professors of English

at the Free University of Berlin, points out that “natural links between vernaculars and their

territories and communities are becoming weaker, as migrations and media encourage the

flow of linguistic resources.”

2.5. Language Domination

Throughout the centuries different languages took various positions in the world, from

the most powerful ones that rule the world of business and communication between different

cultures, to those having a little or none position in the world. Taking into account the 21st

century there is a common belief that the English language has the most meaningful position

nowadays and that its dominance continues to grow. It is the official language in such

countries as Canada, Malta, Singapore, Jamaica, and many more, and de facto, which means

unofficial but broadly used, language in the United States, New Zealand, Australia and the

United Kingdom. The leading position of English in the Internet, its common use in new

technologies and the significance it has in the today’s popular culture – all of these factors

make the position of English in the world even more powerful. One might ask now if the

success of English on the global level and its domination over other languages may constitute

a threat. To answer this question it is crucial to take a look at the definition of the word

dominant. According to a short but concise definition given by the Oxford dictionary,

dominant means “the exercise of power or influence over someone or something, or the state

of being so controlled” (Oxford Online Dictionary). Additionally, to get more into the topic,

there is also a reason to quote the Dictionary of Sociology by Gordon Marshall, who describes

the word dominant in that way: “rule by coercion or non coercive compliance. Individuals or

groups may exercise power over others—domination—either by brute force or because that

power is accepted as legitimate by those who are subject to it” (Marshall 1998). Considering

this definition, one can pose the question whether the contemporary domination of English is

caused by pressure of social environment, scientists who use it as a tool in their research or

11

the business world ruled by this universal language? Or maybe it is the English language that

was freely chosen by people and it has nothing in common with compulsion? And what about

countries in which people use more than one official language? In such case, can we speak of

domination of one above the other? Apart from such a distiction, language domination can

also be divided into four varieties (Fishman, 1967:30) :

bilingualism and diglossia,

bilingualism without diglossia,

diglossia without bilingualism,

neither bilingualism nor diglossia.

2.6. Language and Globalisation

The topic that one can often see on the contemporary newspapers’ headlines is the

relation between language and globalisation. But to investigate the subject properly it is of

primary importance to explain what the globalisation process is. This remarkably new word,

which has existed only since 1960(Guardian 2002), has its roots in the times of Roman

Empire when conquerors wanted to impose their legal system and rules on others countries.

However, the significance of this word as we understand it today came right after the Second

World War. It developed together with the economic and political importance of the United

States and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade which facilitated the free trade and

opened borders (Eckert et al.:108). In the Collins dictionary globalisation is defined as “the

process enabling financial and investment markets to operate internationally, largely as a

result of deregulation and improved communications“(Collins Online Dictionary).

Globalisation is defined by Roland Robertson who identifies globalisation with “both [...] the

compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a

whole”(Robertson 1992:8). This definition shows not only the economic importance in the

process of globalisation, but also its cultural impact. Since the very moment when

globalisation took over a meaningful position in the society, it has continuously changed the

way of living, traditions or, simply, the way people perceive the world in different cultures.

As a matter of fact, throughout the world cultural products such as music, fashion, movies and

many more have become globalised. It is not surprising that languages also took part in this

process.

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The globalisation after the Second World War had a tremendous effect on spreading

English as a global language. The English language has become the language of technology,

economy, diplomacy and, most evidently, commerce, which in that time highly boosted.

Nowadays English is irreversibly connected with the process of globalisation, and because of

that fact it is often labelled as following: English as a global language (Crystal 2003),

English as an International language (Jenkins 2000), World Englishes (Brutt-Girffler 2002)

or just Global (Toolan 1997). Why is it that English and not any other language, such as

Spanish or French, gained the present status of a world language? To understand this

phenomenon it is important to take a look at the two theories trying to explain the situation of

English nowadays. The first one, namely, Exploitation Theory (Mair 2002 :160) states that

“English was systematically spread by the British and the Americans with the help of

language planning policies, in order to maintain a certain indirect control over post-colonial

countries” (Mair explained in Eckert et.al.: 109). According to this theory one can assume that

not only the language was imposed in the post-colonial countries, but also a culture and

lifestyle that consequently threatened a local culture and identity. On the contrary to this

theory, Mair explains so called Grassroots Theory, which claims that “the English of today

cannot be seen as an imperialist language, controlled and spread solely by the economically

powerful” (Mair 2002:160).

2.6.1.The Case of Globish

As a consequence of the previously described issue, the contemporary English, so

willingly used by non-natives to accomplish an international trade, came by its own name,

“Globish”. Whereas the Globish is regarded as a useful language to accomplish a business

goal in an international area, a British author of several editions of The Story of English,

Robert McCrum, points out that Globish is “an overwhelmingly economic phenomenon – the

language of Singaporean businessmen closing deals with the help of a small arsenal of

English words, and of European officials calming financial markets by uttering stock phrases

on television” (McCrum quoted in New Yorker 2010). Slightly different point of view is

presented by Jean-Paul Nerrière who claims that Globish “is not a language, it is a tool. A

language is the vehicle of a culture. Globish doesn't want to be that at all. It is a means of

communication” (Nerrière quoted in New York Times 2005). According to his opinion, in

order to achieve better communication around the world it is preferable to use Globish as a

tool. This language form, limited to around 1500 simple words and an elementary syntax, is

13

meant to transfer the message correctly, both in written and oral communication (Forbes

2012). As a way of communication it is often used instinctively, but it has little or almost

none grammar and common structure.

In the book Parlez globish, l'anglais planétaire du troisième millénaire (2011) Jean-

Paul Nerrièe defines, codifies and organises the case of Globish, and turns its limitation into

an asset. In his another book Globish The World Over (2009), the author presents the real

English that most of the society is using today. In one of his lectures on Globish he defines it

as “the language tool based on English – that would allow everyone to talk, across the world”

(Youtube source). He also notices another important aspect of Globish which, unlike the

English language, is not connected with a cultural factor. As he points out “Globish is correct

English without the English culture. English that is just a tool and not a whole way of life”

(YouTube source). This aspect can be an important counterargument for those who consider

all kind of English as a threat to other cultures and languages.

Globalised social, economic and media world made a common tongue an important

tool of communication in the contemporary society. English as a language with a worldwide

status has become an indispensable instrument of trade and it preserves its importance in the

business environment. Yet, the disappearance of the boundaries and the homogeneity of

business world constitute a threat to minor cultures, their languages and dialects which are

endangered by extinction. As it is explained by Eric Garland, “tiny dialects – such as Breton,

the Celtic language spoken in Brittany [...] – are not a benefit in the global economy, since

they are difficult to learn, poorly adapted to modern life, and unintelligible to almost everyone

beyond a small region” (The Futurist 2006:32).

As previously mentioned (see chapter 2.1.), many languages are in a threat to

disappear. And the spreading process of globalization does not help in it. Changing the world

in a one global village, with homogeneous culture and lifestyle, it is an undoubtedly

consequence to have one, global language, which allow people all over the world to be in

touch.

2.7. Influence of English on Other Languages

Undoubtedly, English is the most spoken language in the world. Its influence can be

seen in the countries situated close to English-speaking lands where the interaction with other

language is facilitated, as well as in the territories that barely have anything in common with

the lands of the Queen. The influence of English on other languages can result in a richer

14

lexicon of other tongues and a more flexible vocabulary. The dominance of the English

language over other languages is mostly seen in vocabulary related to new inventions. It is

linked to the fact that English-speaking countries, such as the United States, are leaders in

technology development (see chapter 2.5.). Another field that is prone to adapting a high

number of anglicisms is the world of the press. One can see there a more trendy and

fashionable background of borrowings from English than in the case of technology-related

vocabulary, in which the dominant features are logic and practical application. Manfred

Görlach, a German professor of English, describes the present impact of English in one of his

works in that way: ”Even where the impact of English is not so dramatic, it can nevertheless

be found on all levels of the linguistic system (...) The most obvious influence can be

expected to be on the vocabulary” (Görlach 2003:1). There are many fields in every language

where English breaks in and makes a place for its loanwords. In the following chapter the

topic will be expanded and explained on the example of Franglais.

2.8 Anglicisms and Borrowings

A practical consequence of the rising importance of English worldwide is the influx of

anglicisms into other languages. The topic has gained its significance particularly in the last

few years. A publication of the Dictionary of European Anglicisms: A Usage Dictionary of

Anglicisms in Sixteen European Languages can be taken as an excellent example of the

phenomenon. It resulted from a long research conducted across European countries like

Germany, Poland, France, Spain, Greece, Italy, or Croatia. In the dictionary one can find a

brief explanation of how the English language has spread through centuries in these countries,

as well as a lexical contribution of English to these languages (Görlach 2001: xv-xvi). Taking

an example of a word antidoping one can look closely at how the word is analyzed in the

Dictionary of European Anglicisms :

15

(Görlach 2001: 7)

The issue has gained a vast attention which has subsequently resulted in a conference

in September 2006 entitled Anglicisms in Europe 2006 (Fisher, Pułaczewska 2008). That time

many scholars from European countries gathered together in order to discuss the phenomenon

of anglicisms in a wider sense. But, in fact, what is an anglicism? According to the Oxford

Dictionary, the term appeared in the mid 17th

from a Latin word anglicus and it refers to “a

word or phrase borrowed from English into a foreign language” (Oxford Online Dictionary

2010). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language presents anglicism in a

slightly different way, saying that it is “a word, phrase, or idiom characteristic of or peculiar

to the English language” (The American Heritage Dictionary). By using the term anglicism

one refers not only to borrowings from the language of the English Queen, but also to other

variations of English, such as American English or Australian English. However, to be more

specific, sometimes the term Americanism is also used (Fisher, Pułaczewska 2008: 8).

One also has to admit that anglicism is not only a linguistic issue. It contains also a

cultural, social and political background. To discuss the topic properly it is also necessry to

point out English in a global context (2008:2). The area of technology deserves the most

attention – one can observe a huge impact of English borrowings on the technical language all

over the world. As it was mentioned in the previous sections (see 2.5. Language domination),

it happens because most of the technological inventions occur in the English speaking

countries. Fisher distinguishes three main dimensions of the English language: English as a

lingua franca, as a learner language, and as a technical language (Fisher, Pułaczewska2008:2).

In every field the English language has an impact on other languages, making English a

dominant part of language changes.

The term anglicism is one of the types of borrowings into another language. To

organize types of anglicisms in the French language, which is one of the aims of this thesis, it

16

is worth to explain the exact meaning of the term borrowing and to present some main types

of borrowings. Following Thomason and Kaufman’s explanation, one can state that

“borrowing is the incorporation of foreign features into a group's native language by speakers

of that language: the native language is maintained but is changed by the addition of the

incorporated features” (1988:37). Certainly the case of every language and its level of

borrowings in a mother tongue is different and should be studied separately.

Whereas the topic of borrowings is vastly developed and there are many publications

concerning the issue, the aim of this section is to bring closer the idea of borrowings which

will help in further research about Franglais.

The simplest or most commonly used borrowings are the lexical ones also called

loanwords. Taking as an example the word giraffe one can discover that it is a loanword from

the Arabic language (Internet source 3). However, speakers of English adopted it and do not

look for the word giraffe as a foreign word. The dimensions of loanwords can be either loan

translation or calque formation, the latter case refering to morpheme-for morpheme

translation, like skyscraper and its equivalent grate-ciel in French (Étiemble 1980). Another

possible form is phonological borrowing. It appears when a language adopts new sounds as a

result of contact with another language and its influence (Fisher, Pułaczewska 2008: 6-7). To

complete the topic it is necessary to mention hybrids which constitute a mix of lexical and

semantic borrowings, but they take less part in borrowings than, for example, pure lexical

ones (2008: 6-7).

2.9. Language in Business

Never in the history business has had such a global tone as in the present days. Such a

situation is heavily influenced by the disappearance of the boundaries, free market and a

number of other factors. While making an international business a person has to be aware of

some difficulties he or she can come across. Geert Hofstede, known for his bestseller

Culture's Consequences (1983), in his work proposes to divide culture into five dimensions:

power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance index, masculinity vs. femininity, and

long-term orientation. The work of the Dutch researcher has gained such a high position in the

perception of the society that is often presented in the books devoted to international business

studies. Hofstede’s aim is to show a reader and a future businessman that a society’s culture

has an influence on its members’ behavior and the values they share. However, following the

rules and being aware of how different cross-cultural behavior may be is not enough to

17

become a successful businessman. As in many fields of life, in this as well it is language that

plays a crucial role. And it is not about making a comprehensive conversation between

persons from different countries. In order to be successful a person has to be aware not only

of the business language, but also of how to use it properly in a given context. Certainly, in

most of the international corporations the language of business is English. The data from the

World Trade Organization indicates that the number of the international corporation that use

English as a language of communication (non-native speakers) has risen from 30 percent in

1996 to 50 percent in 2005 (wto.org). But the history points out the importance of the English

language much earlier, like in the 1919 when The Versailles Treaty was written not only in

French, which was the language of diplomacy that time, but also in English (Internet source

4). After the Second World War, where such organizations as NATO or IMF have been

created, English has become the language of communication in these organisations.

Nowadays nobody is surprised that in terms of business market it is the English language that

is commonly used. As a matter of facts, many international companies take it into account and

they provide to their employees Business English Training Courses (BizEd 2010:70). In

comparison to standard courses, business trainings focus more on different aspects of

language, such as a specific vocabulary in professional areas like human resources, logistics,

management and many more. English has become the language of today’s international trade

and every company, who wants to work efficiently and make profits in the international area,

has to be aware of the importance of a business language. It is not only important to

understand a customer, but also to take as much profits of the trade as possible. As many

researches indicate “miscommunication can cause companies to lose potential clients or fail to

deliver products and services” (BizEd 2010:70). And Yuwei Shi, professor from Monterey

Institute of International Studies, adds that ”language is essential to cross-cultural and cross-

sector understanding” (2010:70). But the opportunity of knowing at least two languages is the

advantage for both sides: employee and employer. As the result of The International Research

Foundation for English Language Education points out: “the ability to communicate

successfully in more than one language helps individuals improve their access to global jobs

and the benefits of those jobs” (2010:71). Knowing these facts, future managers and

employees in International Business fields are aware of the importance of studying in the

language of business or learning a second or third language during their studies. Fortunately,

there is an increasing awareness of the value of language skills. One of the businessman who

can confirm the importance of the language in doing business in today’s world is Chris

Bernbrock, a program director at IBM Cloud Academy. He claims that “having the ability to

18

work with colleagues from countries throughout the world, especially when I have at least

some familiarity with their languages and cultures, makes the team-work go so much more

smoothly” (2010:71).

As Thomas Watson once said “To be successful, you have to have your heart in your

business, and your business in your heart.” After this chapter one can freely add to this quote

that to be successful, you have to have a business language in your mouth too.

3. Franglais

3.1. Introduction and Meaning

Over the centuries of intricate history languages have borrowed and exchanged

words. This long evolution has nowadays resulted in the form of mixed languages. Franglais

is an excellent example of a mangled combination of two languages: English and French. The

influence of English on French, as well as French on English can be observed at many levels

of language. As far as literature is concerned, works such as The Innocents Abroad by Mark

Twain or Henry V by William Shakespeare show an interaction between the two cultures and

its influence on English and French.

Today, Franglais is widespread. It does not only appear in French everyday life, such

as advertisements or magazines. In fact, one can also hear this kind of blend used by political

authorities. Can the interaction of languages constitute a threat for native speakers or is it just

a natural language evolution?

This part of the thesis analyses the phenomenon of Franglais. The issue will be divided into

several parts: the first one will focus on the history of Franglais, its long evolution and the

meaning it carries nowadays. The next section will bring closer the issue of English in France,

French legal restrictions concerning English use, as well as the interaction between these two

languages. I will also try to answer the question of how English has influenced the French

language and vice versa, and finally if there is a threat to French and English languages being

contaminated by borrowings.

At the beginning, it is worth mentioning what the Franglais is. The term was coined

and first used in 1955 by a French journalist André Rigaud in a daily newspaper Quotidien de

Buenos Aires (Zanola 2008: 88) " for describe those who embellish the French language with

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English words "(Giraud 1971: 134). It was later popularised by René Étiemble who gained his

popularity in this topic by publishing a book Parlez-vous Franglais? in 1964. There are many

definitions concerning this mingled language, but the main idea is always the same: Franglais

is considered to be a mix of French and English together. Macmillan dictionary goes further

with the interpretation and claims that Franglais is “a humorous language that mixes French

and English”. As far as French dictionary is concerned, the term Franglais is used to describe

neologisms and loanwords from English into French (Larousse1996:457). No matter how

many distinct interpretation of the term can be, one must underline the difference between

Franglais in English and Franglais in French. When it comes to the English language there is

a large number of words with French origins and expressions that have already been adapted

into the English language. It is believed that nearly 30% of English words can have French

origins (Lawless). The words such as, for instance, déjà vu , sang-froid or à propos came into

use with no obstacles. Franglais can also result from using two languages incorrectly. It

happens when a person does not have enough knowledge to use one language properly

(Bostina-Bratu 2010: 97). Due to the poor knowledge of English or French a person risks

misunderstanding by using false friends or speaking in an incomprehensible way.

Yet, Franglais in France is perceived differently. It refers to borrowings that are the

reason of snobbery rather than practical need (Barzun 1981: 537). It is preferable and more

chic to say sexy lady rather than une fille affriolante or go to the party instead of aller fêter.

Nowadays, Franglais is also common among people working in different parts of

Europe, North America or Africa. An interesting linguistic situation can be observed in

Canada where, because of historical reasons, English and French coexisted during centuries.

The mix facilitates to coexist both French and English speakers in Canada. However, the

dialect in Canada, especially in Quebec, cannot be confused with Franglais. We cannot talk

here about language poverty or mistakes brought by new learners. The English speaking part

in Quebec often borrows words from French, such as autoroute – highway, stage – internship,

or metro – subway (Bostina-Batu 2010: 98).

3.2. History of Franglais

There is a considerable evidence why French and English have mixed together. In

order to understand this phenomenon it is important to mention some historical facts that

influenced these languages.

For a long time French was considered to be the European lingua franca or, in other

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words, the language with the most importance on the continent. From the 17th century until

the mid-20th century it was a language of European diplomacy and it played a crucial role in

the world (Dawson 2004: 11). However, nowadays French has been substituted by English

which plays the main role in the world, becoming a tool for international relations.

These two languages run across as early as in the proto-Indo-European era (Bostina-

Bratu 2010: 11). But the real history with the mingled combination of these two languages

starts in the Middle Ages when English has been borrowing words from French. The

phenomenon reached the top after the Conquest of England in 1066(Dawson 2004: 9).

Linguistic situation in England after the Conquest was very twisted, as for both social and

ethnic aspects of the use of English and French. Bill Bryson, an American author of books on

English language, in one of his books names the Norman conquest of 1066 “the final

cataclysm [which] awaited the English language" (Bryson 1991:53).And he does not

exaggerate in this statement. After the loss of Normandy in 1204 the status of French and

English in Europe has changed (Dawson 2004: 9). Since that time the Norman French became

the official language of the government, the church, and the upper classes in England for over

300 years. There was a separation of the French and English nobility and a visible French

reinforcement, as well as the growth of the national feelings. English became the language of

everyday use and its practice was associated with the lack of prestige. From that time English

and French witnessed a lot of vocabulary mixing. In fact, from that very moment comes the

majority of French borrowings in English, most of them belong to fields such as: government

and administration, religion and church, law, army, navy and medicine (Baugh, Cable 2002:

168-169). Meanwhile, English reduced its importance and step by step it became the language

of everyday use. In 1385 it became generally used in schools and in the 15th century it started

to be employed in letter writing (Baugh, Cable 2002: 135-138). From the reign of Louis XIV

until the beginning of the 20th

century it was French that acted as an important language of

communication in the European countries. Political power of France, its suitable geographical

position, deep historical roots with other Western nations and, finally, its cultural reputation

naturally helped this phenomenon. Yet, paradoxically, French was fully established as the

national language of France in the 20th

century (Dawson 2004: 11) when its power started to

weaken. However, the golden era for France and its dominance has not lasted for good. In the

20th

century the United States took over the dominance in international politics and

commerce. Due to more and more new inventions and the technological development in

America it became clear that English took over the role of the global lingua franca

(Anthonioz 2001). One also has to mention that in most of the main international

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organisations, namely NATO, UNESCO and the United Nations, the official language is

English.

The process is visible until today and according to American Association of Teachers

of French “More than a third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from

French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know

15,000 French words”(Lawless).

Across the history some words were borrowed due to the lack of equivalents in the

mother language (Bostina-Bratu 2010: 96). This tendency was particularly visible during the

discovering of new lands by the explorers. The appearance of new species of animals and

plants, as well as new kinds of food constantly demanded language flexibility in seeking for

new words. However, over the centuries English was flourishing and in the 19th

and 20th

century, as Bostina-Bratu accurately points out, ” there was a steady flow of French loan

words into English and an increasing influx of English words into French and other

languages” (2010 : 96). English has risen as an international language with a powerful status.

Even though it could be good news for some merchants and businessmen, not everybody was

satisfied with this phenomenon. René Étiemble, a great essayist and a professor at the

Sorbonne university in Paris, in his most famous book Parlez–vous franglais? published in

1964, called Franglais an Atlantic sabir which is nothing but a Franglais rubbish. Since these

days many academics have tried to answer the crucial question posed in the title of the book

of Étiemble.

3.3. Franglais and Law

The book Parlez-vous franglais? in the most precise way describes the phenomenon

of Franglais, its consequences and the way of defending French language from English

contamination. But even years before Étiemble’s book was published some people noticed the

problem and tried to control it. The first trials to purify the language appeared in the early 17th

and 18th

century when French scholars tried to convert every borrowing and foreign word into

French-looking phrases. As a result they coined words such as boulevard which was

transformed from bollwerk (Barzun 1981: 536). Apart from this treatment, several legal

regulations were introduced. One of them, which was probably the first one, was the

establishment of L’Académie française in 1635 in Paris. The founder, Cardinal Richelieu, the

chief minister to King Louis XIII, created the French Academy in order to protect la langue

de Molière from the possible contamination by other languages and to maintain the purity of

22

the French language. Article 24 of the statute of French Academy says: “The principal

function of the Académie is to work, with all possible care and diligence, to give clear rules to

our language and to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating arts and science” (French

Academy official website). Forty members of the Academy, also called les immortels

(because they are selected for a whole life), are selected carefully and they oblige themselves

to protect and preserve the French language. Despite the fact that the French Academy has no

legal power, it acts as the authority in cases concerning the French language, its vocabulary

and grammar, and since 1687 it publishes a dictionary of French language, the so-called

Dictionnaire de l'Académie française. In this dictionary one can find correct and pure French

language which is authorized by experts. The existence of language guards such as the French

Academy can explain why the process of language evolution in France has run slower and

more carefully than in England. As far as the English speaking countries are concerned, there

is no such academy; as a consequence, new words can come into being more freely and

rapidly. The Academy is known for its rigorous principles. Sometimes even governmental

authorities ignore the Academy’s rules, sending mail, instead of courriel or listening to

walkman, not un baladeur (Farry 2012).

The next example of legal regulations designed to protect the French language from

English intrusion is the Toubon Law created in France in 1994. Jacques Toubon, who was the

Minister of Culture at the time, formed the law which requires using French language in all

government publications, advertisements, media and state-funded schools (Article 1,2,3 of the

Tubon Law). A special list of French words has been made in order to substitute English

borrowings. Any negligence concerning the Toubon law is regarded as violation and special

fines and sanctions are imposed. However, sometimes the law is so ridiculous that it is hard to

comply with in the modern world which develops rapidly with new technologies and

inventions. For this reason Jacques Toubon is called by some teasers “Mr Allgood” (

wordplay: “Tout bon” translated in English means "All Good" ) (NY Times 1994).

While presenting Franglais from the legal point of view it is also worth to present the

regulations introduced in Quebec, the French speaking part of Canada. In August 1977 the

government in Quebec has imposed the Charter of the French Language, also called Bill 101–

the law stating that French is the only official language and that every official document needs

to be written in French. Consequently, it established French as the only official language in

both public area and at work (Charte de la langue française, 2004). The reasons for defending

French by law are different in Quebec and in France. Quebecers are more exposed to English

than the French society. Their motivation of using loanwords is rooted more in the community

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and its history (Forest 2006:13), whereas the population in France employs English

borrowings for more superficial, sometimes and even snobbish reasons.

3.4. English in France

At the moment English is regarded as the global language and it is indispensable in

contemporary international relations and business. However, it takes a particular position in

France. On the one hand, English is required in almost every international company, which

takes a great part of the companies in France, especially in big cities like Paris or Lille.

French are aware of the fact that the knowledge of this language is indispensable to have an

important position in their work and because of this there is a constant promotion of English

language. Language schools offer plenty of courses, from standard English classes to

professional trainings which focus on particular business fields. On the other hand, French

people are proud of their language and there is a great defence of their native tongue, whereas

English is perceived as the language of ignorance, fear and contempt (Le Figaro, 2011).

As far as education is concerned, English is the most common language in schools.

Almost 90% of state schools benefit from teaching English language. In public schools

English is even more important (95%) (Le Figaro, 2011). Regrettably, such good-looking

statistics do not reflect the reality. Simply speaking, we can divide French community into

two groups: the first one, aware of the importance of the English language, participate in

additional English courses or spend few months or more in English speaking country in order

to ameliorate their English skills. The other group instead, have a great difficulty in using

English in their work due to the lack of experience, low English knowledge and problems

with pronunciation. The last case takes a particular position in French difficulties with the

English language. As an Irish playwriter George Bernard Shaw once said: “English is the

easiest language to speak badly” (Internet source 1). Certainly, there is some truth in this

quote. Yet, English features numerous words from Latin or Greek, so French speaking people

should learn this language easily. Besides, more than one third of all English words are

derived from the French language (Nadeau,2011). This gives an impression that English is

comprehensible for many French speakers. But despite the great similarity between the two

languages the problem consists in pronunciation. After the puberty it is hardly possible to

reproduce some sounds; the first reason is that people are not able to hear the difference and

the other – that their vocal organs do not allow them to repeat the sounds. This obstacle takes

an integral part of the French people difficulty to speak English and it is considered to be the

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major reason why it is hard for them to communicate with the English native community.

3.5. Franglais in Literature and Mass Media

Since William the Conqueror occupied England, French and English have had their

prime time. The influence of these two languages is visible on many levels, for example in

English literature. William Shakespeare in his play Henry V describes in a humorous way the

situation when a French princess Katherine wants to learn English. As a result of

mispronounced words, foot sounds like foutre, which is a very vulgar word in French, or

gown sounds like con, meaning an idiot in French (Shakespeare, Scene IV). Shakespeare

provides the readers an entertainment and shows in a hilarious way the importance of a

cultural aspect when acquiring a new language. A few centuries later an American writer

Mark Twain wrote a book Innocents Abroad. In this travel book Twain recorded his

observations about cultures and society he met during the travel. One of the chapters contains

comedic letter to a Parisian landlord in which he used Franglais:

“PARIS, le 7 Juillet. Monsieur le Landlord—Sir: Pourquoi don't you mettez some savon in

your bed-chambers? Est-ce que vous pensez I will steal it? La nuit passee you charged me

pour deux chandelles when I only had one; hier vous avez charged me avec glace when I had

none at all; tout les jours you are coming some fresh game or other on me, mais vous ne

pouvez pas play this savon dodge on me twice. Savon is a necessary de la vie to anybody but

a Frenchman, et je l'aurai hors de cet hotel or make trouble. You hear me. Allons.

BLUCHER” (Twain, Chapter XIX).

In this entertaining manner the author shows the results of an incorrect use o the

French language. He mocks at his friend Blucher whose French isn’t good enough to write a

whole message in that language so he mixes his native language with as much French words

as he knows . As far as French literature is concerned, there is no visible sign of Franglais in

the classic French literature as in the English one. However, nowadays many of the

contemporary French books, especially teenage or women’s literature, do include English

loanwords which makes these stories more appealing for the readers.

Another interesting example of Franglais is the novel by Robert Smith Surtees written

in 1838, Jorrocks' Jaunts and Jollities. In this book a person can read:

“You shall manger cinq fois every day”, said she; “cinq fois”, she repeated. “Humph!” said

Mr. Jorrocks to himself, “what can that mean? – cank four – four times five’s twenty – eat

twenty times a day – not possible!” “ Oui, Monsieur, cinq fois”, repeated the Countess, telling

25

the number off on her fingers. “Café at nine of the matin, déjeuner à la fourchette at onze

o’clock, diner at cinq heure, café at six hour, and souper at neuf hour” (Surtees 2005).

Passing from literature, it is also worth to consider the use of English words in the

French mass media. The English influence on French media language first appeared in the

1960s. A French musician, Léo Ferré, wrote a song which containted about a half of the text

in English. In his song called La Langue Française (1962) one can hear:

“C'est ma starlette, ma very good, mon pick-galette, mon Hollywood

C'est ma baby au tea for two, c'est ma lady au one-two-two

J'suis son jockey, son steeple-chase, j'sais la driver à la française

Dans l'sleeping car after paillasse, à son milk-bar, j'me tape un glass

Et j'cause français, c'est un plaisir ” (1962).

This song has opened a new direction in the French mass media. There was more and

more sense of the language freedom which resulted in many new directions taken by the

media in France. The phenomenon has developed and today hearing Franglais on the radio is

not surprising any more. The latest hit Positif (2012) by Matt Houston is a blend of French

slang with some English loanwords:

“Si tu tombe tu t’relève again tu réssay again, again et again et again

faut pas oublié ohoh resté positif dans nos têtes, faut pas oublié

My brother my sister, même si c’est pas easy ….”

Nowadays even radio speakers are under the influence of a new fashion and while

announcing some news or songs on the radio they often make comments using Franglais, for

instance, “the song number one en France c’est ....” or “C’est le dernier hit de...” (Radio fr.)

Another aspect in this category is filmography. Not taking into consideration Canadian

movies, where Franglais appears more often and more naturally, there are also few French

movies in which English loanwords cannot pass unnoticed. Moreover, in some French

productions Franglais plays the main role. The last example can be easily identified in the

movie released in 2005 - Foon, directed by Les Quiches. The action takes place in the 60s, in

the suburbs of the west Philadelfoon. In the school the power is taken by rebels, popular and

cool students, namely Foons. This grotesque comedy is all in Franglais, starting with the song

T'es trop foon babe (original soundtrack), which from the beginning shows the audience the

mixture of both English and French, making the movie more chic, and that is all what Foon is

about. One can hear, for example:

“ What que je peux faire? C’est for me un mistere.

Eh la bouseuse, toi et ton troupeau rendez vous dans five minutes dans le couloirs”.

26

The film comes across various critics, most of them are positive, but it can be seen that for

those French with little knowledge of English the movie could create the difficulty with

comprehension and in that point it lost the sense of humor and meaning.

To bring closer the issue of Franglais in the French media it is also worth to mention

the popular television sitcom from Quebec, which was adopted in France in 1999, Un gars,

une fille. This television program has gained its popularity by reflecting in a perfect way the

French culture and patterns of behaviour (Fortin 2009: 4). Consequently, directors of the

sitcom had to implicate in sentences some English loanwords to make the scenario more

realistic. The series reflects stereotypes of the modern couple living together in a big city (in

the French version it is obviously Paris) and dealing with everyday problems. The audience

can observe the main characters in a daily life, taking a look at their behaviours and listening

to funny dialogs. People can easily detect anglicisms which are used freely by the main

characters in situations such as shopping, jogging or renovating the house. In this way the

audience can find such English words as : foot, jogging, t-shirt, break or the number one

(Fortin 2009: 12). They do not appear due to the lack of French equivalents. On the contrary,

the reason is more snobbish - French people use them to simply follow the fashion (Forest

2006: 13). The interesting fact is that all of these loanwords are pronounced with the French

accent. It can also be considered a demonstration of the French snobbism. However, there is a

discussion going on between some language specialists, like Tournier or Yves Laroche-Claire,

about which words are integrated into the French language and which should be considered as

loanwords. The example can be the word super that most of the specialists do not consider as

an anglicism, apart from Yves Laroche-Claire who finds French replacement for that word ,

namely génial (Laroche-Claire 2004: 262). The example of this sitcom shows that television

nowadays is an important source of information and it possesses a great power, creating new

trends and indicating some rules in the language world too.

Another interesting field in mass media is advertising. At present advertising

campaigns use short slogans in English in order to make an advertisement more global. As a

result of such operation advertisements focus on young consumers who are more acquainted

with the English language than the older generation. The leading operator in France, France

Télécom, applies to its offer services such as Business Talk, Family Talk or Live-Zoom (The

Economist 2010). While the young generation does not have any difficulties with

understanding the meaning of trendy expressions, the older generation could be confused. To

the disadvantage of the older generation more and more examples of using English occur in

French magazines, advertisements, and television. The French advertising industry applies

27

various linguistics strategies to draw people’s attention. The most popular one is the

orthographic modification (The Economist 2010). It often happens that rules on translating

English words are lost and new forms of words appear. This was the case of the Orange

mobile phones’ poster which aroused interest among the public in France. It shows a slogan

“Pokeʒ, taggeʒ, likeʒ”, which refers to the English-language Facebook services: poke, tag or

like (The Economist 2010). An interesting fact is that French Facebook does not have such

words. It uses envoyer un poke for poke, j’aime for like and so on. By adding French-looking

endings -eʒ to English words the Orange mobile company wanted to attract people’s attention,

especially the teenagers one.

3.6. Borrowings and Stylistics

The impact of foreign languages appears in every language and the case of French is

not an exception to that rule. The influence of anglicisms on the French language deserves

particular attention. Unlike any other group of borrowings in French, words derived from

English definitely call the tune (Chesley 2010 : 231). As already mentioned (see 3.3. Franglais

and Law), the Toubon Law and the French Academy were created in order to prevent the

constant flow of borrowings into the French language. However, despite precautions that have

been taken, such as the invention of dictionaries of anglicisms, their replacement with French

words (Dictionnaire des termes officiels de la langue francaise, 1994), and fees imposed in

case of breaking the given rules (Toubon Law), the French language is still being fed itself

with anglicisms and other borrowings from various languages.

If one takes a closer look at this linguistics area, he or she can find a number of

borrowings from English into French and vice versa. Throughout the Norman occupation a lot

of French words were borrowed into English and most of them are still in use today. Before

proceeding to the main topic of this section, namely English borrowings in the French

language, it is worth to analyse several examples of French borrowings that exist in the

English language. Some of them, such as sang froid, faux pas, prêt-à-porter or haute couture,

are so deeply rooted into English that explaining their meaning is simply pointless. Still, there

are some borrowings that take on different meanings in French and in English, or they play a

different function in the phrase. For instance, the well-known déjà vu translated literally from

French means “already seen”. In France it may refer to objects that have already been seen or

to situations or actions that have already been done. The Petit Larousse Dictionary gives also

a definition that refers to a trivial, unoriginal thing(Larousse1996:318).However, in the

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English language the word déjà vu, according to the Cambridge Online Dictionary, describes

more “the strange feeling that in some way you have experienced already what is happening

now (Cambridge online dictionary). Another and slightly different example is the word à

propos which in French has to be followed by the preposition de, whereas in the English

language the same word can stand for four different parts of speech.

As far as the issue of anglicisms in French is concerned, the topic was highly criticized

in the 60s by a well-known linguist, Étiemble, but it still proves interesting for the

contemporary linguists. For Étiemble the influence of English on the French language was the

effect of “l’impérialisme yanqui” (Étiemble, 1980:267). But more recently a French linguist

Claude Hagège has paid more attention to the phenomenon of English borrowings in French

which he interprets as a sign of snobbery and a new trend revolution rather than a real need of

borrowing words. The importance of English and its high percentage of borrowings into the

French language can be easily explained by the high status it has in the present world. As a

matter of fact the English-speaking part of the world plays a key role in both economic and

cultural field (The Economist, 2001). According to a sociologist Florian Coulmas the language

of the dominant group is also a predominant donor language from which other languages

borrow words (Coulmas, 1992:268). Since borrowings are not only a linguistic phenomenon

but they also carry an important cultural impact, in order to study the subject properly it is

necessary to focus on borrowings in the French language in France. Paula Chesley, an

American linguist from Minnesota, makes a distinction between anglicisms and borrowings

from other languages into French. In her work she claims that anglicisms constitute a major

part of all borrowings in the French language, they are deeply rooted in the cultural context

and more willingly used by speakers than other non-English borrowings (Chesley, 2010).

Whereas non-English borrowings in French seem to have limited sense and strong bond with

the culture from which they came, the anglicisms in the French language “behave like core

lexical items” ( Chesley, 2010: 241). Following her work one can distinguish different types

of borrowings. The first and the most impressive group are lexical borrowings. Yet, speaking

about borrowings in the French language one has to remember about two main rules by which

borrowings are defined: a borrowed word is copied from a dominant language into a recipient

language without any morphological or graphical changes and it cannot be encountered in any

French dictionary (Chelsey, 2010: 233). This criteria eliminate a lot of words that are wrongly

taken for English borrowings. For instance, the French word week-end, in accordance with the

previous definition, cannot be considered an anglicism because of the hyphen inside

(Thogmartin in Chelsey 2010). The same happens with words that pass from English into

29

French with no letter change but during the process accents are given into French version of

the word. Following this case one cannot consider the word réhabilitation as an anglicism

because of the accent above the “e” letter which does not exist in the English version of the

word.

Another distinction can make semantic anglicisms which, according to Picone (1996)

appear when ”a preexisting French word, morpheme or locution shifts in meaning or becomes

more extended or more restricted in meaning due to imitative language contact with English”

(Picone, 1996:4). Étiemble in his book ”Parlez-vous Franglais” brings the topic closer by

presenting it as a stylistic issue (Étiemble 1980: 211-212). These examples show the main

idea:

French English Franglais

contrôler

(in English means to verify)

to control

(means diriger in French)

contrôler

= diriger

offense

(in English it means insult)

offence, offense

(in French it means délit)

offense

= délit

actuellement

(in English it means at

present)

actually

( in French it means en fait)

actuellement

(en réalite- at present in

English)

Furthermore, as far as idioms are concerned, the French language often makes calques

and translates English idioms to the French language word for word. In this way one can

observe (Étiemble 1980: 215) :

French English Franglais

Donner libre carrière To give the green light Donner le feu vert (word for

word)

30

C’est pour moi de payer It’s on me C’est sur moi

Sometimes a whole structure of the phrase is broken. Étiemble describes this

phenomenon by saying that “Le sabir veille particulièrement à éliminer tous les idiotismes

francais, pour les remplacer par l’idiotisme anglo-saxon" (Étiemble, 1980:215). From the

whole range of examples that he presents in the book the most visible one is that with the

French phrase “je m’appelle Dupont” which translated into English sounds "my name is

Smith”, but in the structure of Franglais it changes into the phrase ”mon nom est Dupont” in

which one can see the borrowed structure of the English language but with the replacement of

French words.

A vast amount of anglicisms in the French language causes that there is an

imperceptible chance to eliminate them from the French language. Due to many reasons, trials

to eliminate borrowings from the common use is worthless, Sometimes, as in the case with

the word football or golf, words exist in the language from such a long time and they are so

deeply rooted into the target language that there is no use trying to get rid of them..

3.7. Franglais – a Threat or a Sign of Development?

Even the French language possess an impressive number of words, sometimes it seems

to be insufficient to express appropriately all the new words emerging in the language. This

brings us to the question: if la langue de Molière is threatened by the one of Shakespeare?

Observing French in a daily life, as well as listening to political speeches and media

discourse, one can notice that English has never been as deeply rooted into French as

nowadays. But yet in 1975, a French journalist Bernard Cassen has predicted the situation

saying that ” English, or rather American, will be the only self-sufficient language, [...]

supported by cultural invasion (cinema, song, cartoon, advertisement)” ( Cassen 1975: 20).

Furthermore, in 1995 Clem Robyns in his research Defending the National Identity:

Franglais and Francophony confirmed the 20th

century invasion of the American culture into

the French language and the loss of the French language power in the world. Since 1940, after

the loss of almost all its colonies by France, it is the United States, not France, that took over

a dominant role in the world (Robyns, 1995:182). According to Robyns “American

dominance affected all sectors of society: politically through the status of the U.S. as protector

of Western Europe, economically through the Marshall Plan (1947) and of the form of

financial assistance such as the canalisation of car debts” (1995:183). In this way France did

31

not only lose its political power, but also “the identification of language, culture, nation and

state, which has always been one of the cornerstones of the dominant model of French

culture” (Braudel quoted in Genouvrier 1986:12 ).

Since that time French has been struggling with the dominance of English that

constantly sneaks into the French language. An interesting fact, noticed by Philip Thody in his

book Forbidden English, Forbidden American: Law, Politics and Language in Contemporary

France(1995) is “the symptom of an uncertainty which the French feel about their national

identity and relationship with the outside world [...] It is English- speaking culture which I

seen as a threat, not that of France’s continental neighbours” (Thody 1995: 28). Defending the

French language from an increasing English intrusion has been a duty for French scholars

since a long time. “The French language is a treasure”, says Rene Étiemble (Étiemble quoted

in Time Magazine), and according to this statement one can be aware of the fact that

contamination of the French language by foreign borrowings can be perceived as a crime and

one has to be punished. Interestingly, Étiemble draws a comparison between defending a

language and conducting a war. And he is not the only one to do so. Henri Gobard, a professor

of linguistics, in his book called La guerre culturelle writes that “We still don’t know that we

are in a state of a cultural war [...] the war of a poisoned society against the culture of the

people”. (Gobard 1979: 17)

Another example is the quotation made by Georges-Henri Clopeau: “Today there is

more of English on the wall in Paris than German during the German occupation.” (Clopeau

1996 : 37). These three quotations show a point to which some perceptions of the

relationships between languages might have warlike character. Going further with the

connotations of tyranny and imprisonment, Andrew Cohen, an American spiritual teacher and

magazine editor says: “ If you know only one language, you're a prisoner, stuck in the tyranny

of that one language.” (Internet source 2). Taking the above quotations into account, one can

say that factors such as tyranny and imprisonment generate fear. The domination of English

and a number of changes in the French language evoke a feeling of fear in the French society

which tries to contradict the phenomenon. It is because a language is not only a set of words,

but also people, their culture and identity. In France, in order to defend the language from

loanwords but at the same time to defend the culture and the patrimony, a great deal of

protection is being implemented since a very long time. Probably the first person who started

the war against English invasion was Rene Étiemble. Then Yves Laroche-Claire created the

Franglais-Francais dictionary in which he proposed French equivalents for the common

Franglais expressions in order to eliminate as much English borrowings as possible.

32

Undoubtedly, it was an idea worth admiring but in everyday life there is barely anybody who

follows his rules.

While Franglais might not be the linguists' favourite language, in commerce, pubs and

a daily life it is all the rage and lives its own life, far away from the French Academy rules

and dictionaries. The people who are interested in languages know that their evolution is

unavoidable. According to a famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, when time changes all

and there is a constant evolution in every field of life, there is no possibility that languages

can avoid this universal law (Saussure 1966: 77).

4. Questionnary – Analysis

Knowing how important the English language is today, one can assume that

everybody should be aware of its significance. English became an indispensable tool for an

international exchange. However, in the country like France where the value of the native

tongue is on the top of people’s minds, the topic is disputable. France is the country of

paradox: on the one hand there is a constant defense of the French language, confirmed by

Toubon Law or the vigilance of The French Academy (see chapter 3.3.). On the other hand,

one can observe an inevitable impact of globalisation and the promotion of the English

language in almost every French newspaper, magazine or advertisement. The aim of this

questionnaire is to discover if the contact of French with English results in impoverishment of

the French language, or on the contrary, it makes the French language richer and vivid.

The questionnaire was created mainly for French employees who use English at work.

In order to guarantee the reliable results the questionnaire was fully anonymous. Moreover, in

order to obtain comprehensive answers and to give respondents freedom of expression in

their own language, the questionnaires were prepared in French and translated into English to

the need of the thesis. Respondents could fill the questionnaire online, where the special

website was created(Internet source 5). Some of them were interrogated in institutions in

Paris, France, like INEO – a leading enterprise in electrical engineering. The survey was

carried out from July to October 2012. A total of 65 answers will be analysed in this chapter.

33

4.1. Part 1.

For better understanding the results of the survey it is important to present firstly

supplementary information about respondents. Considering the age of participants the main

group constitutes those under 25 (55%). A little less, with 27% of respondents, is the group of

people in the age between 25 and 40. The column chart below (Table 1.) presents a minimal

participation of people above the age of 40 ( 3%).

Table 1.

Considering the fact that people who participated in the survey had to be familiar with the

English language, one can assume that this skill is at more importance now than it was in the

past during getting the job. It can result from the fact that the English language has gained its

importance relatively recently, as well as the French language before had led the way and

there was no need to learn another language.

As far as gender is concerned,

the pie chart (Table 2.) shows that 55% of

respondents are male representatives,

whereas 45% constitutes women. The

interesting fact is that most participants

work in the office related with science

rather than in humanistic area. Leading

position represents economics (17%), not

far away is engineering science (15%).

Occupations related with science makes

34

25% of total job activity . However the results cannot be taken seriously because it may

effect from the greater number of science departments in Paris and its request for workers

speaking English, or simply of the coincidence what type of employees found out about the

questionnaire and filled it up.

The first part of the questionnaire consists of general questions about the use of the

English language by French employees, their ability to use language skills in order to

communicate at work in a foreign language and the level of their English, confirmed

occasionally with some certificates.

The first question deals with the environment where respondents learned English.

Participants could choose more than one answer and for that reason to present better the

results the pie chart below(Table 3.) shows the number of answers for every of the possible

response. Almost everyone has chosen the answer number A – school. This is supported by

the fact that the English language, as in the case with Poland, is compulsory in the school

curriculum. However, as the results of the following questions will show, the effect of the

English language education has different results on particulars. The pie chart also confirms

the statement that travel broadens the mind since almost 50 % of respondents have chosen

voyages as the way to learn the English language.

As mentioned before, learning English in schools gives diverse effect in further evaluation

of language skills by particular person. The second question aims to look closer how French

employees perceive their language skills regarding English. By using an evaluation ladder

they assess their English from 1 (minimum) to 5 (maximum) at following levels:

a) Oral practice

35

b) Writing practice

c) Oral comprehension

d) Reading comprehension

Regarding the following column chart (Table 4.) one can be surprised by the results. As the

survey shows , the domain where French people feel the most comfortable is the oral

comprehension of English (30 votes for good 4 grade ) and the oral practice ( 29 votes for

good 4 grade). 43% of respondents give themselves 5 grade for reading comprehension that

together with the results from oral comprehension indicates their confidence about capacity

of understanding the English language.

The interesting fact can be a comparison of the table above with the question number 3

and 3.1. (concerning the possession of an English certificate). Respondents who own any of

English certificate (in most of the cases

it is TOEFL and CAE), consist 30% of

all participants and their average of

English skills ranges to 4,25. The

average of English skills for the rest of

participants is 3,6. It may indicate that

by having an English certificate the

French employees feel more confident in

judging their English skills.

36

Due to the fact that this questionnaire is addressed to French employees, it is important

to find out whether they participate in an English interview or not. Considering the fact that

all respondents work with the English language it is surprising that only 45% of them have

participated in an interview conducted in English (Table 5.) However it seems natural that all

of the respondents who had an English interview answered that the knowledge of English is

important in getting a job (question 4.1.).

Considering the frequency of using English at work ( question 5) , the results look as

follows:

One third of respondents use English at work every day , whereas 34% use it only in some

cases . Asked in which situations at work French workers use English (question 6), the

answers mostly repeated are:

lecture of documents

e-mails correspondence

telephone contact with international

clients

conversations with colleagues

(working within an international

team)

meetings/conversations with

international clients

These are the most important and the most

37

frequent answers, which allow us to assume that despite the diversity of the level of English,

French employees use a foreign language to communicate and make business. However, the

questionnaire cannot define if the respondents truly use the English language, or it is rather

Globish or Franglais.

Working in international corporations or companies that aspire to enter other market

than in its own country, one has to be aware of the fact that the English language dominates

most of business meetings, trades and international conferences. The importance of the last

example can confirm the results of the question number 7, where participants answered the

question about participation in an English-speaking conference. As one can see on the above

pie chart (Table 7.), more than 60% of respondents have already participated in this kind of

meeting. An interesting fact can be the result of the next question, where asked about using

headphones translation only 15% answered positively. Regarding these results one can

assume that the level of English among French population is sufficient to understand correctly

the general aim of the speech in the English language. However, in the book L’anglais de

l’Hexagone by Xavier Combe, one can find an interesting remark regarding the issue of the

level of English and using headphones translation by French (Combe 2009, 105-106).

According to the author, one can divide French population into four categories. The first one

speaks and understands the English language sufficiently for express their own thoughts and

for understand Anglophones. This group does not take headphones translation. However,

Combe admits that this group is rare among French population. The next group consists of

people who can use Globish in order to communicate with Anglophones and to make

themselves comprehensible. This group is numerous and does not take headphones

translation. But the most interesting group is the third one, which constitutes a large part of

the French population. Despite the fact that people from this group cannot understand

Anglophones, in fear of unveil the

inability they do not take headphones

translation(2009:106). The last group is

ready to admit the lack of qualifications to

understand English and as the only group

it takes headphones translation. However,

the number of people in this group is very

low.

38

Observations from the last question can be also a good commentary to the next issue

(question 8). Asking about public speech during an English–speaking conference, 31% of

respondents confirmed a participation of at least one. However, among those who deliver a

speech, only 15% has used a professional Interpreter (question 8.1.).

The first part of the questionnary has shown that the English language for French

employees is not as a strange issue as one can suppose. French pepole take opportunity and

try to learn English not only at school, but also during travels or simply signing up for private

courses. The level of the English language varies, with better results of those who possess any

of English certificates like TOEFL or CAE. However, situations at work force French

employees to deal with a foreign language and make business regardless their language

competence. Taking into account the remark from Combe’s book one can make a conclusion

that the notion of the English language as the language of trade is present among the French

employees. However, combined with their proud of their native language it has led to

interesting results of the survey.

4.2. Part 2

The second part of the questionnaire focuses mostly on the role of the English

language in everyday life situations in France. It also presents the use of English borrowings

by French nation and their attitude to anglicisms in the French language. Finally, it helps with

answering the question if there is a need to protect the French language from anglicisms.

As it was mentioned in a previous chapter, Franglais appears in every field of life. It is

visible not only in the street conversations among

French, but also one can come across this type of

blend in French newspapers, magazines or even hear

it during some political speeches. No matter what

level of language one has, the results of the next

question show that almost every French respondent

(Table 9.) uses English expressions or borrowings

during conversations with friends or family. It

indicates a strong popularization of English in every

39

area. The reason of this phenomenon can be found in

the question number 10, which points out that 88% of

respondents after their work have still a contact with

English, by reading English newspapers or watching

television in English (Table 10). By having a contact

with the English language not only at work, but also

in daily life, French employees are more eager to use

their language skills in any kind of situation, not only

during business meetings.

Another question worth analysing is the issue of French contamination by English

borrowings (question 12). The topic often discussed in today’s society seems to be bigger

than in the reality. As one can see on the Table number 11, only 34% of respondents claim

that today the French language is contaminated by

English borrowings, whereas 66% do not consider

anglicisms as a subject of worries. Even less

participants (22%) think that the French language

should be protected from English borrowings

(question 13). Those, who answered this question

positively to justify their opinion give various

examples how to protect the French language from

anglicisms (question 13.1.). For ones it is essential to

protect the culture, the way of thinking and acting.

One can achieve that by defending such fields as literature, theatre, music. The others choose

more direct way like word-word translation and constant reminding of the French words to

the nation. However, if there is any way to prevent so willingly spreading anglicisms? As

some of the respondents well noticed, languages evolve and every language borrows words

one from another. The situation is mostly visible in new technology vocabulary. If France was

the country of technical innovations, it would be French expressions that would enter into

English-speaking world. As a proof, one can look closer at an English cuisine vocabulary,

where there is a visible influence of the French language. Some respondents even consider the

fight against anglicims as a sign of inferiority complex directed against English. As they

noticed, such borrowings as tapa, karaoke, ciao or kiffer are not scrutinize as closely as

anglicisms.

40

The second part of the questionnaire aimed to indicate the use of English borrowings

and anglicisms in the French language. Regarding the impressive number of respondents who

use English expressions or borrowings in a daily life it might seem that the French language is

contaminated by anglicisms and exposed to a danger. However, results from further questions

have shown that only a little part of respondents consider French as the language

contaminated by anglicisms and even less participants think that the French language should

be protected from anglicisms.

The interesting fact is that French people seem to be aware of the importance of the

English language as well as they are eager to learn English in order to get a better job. It

seems that they recognize the importance of speaking English when one intends to work in a

big enterprise or an international company. Even when French employees feel obligate to

study English, the questionnaire has shown that they do not feel threatened by the English

domination. However, the problem can be found on a

different level, namely in everyday life use of English

borrowings. The impressive results of the question

number nine, with 92% of respondents who use

English borrowings in a daily life might indicate that

English is beginning to have a great linguistic impact

on the French language as it never has before.

5. Conclusions

The aim of this bachelor project was to analyse languages in contact on the example of

Franglais, focusing mainly on its contemporary use, especially in the area of a business

language. After the theoretical introduction, where the main definitions were presented, the

case was divided into two parts in which the topic of Franglais was expanded, especially its

particular use in the contemporary world. The final chapter with the analysis of the

questionnaire allowed me to make a conclusion about an attitude of the French employees

towards the English language as well as how English is perceived in France.

To reach the main topic it was at high importance to discuss the issue of “pure”

language. Because it is hardly probable that a homogenous language has ever existed, the

41

discussion consequently leads the reader to the topic of languages in contact. As for the

definition, one needs to underline its importance in this bachelor project and the great impact

that it has on the creation and development of Franglais. Furthermore, the description of such

definitions as lingua franca, pidgin or vernacular and vehicular language, all these support the

importance of languages in contact as well as allow the reader to look at this phenomenon

both locally and globally.

The next few sections were dedicated to language domination and the important issue

of globalisation. What I have tried to present in these sections, it was the high importance of

English and its dominant role of today. Whereas the history showed that not so long ago,

before the World War II, it was French that dominated over other languages and had a great

interest in the world, a turning point came after and since that time the English language has

become the language of its high importance and its significance is constantly growing, having

an impact on other languages, for instance French. Its influence is also visible in the business

language, where it has built its importance and has become the language most often used

when it comes to business issues.

Whereas in the first chapter some undeniable facts were presented, the next two

chapters were fully devoted to the discussion about Franglais. The section with Franglais

aimed mainly to introduce the topic and explain the meaning of the word. By presenting some

historical facts that influenced both French and English, the aim was to indicate that the issue

of Franglais is rooted not only in the modern history, but the phenomenon occurred much

earlier. As soon as Franglais gained a great popularity, the great fear came too. For this reason

the legal regulations to protect the French language from English borrowings were discussed.

Despite imposing sanctions on those who use anglicisms improperly, the power of Franglais

has been spreading through literature, art, music, mass media and even political speeches.

Examples supported this statement which were used in this bachelor project confirmed that

Franglais is not only an innocent gadget used accidentally by people, but it is a phenomenon,

not only on linguistic level but also in social and cultural area. The phenomenon that was built

on the process of languages in contact which now has resulted in its appearance on everyday

life.

The last part of this bachelor project, namely the analyse of the questionnaire, aimed

to present and support the statement of the omnipresence of Franglais in the contemporary

world, as well as to indicate the attitude of French nation to the English language. As for the

English language in France, results have shown that the French population is aware of a great

importance of English, especially when it comes to a business world. Furthermore, the

42

analysis of the questionnaire has demonstrated the eagerness of learning the English language

by French population. As far as Franglais and its contemporary use is concerned, the survey

has shown the great use of anglicisms among French respondents. However, they do not

perceive anglicisms as a threat for the French language.

As a conclusion, Franglais is not only an intricate history of mingled combination of

English and French, not even a simple process resulted from languages in contact, but

Franglais can be perceived as a phenomenon of the 21st century with its constant growing and

appearance at many different areas. Finally, it has to be noticed that the use of Franglais

influences not only on linguistic area of French and English, but also has a cultural and social

impact on the society and by examining the topic one has to take into accounts many aspects .

43

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54

7. Appendix

1) Oryginal questionnaire

Questionnaire anonyme sur Franglais

Remarque sur la protection de la vie privée Ce questionnaire est anonyme. Toutes les

informations recueillies dans le présent questionnaire ne seront utilisées que pour servir mon

mémoire. Afin d’améliorer mon recherche sur franglais, je vous remercie de remplir ce

questionnaire :

*Obligatoire

1) Où avez-vous appris l’anglais ? *(il est possible de choisir plusieurs réponses)

L’école

La famille

Les cours privés

Les voyages

Le programme d’échange pour les étudiants (ex. Erasmus)

Autres:

2) En utilisant une échelle de 1 (minimum) à 5 (maximum), évaluez votre connaissance de

l’anglais : *

1 2 3 4 5

a) Pratique orale

b) Pratique écrit

c) Compréhension

orale

d) Compréhension

écrite

3) Avez-vous un certificat en anglais ? *

Oui

Non

3.1) Si oui, lequel:

55

4) Avez-vous déjà eu un entretien d'embauche en anglais ? *

Oui

Non

4.1) Si oui, pensez-vous que la maîtrise de l’anglais était importante pour obtenir un poste de

travail ?

Oui

Non

5) À quelle fréquence utilisez-vous l’anglais au travail ? *

Chaque jour

Moins de 4 fois par semaine

Seulement dans certains cas

Je ne l’utilise pas

Autres:

6) Dans quelle(s) situation(s) utilisez-vous l’anglais dans le travail ?

7) Avez-vous déjà participé à une conférence en anglais ? *

Oui

Non

7.1) Si oui, avez-vous utilisé un casque de traduction ?

Oui

Non

8) Avez-vous déjà parlé anglais, en public, pendant une conférence ? *

Oui

Non

8.1) Si oui, avez-vous utilisé un interprète ?

56

Oui

Non

Deuxieme partie

9) Dans la vie quotidienne, pendant les conversations avec vos amis ou votre famille, avez-

vous déjà utilisé des expressions anglaises ou des emprunts ? *

Oui

Non

10) Lisez-vous des magazines ou des livres en anglais ? Regardez-vous des programmes en

anglais ? *

Oui

Non

11) Pensez-vous que la connaissance de la langue anglaise est importante pour obtenir un bon

travail ? *

Oui

Non

12) Pensez-vous qu’aujourd’hui la langue française est polluée par les anglicismes ? *

Oui

Non

13) Pensez-vous que la langue française doit être protégée contre les anglicismes ? *

Oui

Non

13.1) Si oui, de quelle façon ?

57

Informations complémentaires :

Vous êtes : *

Un homme

Une femme

Votre tranche d’âge : *

moins de 25 ans

25 à 40 ans

40 à 60 ans

plus de 60 ans

Quel poste occupez-vous ? *