AnatoAnatomeme

Anatomy (Greek anatome, “dissection”) a subfield of biology,

the study of the structure of living things.

3 main areas of anatomy: cytology studies the structure of cell; histology examines the structure of tissues; and gross anatomy deals with organs and organ groupings called systems.

Comparative anatomy strives to identify general structural patterns in families of plants and animals, provided the basis for the classification of species.

Human anatomy is a crucial element of the modern medical curriculum.

The proper understanding of structure implies a knowledge of function, hence inseparable to Physiology.

The birth of biology: 5th - 4th century BC

The first man to make a significant contribution in biology is Alcmaeon, living in Crotona in the 5th century.  Alcmaeon is the first scientist known to have practised dissection in his researches.

His aim is not anatomical, for his interest lies in trying to trying to find the whereabouts of human intelligence.

The subsequent Greek theory, subscribed to even by Aristotle, is that the heart is the seat of intelligence.

Alcmaeon reasons that since a blow to the head can affect the mind, in concussion, this must be where reason lies.

In dissecting corpses to pursue this idea, he observes passages linking the brain with the eyes (the optic nerves) and the back of the mouth with the ears (Eustachian tubes).

Human vivisection: c.300 BC Early in the 3rd

century BC two surgeons in Alexandria, Herophilus and Erasistratus, make the first scientific studies designed to discover the workings of human anatomy.

Basis of science in the modern times.

(they acquire much of their information from vivisection of convicted criminals).

The influential errors of Galen: 2nd century AD

Galen - The newly appointed chief physician to the gladiators in Pergamum, in AD 158

The appointment gives him the opportunity to study wounds of all kinds.

But it is Galen's dissection of apes and pigs which give him the detailed information for his medical tracts on the organs of the body. Nearly 100 of these tracts survive.

Galen is able to demonstrate that living arteries contain blood.

His error :the blood goes back and forth from the heart in an ebb-and-flow motion.

Through his experiments Galen is able to overturn many long-held beliefs that the arteries contain air - carrying it to all parts of the body from the heart and the lungs (based originally on the arteries of dead animals, which appear to be empty).

Leonardo's anatomical drawings: AD 1489-1515 Leonardo da Vinci

made a series of anatomical drawings.

Over the next twenty-five years he dissects about thirty human corpses, many of them at a mortuary in Rome.

His drawings, amounting to some 750, include studies of bone structures, muscles, internal organs, the brain and even the position of the foetus in the womb.

His studies of the heart suggest that he was on the verge of discovering the concept of the circulation of the blood.

Vesalius and the science of anatomy: AD 1533-1543 Vesalius gives a public

demonstration of the inaccuracies of Galen's anatomical theories, which are still the orthodoxy of the medical profession.

Vesalius is able to show that in many cases Galen's observations are indeed correct for the ape, but bear little relation to the man.

He ensured accurate distribution of an image in printed form - the art of the woodcut.

His studies inaugurate the modern science of anatomy.  

in 1543 - De humani corporis fabrica

(The Structure of the Human Body).

Harvey and the circulation of the blood: AD 1628 William Harvey – Wrote

Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus ('The Anatomical Function of the Movement of the Heart and the Blood in Animals').

Blood, he shows, does not drift in the body in any sort of random ebb and flow.

Instead it is pumped endlessly

round a very precise circuit.

By a long series of dissections (from dogs and pigs down to slugs and oysters), and by a process of logical argument

But there are two missing ingredients. His theory implies that there must be a network of tiny blood vessels bringing the blood from the arterial system to the venous system and completing the circuit

Malpighi and the microscope: AD 1661 Malpighi is the first scientist to

observe the capillaries, the tiny blood vessels in which blood circulates through flesh.

(frog's lung) In the enlarged image of the blood is all contained within  

This strengthened the missing link in Harvey's circulation of the blood has been found.

Leeuwenhoek and the microscope: AD 1674-1683 he uses a simple microscope with a single

lens - in effect a tiny and extremely powerful magnifying glass.

he is the first scientist to give an accurate description of red blood corpuscles.

he observes and depicts spermatozoa in the semen of a dog.

he provides a drawing of animalculae (or bacteria) seen in saliva and dental plaque.

 

the first to wander with such enlarged vision among the minutiae of the animal kingdom.

His account of the common flea follows its development from egg to the practical perfection of its adult anatomy. His researches demonstrate for the first time that the tiniest living things have a life cycle and generative systems like any larger creature

Microscopic anatomy: 17th - 20th century AD

  Félix Dujardin identifies a viscous translucent substance as being common to all forms of life; it is later given the name protoplasm.

Robert Brown discovers in plants the nucleus at the centre of every cell. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Swann

give the first coherent account of cell formation as the building process of all life

What are these?What are these?

4D/4E – just an 4D/4E – just an add on to your add on to your studies... It studies... It might help in might help in the future...the future...

Research.Research.

Anatomy - Anatomical Nomenclature

Anatomy - Anatomical Nomenclature standard

anatomical position - When the human body is in the standard anatomical position it is upright, erect on two legs, facing frontward, with the arms at the sides each rotated so that the palms of the hands turn forward.

In the standard anatomical position, superior means toward the head or the cranial end of the body.

The term inferior means toward the feet or the caudal end of the body.

The frontal surface of the body is the anterior or ventral surface of the body. Accordingly, the terms "anteriorly" and "ventrally" specify a position closer to—or toward—the frontal surface of the body. The back surface of the body is the posterior or dorsal surface and the terms "posteriorly" and "dorsally" specify a position closer to—or toward—the posterior surface of the body.

The sagittal suture unties the parietal bones of the skull along the midline of the body. The suture is used as an anatomical landmark in anatomical nomenclature to establish what are termed sagittal planes of the body. The primary sagittal plane is the sagittal plane that runs through the length of the sagittal suture. Planes that are parallel to the sagittal plane, but that are offset from the midsagittal plane are termed parasagittal planes. Sagittal planes run anteriorly and posteriorly, are always at right angles to the coronal planes. The medial plane or midsagittal plane divides the body vertically into superficially symmetrical right and left halves.

The medial plane also establishes a centerline axis for the body. The terms medial and lateral relate positions relative to the medial axis. If a structure is medial to another structure, the medial structure is closer to the medial or center axis. If a structure is lateral to another structure, the lateral structure is farther way from the medial axis. For example, the lungs are lateral to the heart.

The terms superficial and deep relate to the distance from the exterior surface of the body. Cavities such as the thoracic cavity have internal and external regions that correspond to deep and superficial relationships in the midsagittal plane.

The bones of the skull are fused by sutures that form important anatomical landmarks. Sutures are joints that run jaggedly along the interface between the bones. At birth, the sutures are soft, broad, and cartilaginous. The sutures eventually fuse and become rigid and ossified near the end of puberty or early in adulthood.

The coronal suture unites the frontal bone with the parietal bones. In anatomical nomenclature, the primary coronal plane designates the plane that runs through the length of the coronal suture. The primary coronal plane is also termed the frontal plane because it divides the body into frontal and back halves.

Planes that divide the body into superior and inferior portions, and that are at right angles to both the sagittal and coronal planes are termed transverse planes. Anatomical planes that are not parallel to sagittal, coronal, or transverse planes are termed oblique planes.

The body is also divided into several regional areas. The most superior area is the cephalic region that includes the head. The thoracic region is commonly known as the chest region. Although the celiac region more specifically refers to the center of the abdominal region, celiac is sometimes used to designate a wider area of abdominal structures. At the inferior end of the abdominal region lies the pelvic region or pelvis. The posterior or dorsal side of the body has its own special regions, named for the underlying vertebrae. From superior to inferior along the midline of the dorsal surface lie the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions. The buttocks is the most prominent feature of the gluteal region.

The term upper limbs or upper extremities refers to the arms. The term lower limbs or lower extremities refers to the legs.

The proximal end of an extremity is at the junction of the extremity (i.e., arm or leg) with the trunk of the body. The distal end of an extremity is the point on the extremity farthest away from the trunk (e.g., fingers and toes). Accordingly, if a structure is proximate to another structure it is closer to the trunk (e.g., the elbow is proximate to the wrist). If a structure is distal to another, it is farther from the trunk (e.g., the fingers are distal to the wrist).

Structures may also be described as being medial or lateral to the midline axis of each extremity. Within the upper limbs, the terms radial and ulnar may be used synonymous with lateral and medial. In the lower extremities, the terms fibular and tibial may be used as synonyms for lateral and medial.

The term flexion means movement toward the flexor or anterior surface. In contrast, extension may be generally regarded as movement toward the extensor or posterior surface. Flexion occurs when the arm brings the hand from the anatomical position toward the shoulder (a curl) or when the arm is raised over the head from the anatomical position. Extension returns the upper arm and or lower to the anatomical position. Because of the embryological rotation of the lower limbs that rotates the primitive dorsal side to the adult form ventral side, flexion occurs as the thigh is raised anteriorly and superiorly toward the anterior portion of the pelvis. Extension occurs when the thigh is returned to anatomical position. Specifically, due to the embryological rotation, flexion of the lower leg occurs as the foot is raised toward the back of the thigh and extension of the lower leg occurs with the kicking motion that returns the lower leg to anatomical position.

The term palmar surface (palm side) is applied to the flexion side of the hand. The term plantar surface is applied to the bottom sole of the foot. From the anatomical position, extension occurs when the toes are curled back and the foot arches upward and flexion occurs as the foot is returned to anatomical position.

Rolling motions of the foot are described as inversion (rolling with the big toe initially lifting upward) and eversion (rolling with the big toe initially moving downward).

Rotations of the extremities may de described as medial rotations (toward the midline) or lateral rotations (away from the midline).

Many structural relationships are described by combined anatomical terms (e.g. the eyes are anterio-medial to the ears).

There are also terms of movement that are standardized by anatomical nomenclature. Starting from the anatomical position, abduction indicates the movement of an arm or leg away from the midline or midsagittal plane. Adduction indicates movement of an extremity toward the midline.

The opening of the hands into the anatomical position is supination of the hands. Rotation so the dorsal side of the hands face forward is termed pronation.

Human anatomy in a nutshell Human anatomy divides the body into the following distinct

functional systems: cutaneous, muscular, skeletal, circulatory, nervous, digestive, urinary, endocrine, respiratory, and reproductive. This division helps the student understand the organs, their relationships, and the relations of individual organs to the body as a whole.

The cutaneous system consists of the integument—the covering of the body, including the skin, hair, and nails. The skin is the largest organ in the body, and its most important function is to act as a barrier between the body and the outside world. The skin's minute openings (pores) also provide an outlet for sweat, which regulates the body temperature. Melanin, a dark pigment found in the skin, provides protection from sunburn. The skin also contains oil-producing cells.

The muscles of the muscular system enable the body to move and provide power to the hands and fingers. There are two basic types of muscles. Voluntary (skeletal) muscles enable movements under conscious direction (e.g., to walk, move an arm, or smile). Involuntary (smooth) muscles are not consciously controlled, and operate independent of conscious direction. For example, they play an important role in digestion. The third type of muscle, cardiac muscle is involuntary, but also is striated, as in skeletal muscles. Because cardiac muscle is self-contractile it allows the heart to pumps blood throughout the body, without pause, from early in embryogenesis to death.

The skeletal system, or the skeleton, is the general supportive structure of the body. In addition, the skeletal system is the site of many important and complex physiological and immunological processes. The skeletal frame provides the support that muscles need in order to function. Of the 206 bones in the human body, the largest is the femur, or thigh bone. The smallest are the tiny ear ossicles, three in each ear, named the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes). Often included in the skeletal system are the ligaments, which connect bone to bone; the joints, which allow the connected bones to move; and the tendons, which connect muscle to bone.

The circulatory system comprises the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, blood and blood-forming organs, and the lymphatic sub-system. The four chambers of the heart allow the heart to act as a dual pump to propel blood to the lungs for oxygenation (pulmonary system) and to pump blood throughout the body (systemic circulation). From the heart, the blood circulates through arteries. The blood is distributed through smaller and smaller tubes until it passes into the microscopic capillaries which bathe every cell. The veins collect the "used" blood from the capillaries and return it to the heart.

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the sensory organs that provide information to them. For example, our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin receive stimuli and send signals that travel both electrically and chemically to the brain. The brain is an intricate system of complicated neurons (nerve cells) that allow us to process sensory information, visceral signals (e.g. regulating breathing, body temperature, etc.), and perform cognitive thought.

The digestive system is essentially a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus. Food entering the mouth is conducted through the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, where accessory organs contribute digestive juices to break down the food, extracting the molecules that can be used to nourish the body. The unusable parts of the ingested food are expelled through the anus as fecal matter. The salivary glands (in the mouth), the liver, and the pancreas are the primary digestive glands.

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, the bladder, and the connecting tubules. The kidneys filter water and waste products from the blood and pass them into the bladder. At intervals, the bladder is emptied through the urinary tract, ridding the body of unneeded waste.

The endocrine system consists of ductless (endocrine) glands that produce hormones that regulate various bodily functions. The pancreas secretes insulin to regulate sugar metabolism, for example. The pituitary gland in the brain is the principal or "master" gland that regulates many other glands and endocrine functions.

The respiratory system includes the lungs, the diaphragm, and the tubes that connect them to the outside atmosphere. Respiration is the process whereby an organism absorbs oxygen from the air and returns carbon dioxide. The diaphragm is the muscle that enables the lungs to work.

Finally, the reproductive system enables sperm and egg to unite and the egg to remain in the uterus or womb to develop into a functional human.