anatomy, physiology, & disease - somerset canyons...2014/10/04 · anatomy, physiology, &...

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Anatomy, Physiology, & Disease, Revised First Edition Bruce J. Colbert, Jeff E. Ankney, and Karen T. Lee

Anatomy, Physiology, & Disease

Revised First Edition

Chapter 4 Tissues and Systems:

The Inside Story




Multimedia Directory

Slide 49 !Skin Cancer Video!Slide 78 !Body Systems Animation!Slide 79 !Histotechnology Video!




Introduction

• Cells are basic building blocks of our bodies •  Similar cells are organized into tissues that

perform similar functions •  A collection of tissues designed to perform

similar or several functions is called an organ • Organs that work together to perform major

specific activities, often with help of accessory structures, form systems




Learning Objectives

•  Explain the relationship between cells, tissues, organs, and systems •  List and describe the four main types of

tissue •  Identify and describe the various body

membranes • Differentiate the three main types of

muscle tissues




Learning Objectives (cont’d)

• Describe the main components of nerve tissues •  List and describe the main functions of the

body systems •  Provide general examples of how

pathologic conditions can impact on cells, tissues, organs, and body systems




Pronunciation Guide

Anorexia Atherosclerosis Cuboidal Cutaneous membranes Epithelial tissue Genitourinary Glia Meninges Neuroglia Neurons

(an oh REX ee ah) (AATH ur oh sklur OH sis) (cue BOYD al) (cue TAY nee us) (ep ih THEE lee al) (gen I toe YOUR in air EE) (GLEE ah) (men IN jeez) (noo ROH glee ah) (NOO ron)

Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.




Pronunciation Guide (cont’d)

Parietal Serous membrane Skeletal muscle Squamous Stratified Striated muscle Synovial membrane Transitional Visceral

(pah RYE eh tal) (SEER us) (SKELL eh tal) (SKWAY muss) (STRAT ih fied) (STRY ate ed) (sin OH vee al) (tran ZISH ion al) (VISS er al)

Click on the megaphone icon before each item to hear the pronunciation.




Tissues

•  Formed when there is collection of similar cells that act together to perform function •  Imagine cells as bricks, placed in specific pattern

to create functional walls, or tissues, of building •  Four main types:

– Epithelial – Connective – Muscle – Nervous




Epithelial Tissue

• Covers and lines much of body and also covers many of parts found in body • Cells are packed tightly together, forming a

sheet that usually has no blood vessels in it •  Further classified by shape, as well as

arrangement – Flat or scale-like cells: squamous – Cube shaped: cuboidal – Column-like: columnar




Epithelial Tissue (cont’d)

•  If cells are arranged in single layer and are all same type of cell, classified as simple •  If several layers deep, they are stratified

and will be named by type of cell on outer layer • Exception is pseudostratified epithelium,

which is single layer of cells that looks stratified




Figure 4-1 Types and locations of epithelial tissues.




Membranes

•  Sheet-like structures found throughout body that perform special functions • Can be classified as organs •  Those classified as epithelial membranes

possess layer of epithelial tissue and bottom layer of specialized connective tissue




Membranes (cont’d)

•  Epithelial membranes can be: – Cutaneous – Serous – Mucous




Table 4-1 Types of Epithelial Membranes !




Figure 4-2 Location of serous and mucous membranes.




Connective Tissue

•  Most common of tissues, and is found scattered throughout body

•  Found in organs, bones, nerves, muscles, membranes, and skin

•  Holds things together and provides structure and support

•  Can form fine, delicate webs or strong cord-like structures similar to wire cables

•  Included in composition of bones and cartilage, as well as adipose tissue (fat)




Figure 4-3 Types and locations of connective tissues.




Synovial Membrane

• Membrane type associated with connective tissue •  Important membrane found in space

between bone joints and produces slippery substance called synovial fluid •  This special fluid greatly reduces friction

when joints move




Figure 4-4 The synovial joint.




Muscle Tissue

• Provides means for movement, by and in our bodies •  This form of tissue has ability to shorten

itself (contractility) •  Three types:

– Skeletal – Cardiac – Smooth




Skeletal Muscle

• Called striated because of striped appearance •  Attached to bones; causes movement by

contracting and relaxing • Often found around openings in body, such

as mouth, where it controls size of opening •  Long, fiber-like cells with many nuclei in

each cell




Skeletal Muscle (cont’d)

•  Brain controls muscle contraction and relaxation; because these muscles are controlled consciously, they are called voluntary muscles




Cardiac Muscle

•  Found in walls of heart • Heart beats without us having to think

about it, so muscle type considered involuntary muscle • Cells within tissue interlock with each

other; makes for more efficient contraction




Smooth Muscles

•  Forms walls of hollow organs such as in digestive system (often called visceral tissue) and blood vessels • We don’t control these muscles with

thoughts, so they are also involuntary muscles • Cells within tissue not as long and fibrous as

skeletal muscles and each has only one nucleus




Figure 4-5 Labeled diagram and flowchart of the three muscle tissue types.




Nervous Tissue

•  Acts as rapid messenger service for body; messages can cause actions to occur; two types: – Neurons: conduction of information §  Dendrites: branch-like formations on neurons that

receive sensory information §  Axon: trunk-shaped structure that transports

information away from cell body – Glia (or neuroglia): support and connection cells




Nervous Tissue (cont’d)

• Membranes that cover brain and spinal cord called meninges • Many nerves have insulating layer called

myelin sheath




Figure 4-6 The two main types of nerve cells. !




Meningitis

•  Inflammation of meninges (membranes that cover brain and spinal cord); caused by bacteria or virus • Bacterial form can spread via droplets

from sneezing or coughing; can also spread through contact with saliva of infected person; college students and military personnel in crowded situations at higher risk




Meningitis (cont’d)

• Once infected, you become carrier of disease – Only some people who become carriers will

develop disease – In others, immune system actually destroys

and removes pathogen before illness develops





• Symptoms – Non-specific headaches – Fever – Nausea – Neck stiffness – Skin rash – Hearing loss – Neurologic/ brain damage – Kidney failure





• Bacterial form has approximately 10% fatality rate • Vaccine available for prevention

– Does not protect against all pathogens that can cause meningitis

– Has been associated with adverse reactions, including headaches, dizziness, vomiting, convulsions, and even death





• Right now, vaccine not mandatory for high-risk groups; individuals should weigh risks and benefits in deciding if they would like to be vaccinated




Table 4-2 Universally Recommended Vaccinations




Pathology Connection: Blood Sugar and Tissue Damage

• Diabetes (and associated high blood sugar) can cause damage to body tissues – Since glucose cannot be moved inside body

cells, cells must burn fats and proteins in body for energy § As body uses up protein, tissues start to break

down, becomes difficult to produce more tissue – With impaired tissue production, wounds

become more difficult to heal, and infections become harder to fight




Pathology Connection: Blood Sugar and Tissue Damage (cont’d)

•  Lipids released from fat so that cell can burn lipids for energy – Lipids can deposit around inside walls of blood

vessels (atherosclerosis develops) – Deposits cause impaired blood flow to tissues

•  Together, tissue break down, deficient blood flow, and impaired wound healing mean that diabetics prone to tissue death and gangrene; can lead to loss of toes, feet, and even legs




Organs

• Result of two or more types of tissues organizing in such a way as to accomplish something that tissues cannot do on their own •  Some occur singly and some in pairs •  Vital ones are those you can’t live without • Others, like spleen, appendix, or gallbladder,

can be removed without causing problems • Work as part of a system




Table 4-3 Systems and Organs of the Human Body !




Table 4-3 (continued) Systems and Organs of the Human Body !




Systems

•  Formed by organs that work together to accomplish something more complex than what single organ can do on its own • Each is interrelated, often depending on

each other for proper functioning of body




Skeletal System

•  Functions – Provides support and structure for body – Protects organs – Provides movement – Stores variety of minerals

• Main components – Bones – Joints – Ligaments – Cartilage




Figure 4-7 The skeletal system. !




Muscular System

•  Voluntary muscles – Movement created by conscious thought, like

scratching your nose – Skeletal muscles attached to bones

•  Involuntary muscles – Perform without conscious thought – Classified as smooth or cardiac muscle – Found in blood vessels, airways, and organs




Muscular System (cont’d)

• External muscles attached to bones and help with movement; internal muscles found inside body, like those that allow you to swallow




Figure 4-8 The muscular system. !




Integumentary System

•  Includes skin (body’s first line of protection) • Regulates temperature through sweating,

shivering, and changes in diameter of blood vessels in skin • Sensory information received from outside

world (heat, cold, pain, pressure, etc.) comes from sensors in skin




Integumentary System (cont’d)

• Glands in skin help lubricate and waterproof skin, and inhibit growth of unwanted bacteria • Main components of system: skin, hair,

sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and nails




Figure 4-9 The integumentary system.




Back to Directory

Click here to view a video on the topic of skin cancer.

Skin Cancer Video




Nervous System

• Sends and receives messages, stimulated by body’s internal and external environments, affecting how we perceive world and protecting us from harm • Conscious sensations occur as result of

stimulation of our sensory receptors




Nervous System

• Main parts of system: spinal cord, brain, peripheral nerves, nerve cells, and spinal fluid; special sensory organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin •  Three main functions:

– Sensory messages – Processing and interpreting messages – Sending messages




Figure 4-10 The nervous system. !




Endocrine System

• Acts as control center for virtually all of body’s organs • Endocrine glands release chemicals called

hormones that are circulated via cardiovascular system, regulating metabolic processes and utilizing metabolites for growth and reproduction




Endocrine System

• Helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance; helps cope with stresses produced by infection and trauma • Main components of system: hypothalamus,

pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, and adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads, plus large variety of hormones




Figure 4-11 The endocrine system. !




Cardiovascular System

• Referred to as circulatory system; main transportation system to each cell of body • Water, oxygen, and variety of nutrients

and substances required for life transported to cells, while waste products removed from cells • Main components of system: heart,

arteries, veins, capillaries, and blood




Figure 4-12 The cardiovascular system.




Pathology Connection: Septicemia

• Also called sepsis or blood poisoning; condition in which pathogen is present in blood • Because blood needed by all body

systems, sepsis can lead to multi-system infection – Blood can spread bacteria to organs – Once bacteria get in organs, they may

continue to grow, adversely affecting organ function




Pathology Connection: Septicemia (cont’d)

• Sepsis syndrome: infection causes decrease in blood perfusion to organs along with other systemic signs • Septic shock: decreased perfusion to

organs causes drop in blood pressure





• Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (MODS or multi-system failure) can develop if septic shock not quickly and effectively treated – As number of involved organ systems

increases, mortality rate rises; can approach 100% if continued for more than 4 hospital days, depending on patient





• Signs and symptoms related to sepsis syndrome – Fever – Chills – Tachypnea – Tachycardia – Skin lesions





• Signs and symptoms related to sepsis syndrome – Redness of skin, either in selected areas

(erythema), or over widespread areas of skin (erythroderma)

– Hypoxemia – Changes in mental status




Respiratory System

•  Supplies cells with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide without conscious effort •  Filters, warms, and moistens air we

breathe • Mucous lining of airway helps trap foreign

particles and germs




Respiratory System (cont’d)

•  System also helps maintain proper acid-base balance • Main parts of system: nose, nasal cavity,

trachea, larynx, pharynx, bronchial tubes, and lungs




Figure 4-13 The respiratory system.




Lymphatic System

• Responsible for helping to maintain proper fluid balance and protect us from infection •  Special structures, called lymph nodes, act

as filters to capture unwanted infectious agents




Lymphatic System (cont’d)

•  Produces special white cells, called T-lymphocytes, to fight infection • Major parts of system: lymph vessels,

lymph ducts, lymph nodes, thymus gland, tonsils, and spleen




Figure 4-14 The lymphatic system. !




Gastrointestinal (Digestive) System

• Often called GI system; takes raw material (food) and breaks it down both mechanically and chemically into usable substances, then absorbs substances for transportation to cells •  Transports waste (produced by unused

materials) out of body • Main parts of system: mouth, pharynx,

esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs, bowel, and anal canal




Figure 4-15 The digestive system. !




Pathology Connection: Body Image

• Obesity – US population becoming increasingly

overweight every year; current generation of adolescents may potentially may have shorter life span than their parents

• Anorexia nervosa: condition in which there is progressive and severe weight loss – Patients avoid eating or eat too little food to

sustain healthy weight – Patients deny problem




Pathology Connection: Body Image (cont’d)

• Bulimia: individual has eating binges, overeats, and then attempts to get rid of food by vomiting or using laxatives to avoid weight gain




Figure 4-16 This is the result of anorexia nervosa. Even at this advanced stage, if this patient looked in the mirror, she would consider herself fat.




Urinary System

• Plays important role in elimination of waste products, electrolytes, drugs, and other toxins, as well as excessive water •  Functions: water regulation, blood pressure

regulation, regulation of red blood cells, electrolyte balance, and pH balance • Main parts of system: kidneys, ureters,

urinary bladder, and urethra




Figure 4-17 The male and female urinary systems.




Reproductive System

• Often combined with urinary system to make genitourinary system, or GU system • Purpose is to make new humans • Main female parts of system: ovaries,

uterus, fallopian tubes, eggs, and vagina • Main male parts of system: testes, sperm,

and penis




Figure 4-18 The male and female reproductive systems.




Click here to view an animation showing the body systems.

Back to Directory

Body Systems Animation




Click here to view a video on the topic of histotechnology. Back to Directory

Histotechnology Video




Snapshots from the Journey

• Cells are basic building blocks of our bodies •  Tissue is collection of similar cells acting

together to perform function •  Four types of tissue: epithelial, connective,

muscle, and nervous




Snapshots from the Journey (cont’d)

• Membranes are sheet-like structures found throughout body that perform specific functions •  Four major membrane types: cutaneous,

serous, mucous, and synovial •  Tissues that combine to perform specific

function or functions called organ





• Organs that work together, often with help of accessory structures, to perform specific activities create system •  11 major body systems: skeletal, muscular,

integumentary, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic/immune, gastrointestinal, urinary, and reproductive





• While each system has distinct functions, they are interrelated and function of one affects functioning of other systems • Disease process can affect more than one

body system at a time often making it difficult to treat; septicemia for example, if left unchecked, can lead to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS)




Case Study: Group Project

• A 73-year-old male presents to an emergency department of a local hospital. Initial assessment reveals the following: – Afebrile – Mild tachypnea with mild shortness of breath – Acrocyanosis – Mild tachycardia – History of smoking – History of diabetes – Moderately overweight




Case Study Questions

•  Based on the information given, have members of the group identify which system or systems of the body they would want to further investigate to determine why this individual has come to the emergency department. You have had some medical terminology already but may need additional help from the text, medical dictionary, or Web site. Compile a list of specialists or health care professionals to whom you might refer this patient, and explain why




Case Study: Ray’s Story

•  If you think back to our patient, Ray, you will recall that he is unable to move on his own due to his spinal cord injury. This condition presents many problems for the health care professional. Most tissues can repair themselves over time, but what about nervous tissue? Can nerve cells regenerate?




Case Study: Ray’s Story (cont’d)

•  Take the time to research new theories and ways to promote the repair and growth of nerve cells •  List the results of your research • What are some other areas that relate to

tissue care that we must consider for an individual who cannot move unassisted and will be bedridden for most of his or her life?

anatomy, physiology, & disease - somerset canyons...2014/10/04 · anatomy, physiology, &...

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