ANDREA POZZO THE JOlNlNG OF TRUTH AND ILLUSION

Jodi L. OIToole History and Theory Program School of Architecture McGiI University, Montréal

December 1999

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirernents of the degree of Master of Architecture.

Q Jodi L OIToole 1999

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for James

ABSTRACT

Andrea Pouo was an architect, writer and painter spanning

the Iate seventeenth and eariy eighteenth centuries. The

focus of this study is on his paintings of perspectival illusions

and his treatise on perspective entitled, Perspectiva

pictorum et architectorum published in two volumes in 1693

and 1700. This thesis seeks to understand the work of

Pouo in light of contemporary philosophical debate over

the deception of the senses and their ability to distinguish

truth from illusion. Pozzo's intentions are examined through

a study of the positions of René Descartes, Galileo Galilei

and other related artists and architects on the technical and

ethical issues surrounding the deceptive nature of

perspective illusions.

Andrea Pouo était un architecte, écrivain et peintre dont

I'oeuvre s'étend de la fin du dix-septième siècle j'usqu'au

début du dix-huitème siècle. L'intérêt de cette étude est

centré sur ses peintures d'illusions perspectives et sur son

traite sur la perspective intitulé "Perspectiva pictonim et

architectorum" publie en deux volumes en 1693 et 1700.

Cette thèse cherche a comprendre l'oeuvre de Pouo en

tenant compte du débat philosophique contemporain contre

la déception des senses et leur abilité de distinguer la vérité

de l'illusion. Les intentions de Pono sont ici examinées a

travers une étude des positions de René Descartes, Galileo

Galilei et autres artistes et architectes apparentés sur les

points de vue technique et éthique entourant la nature

déceptive d'illusions perspectives.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

For his inspiring lecture given at Penn State UniversRy which

led me to follow my instincts to study in Montréal, Alberto

Pétez-Gomez desenies an unending amount of thanks. He

has been a truly great professor whose program has

fostered an atmosphere of discovery creating a community

of individuels who aspire to understand architecture through

a search for possibiIities of what coutd exist in the world.

To recognize a 'teacher.' Katsuhiko Muramoto with careful

consideration gives of himself to nudge his students toward

their own understanding of their work and its relationship to

the history of making. I, and so many others, have been

inspired by him.

A special thanks to Louise Pelletier and Greg Caicco for

offering their valuable insights into Our work throughout the

course of the program both in historical research and in

making. Also in the productive review sessions attended

by Marco Frascari, Stephen Parcell, Dan Hoffman and Indra

Kagis McEwan, my thoughts were ignited with their

energies. To Natalie Bérubé, who has been a wonderful

support throughout the writing of mis thesis and in the finai

hours also provided desperate translation se~~ces, I would

Iike to say congratulations.

Don Kunze, I am proud to Say, provided the initial spark

and basis of education which prepared me for the journey

in Montréat. Equally as important was Dan Willis' patience

and the relentless push. The Penn State Rome

piograrn,founded through the hard work of Romolo

Martemucci, ignited a bve for the city of Rome still pursued

in this thesis. During times spent in Rome, I was also able

to witness the thorough care given to the study of a place

by James Kalsbeek.

Judith Harris Ajelto and her family have a beautiful

importance to this thesis exposing me to much of Rome

and many of the small towns in which some of Pozzo's

works are situated. The view from her window overlooked

the Collegio Romano and where the dome of the church of

St. lgnatius would have towered if it were not an illusion.

For long hours of work, she allowed me sit at that rnagical

window and dream of these words. I thank her from the

bottom of my heart.

I would like to thank the Jesuits at the Biblioteca della

Pontificia Universita Gregoriana for allowing me access to

their precious archives. AIso, I carry a necessary

appreciation of the facilities of the Iibraries of the Biblioteca

nazionale di Firenze and Kunsthistorisches Institutes in

Florence for invaluable research into Galileo's connection

to the arts and conternporary artists. The BibIiotecsi della Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, McGill University's

Blackader-Lautermann, and Mclennan-Redpath Libraries,

also McGill University's Mossman collection at the PhysicaI

Sciences and Engineering Library, the library archives of

the CCA, and Wesleyan University Library al1 provided

access to the manuscripts and texts on this subject incfuding

several different printings and translations of Pozzo's

treatise. These resources presented an intimate knowfedge

of the architectural treatises on perspective relevant to this

thesis and materials on the surrounding debates. I must

not forget to acknowledge the tuition deferment and

scholarship provided by McGili University.

My most sincere gratitude is reserved for my husband,

James, whose passion for making equals only my love for

him and Our son, Evan.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Appearance

Andrea Pozzo

Light

Perception

Shadow

Illusion

Point of View

Truth and Falsehood

Machines

Frozen Moment

Appendix

Notes

Bibliography

APPEARANCE I do not possess such a perfect faculty of discrimina- tion. I am more like the monkey who firmly believed that he saw another monkey in the mirror.. . and discov- ered his error only after running behind the glass sev- eral times ... I should iike to know the visual differences by which he [his adversaryl so readily distinguishes the real from the spuri~us.~

The invention of the telescope in the beginning of the sev-

enteenth century called into question, among other things,

the presence of what is seen. In architecture, the disparity

of what is and what is seen had been understood as the

need for optical correction since the Renaissance discov-

ery of De architectura written down by Vitruvius sometime

prior to 27 B.C. As a distinction from linear perspective

called perspectiva artificialis, this primitive forrn of perspec-

tive is known as pespectiva naturaiis. Recognizing the

inherent visual distortions in the perception of form, build-

ing members had to be adjusted to appear in 'ideal' propor-

tion.

Renaissance artists reexamined the visual worid interpret-

ing, expanding and eventually disernbodying perspectiva

natmlis. During the eariy fifteenth century, there was an

influx of geometrical manuscripts from Byzantium mention-

ing the art of perspective brought to Florence by Manuel

Chrisotara and Angolo da Scatperia. These books con-

tained images of geometric shapes drawn in perspective

with central projection points and finite distance points. Latin

M-O, fnm, ~ 1 4 2 6 . translations were completed between 141 0-1 41 5. This cir- Church of Sto. Maria No- vela. F I ~ W ~ C ~ IW. cumstance rnay explain the proliferation of works in per-

spective in this particular region of Italy2 Although

early attempts at Iinear perspective were not yet

the codified perspective of the Scientific Revolu-

tion, these representations marked a moment in

the field of inquiry which was turning toward lin-

ear perspective and a changing world view pos-

tulated in a scientific representation of a space.

By 161 0, the date of publication of Galiteo's short

treatise on the moon and the satellites of Jupiter,

entitled Sidereas nuncius, the publication of nu- merous treatises on techniques and theories of

perspective drawing resulted in a change in the - conception of space from a heterogenous qual-

Stu*ofma~ed~in*ron ity to a systematized, mathematical space in which vision a head pmiected in10 hori- zontaisecoonsfromPiem was reduced to the rules of linear perspective. Galileo della Francesca. De Prospeciiva pingendi, c. rnid 1400. Galiiei made use of the analytical tools of visual represen-

tation to understand the new science of what was seen

through his telescope.

A direct relationship behrveen 'seeing and knowing' as un-

derstood by Anstotelians was rejected by Galileo in favor

of demonstrable experiments based in a rational explana-

___---__ tion of what is observed in Nature. Galileo

.. presented a direct challenge to the Scho-

lastic tradiiion in his conclusions on the

nature of the moon in Sidereas nuncrus? "In virt0 di pro~pettiva,"~ Galileo demon-

Galilea Galiiei, Sidereas nunaus, 1610. strated that the shadows on the surface

Galileo Galilei. Sidereas nunuus, f 61 0.

of the moon appeared to be deep craters, in contradiction

to the prevalent Scholastic representation of the moon as a

metaphor for purityS

The positivistic quest initiated by the Scientific Revolution

sought to reduce al1 phenomena to a few al1 encompass-

Frantispiece of Les dix livres d'architectvre de Vitruve, trans. Claude Perrault, (Paris: Jean Baptiste Coignard. 1673).

hg rational tniths. Reason replaced metaphor

as an explanation for phenomena found in the

physicai worid. In both the arts and the sciences,

popular debate concentrated on the distinction

between truth and iIl~sion.~ A deception of the

senses approached the ethical question of the

ability of the intellect to distinguish truth in the

physical world. Even in perspective theory, this

question was debatable. While many believed

that optical correction was necessary, Claude

Perrault posited in his Ordonnance des cinq espéces de colonnes la méthode des Anciens in 1683 that

the eye itself could adjust for perspectival distortions of form.

Dunng this time, the arts and the sciences were intene-

Iated in their drive to detemine the rules for visual percep-

tion in order to understand the fundamental laws govem-

ing the physical world,

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, many scholars

were members of several of the established Academies both

for scientific and for artistic pursuits. Galileo was elected

to the Accademia dei disegno in Florence in October of

1613 and was akeady a member of the Amdernia dei

Linceiin R ~ r n e . ~ The Accademia del disegno was founded

, by Giorgio Vasari in 1562 to function as an association of

intellectuals. In an effort to cultivate a higher social status

for artists, the Accademja del disegno was established as

.A, Y -... a center for the pursuit of knowledge in 'drawing' through

/ '=-$ 1. .,. ,. the essential disciplines of composition, anatomy and per- , I I ' I i

1 r , <>-+-x:i:

' '-5 spective? At the prompting of his former teacher of math- +*" . ,- ematics, Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Galileo had applied for the

, y T 6 , '. ' -+ - position at the Accademia del disegno of mathematician to

teach Euclidean geometry and perspective in 1598.9 Dur-

ing his studies in 1584, it was Ricci who had diverted Galileo

from rnedicine to mathematics, particularly toward problems

dealing with measurement.1° Although Galileo did not re-

ceive the position at the Accademia, he taught optics pri- . vately in 1601 ."

0 K r

' ] In the middle of the sixteenth century, ltalian mathemati-

cians sought a 'true Euciid' from among the many transla-

tions of translations then circ~lating.'~ Many treatises on

perspective were based on the copies of Euclid's Optics

The four above figures that were available either conveniently abbreviated or mis- may be found in Euclid, The ThirteenBaoksoflha translated. In 1573, Egnatio Danti published an annotated Uements, v. 3. trans. Sir nomas L Heath, (New version of Euclid's Optics which then became the standard York: Dover Publications. i n ~ . 19~61, pp. 490.481. used by artists and authors of perspective treatises.13 487. and 361, respec- üvely.

Perspective was being redefined and noted for its geometri-

cal purposes. The scientific applications of systematizing

vision in the interpretation of observations of Nature b e

came increasingly apparent in the new science. As these

purposes evolved, Iinear perspective, what was

to become projective geometry, began to split

from its artistic ends marked by the perspective

treatises written by Guidobaldo del Monte,

Cornmandino and BenedettLT4

By the end of the seventeenth century, perspec-

tive treatises mathematically positioned the ob- Guidobaldo del Monte, Pesped'vae libn SW, (Pesaro, 160). server within a section through the cone of vision. Space

was conceived as a homogenous system in which vision

was subject to mathematical laws. Although there were a

few tendencies to represent the viewer within this diagram

using only an eyeball, the as yet embodied viewer was

placed within a geornetrized, homogeneous space.

Descartes describes a sirnilar understanding of space in

his Discourse on Method, part four:

?

Faderigo Cornmandino, Ptolomaei I took the subject-matter of geornetry, which I conceived

plaf1&pha8ri~t?1, (Venice, 1558). to be a continuous body or a space indefinitely extended in length, breadth, and height or depth, divisible into distinct parts, which may have distinct shapes and sizes and may be moved or transposed in al1 sorts of ways. ..15

The mathematical space of the infinite universe and the

positioning of an ernbodied observer allowed for the re-

centering of man within a system of rneaning. Baroque

perspectival illusions sought to recreate the center of the

universe within unifomi space.

Giovanni Battista Benedetti. For Descartes, illusions were a sensua[ obstacle to the Dlvenarurn speculationum ~ t h e ~ ~ ~ m ..., ~ a ~ n o . lm. pursuit of tnN\; the separating of the 'true' from the 'false'

occupied the main intellectual problems of the seventeenth

century.I6 As Alexandre Koyré explained, Descartes' quest

to determine truth from falsehood was fought in an effort to

judge the world pr~periy.'~ In his own words, Descartes

phrases it as folIows:

And I always had an extreme desire to learn to distin- guish truth from falsehood in order to have a clear in- sight into my actions and proceed in this life with assur- anceY

While Descartes was opposed to illusion in its many forms,

perspective treatises by the end of the seventeenth cen-

tury included the creation of fantastic illusions on any vari-

Jean François Ni imn. La perspective curieuse. 1663 and below. and the following page, Nichmn's frexo in a hallway in aie convent of Trinita dei Monti, (Rome, 1642).

ety of surfaces. Anamorphic illu-

sions were reconstituted on the

rnirrored surfaces of cones, cylin-

ders, and spheres. Even in the

convent of Trinita dei Monti in

Rome, Emmanuel Maignan with

the assistence of Jean François

Niceron produced two anamorphic

images along the walls of narrow

corridors. One of the paintings was

destroyed in an uprising shortly af-

ter the French Revolution. The re-

maining illusion, when viewed fron-

tally, is a representation of the land-

scape of the straits of Messina in

Calabria. When viewed from a

point with one's cheek positioned

against the corridor walI, the hid-

den image of S. Francesco di Paolo

sitting under a tree lifts away from

the scene of his homeland.

Galileo remarked in correspon-

dence with painter Ludovico Cigoli

that although he favored perspec-

tive in painting, he felt that anamor-

phic projections were not appropriate to fool the eye in such

a way.Ig He felt that painting was superior even to scuip-

ture since using a perspectival understanding of the cast-

ing of shadows and shades, the painter could render a

sculpted surface to appear perfectly flat. But it was an-

amorphic projections which contained a severe form of a

deception of the senses which threatened his scientific sen-

sibilities.

ANDREA POZZO The Art of Perspective does, with wonderful Pleasure, deceive the Eye, that most subtle of our outward Senses; and is very necessary to be known of all, who in Paint- ing would give due Place and Proportion to their Fig- ures, and more or less Strength requisite to the Lights and Shades of the Picture?O

Andrea Pouo wrote the above quotation in the section

entitled "TO the Lovers of Perspectiveu in Volume One of Andrea Pono, Self por- trait. Umzi G a w 1 Flo- Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum, 1 693. The purpose rence. Italy.

of his treatise was to enable the artist and architect to cre- -. ate perspectives and perspectival

illusions for stage set panels and

for the decoration of irregular sur- ,/ . , . <*l'. - '

. . .. .. cc , ; ; f I faces. To this end, Pozzo himself $ , . . I

*.

r , painted illusions of human and ani-

* , * .. y ,.* mal figures, architectural designs

, and heavenly scenes in churches

al1 over northem and central ltaly

and the environs of Vienna.

Andrea Pouo was bom on 30 No-

vember 1642 in Trento, ltaly dur-

ing the feast of his namesake, St.

-- Andrea.21 While as a young man Andrea Pozzo. Perspectiva piciotum et

Iistening to a sermon delivered by architectONmvv- le a Jesuit priest, he was inspired to join the Society of JesuslP and 91. (London: John James. a 1707) Pono was a lay brother in Milan for ten years until, in 1665,

he was called to the Piedmontese novitiate of Genoa. A

possible first attribution to his stage set illusions exists in

the church of S. Fedele in Genoa, a macchina for the ce[-

ebration of S. Francesco Borgia." It was at this time that

Pouo immersed himself in the study of perspective. Later

that same year, he was called to Rome by Gian Paolo Oliva,

General of the Society of Jesus, to cultivate his artistry.

Oliva died before Pozzo's anival witiiout leaving specific

instructions for his position with his Roman brothers. There-

fore, as with al1 Jesuit novices, Pouo was put to wotk in

the kitchen for a period of five months to learn obedience

Andrea Pono, 'CaMira di Cristo' (above) and 'Fiagellazione di Cristom (below), in the collection of Silvio Borla. Trino Venellese, Itaiy.

and h~mility.2~

The eventual cultivation of Pozzo's

talents in the Society of Jesus pro-

duced a prolific painter, architect

and writer. Pouo's early works on canvas primarily included popular

Jesuit Biblical scenes. For the

most part, these canvases deco-

rated Jesuit churches throughout

northern and central Italy. The sub-

ject matter of each canvas de-

manded scenes immersed in dark-

ness with controlled ligiiting, oftén

by candte light or torch. Some of

his titles include: flight from Egypt, the lmmaculate Conception, the

adoration of the Shephards, the

Last Supper, the flagellation of

Christ, the crucifiion of Chnst, and

episodes in the !ives of Jesuit

saints, especially their martyrdam. Although it has not been

documented whether Pouo received instruction from a

master painter or architect, he certainly was surrounded by

excellent examples of both fields. Witfiin his own order in

Rome, Pouo became intimate with the works of Vignola

and Bernini. In fact they are mentioned in Volume One of

his treatise along with Palladio and Scamoui as excellent

examples of proportion in architecture. In Volume One of

Perspectiva pictorum et architectonrm, Pouo writes:

- --- - * - - . . Perspective never appears more . -- - - 1 -. . - graceful than in Architecture; for which

! Reason I present you with that of ;&Y ., s -. James B a r n i , from his country gen- - - -+ %*A -. -

1 t,. ,, - -

erally call'd Vignola; which perhaps is - - . more in use than any other; and con-

tains the Geornetrical Upright of each of the five Orders..?

- A - Besides Vignola, Palladio and scarnozzi have also written excellenüy well of the Orders of Architecture; and each of lem have deservedly their Fot- lowers and Admirers. That you might therefore be enabl'd ?O make Designs in Perspective, after the Proportions of the most celebrated Masters, I have in this Plate given you the Measures of al1 the Orders, as deliver'd by thern in their Books.26

The abme two images and the fi& image on the idowing page are ~ i g - The wreath'd Columns described in the Fi@-second u m 9, 53. and 52 fespectiuely in Andrea P-. ~ e n p e c o ~ a pictamm Figure, being divided into Twenty-four equal Parts, want et ardiiied~nrm. trans Jahn ~ a n a e ~ , very much of that Elegancy of Contour, which is visible (LondM: John James. ca 1707). in those brass Pillas, made by the famous Cavalier

Bemino, for St. Petefs SepuIcher in the Vafian.*

I -- -.

\ m. , . - "" ;, lacorno Baroui da Vignola more than a genera- i - - ! tion earlier than Pozzo defined the style of Jesuit S !

churches ail over the world. The facade which

he designed for the church of II Gesu in Rome

became the model for al1 subsequent Jesuit

; church designs. Vignola also wrote a treatise

himself on perspective entitled, Le due regole.

Vignola's treatise was published with commen- : tary by Egnatio Danti in 1583. Not since the trans-

-- . lation of Alberti's De pictufa in 1500 had there S .

* / . e. e - - - . been the publication of a systematic treatise on

per~pective.~ Danti, who also published the pre-

viously rnentioned annotated version of Euclid's Optics, in-

cluded Euclidian illustrations and mathematical explana-

tions to further define Vignola's understanding of optics and

pe~pective.~~ Le due regole also discussed perspective

Vignola. lhe facade of ihe applications to various architectural elements. Vignola's Church of II Gesu. Rome and below a plate from description of a geometrical method of producing a per- Vignola. Le due regole. 1583. spective illustrated the use of a distance point.30 This inno-

vation allowed for a rneans to determine the acceleration in

perspective without relying on tempered experience. At

the time of the publication of Pozzo's method for drawing in

perspective, the distance point was already taken for

granted in perspectival constructions.

While Pozzo rnentioned a list of masters from which to learn

the most etegant proportions for the five orders of architec-

ture, he did not admit any precedence for his method of

perspective in previously published perspectival treatises.

Andrea Pozzo, Perspectiva pictonrm et archi t~~nrm,~. I , fi,. 2. ing text. Although his commentary in certain instances trans. John James. (Lon- don: JO~VI James, ca. strayed from the description of the figure at hand, he did 1707).

not indulge in igniting cuvent theoretical debate.

Andrea Pozzo. Peispectiva pictonrm et architectomm, v- 1. trans. John James. (London: John James, c a 1707).

Pouo most assuredly must have

studied the works of the past mas-

ters in the Jesuit Iibraries, but his

treatise approached the demon-

stration of perspective through a

quite different attitude. It was much

more straightforward with clear

examples and a basic accompany-

Pouo also stated in the introductory section en-

titled "To the Lovers of Perspective"that there

are only a few "Masters and Books to teach them

fstudents of perspective] clearly and methodically

the Rules of Perspective-Projections, from the

first PrÏnciples of the Art, to the entire Perfection

thereof.Vt was his purpose in this treatise to

show a most basic method to leam the art of

perspective. The image which was paired with

the text in this section illustrated the necessary

items for beginning to draw in perspective: three

books, Wtnivius, Palladio, and Vignola's rules on

the five orders (not his treatise on perspective),

severai t-squares, a bottle of ink, wells and pens,

a straight edge, two compasses, a few sheets of

paper attached to an inclined drawing surface

*exactly squar'd,' a desk and a chair. These

Above is the adverlise- ment for James' transla- tion of Ordonnance in An- drea Pouo. Perspectim pidom et arehitedotum. v. 1. Kg. 2. trans. John James. (London: John James, Ca. 1707). Adja- cent iç the tiUe page 10 Vie publication advertised above printed by Ben- @min Motte, lm.

items together

with a careful un-

derstanding of ar-

chitectural draw-

ing in plan, sec-

tion, and eleva-

tion of the five or-

ders of architec-

ture are the nec-

essary prepara-

tion to learn to

draw objects in

perspec t ive .

Pouo does not

mention any other architects or treatises in either volume.

The English translation of Volume One by John James of

Greenwich printed in 1707 includes an advertisement for

James' upcoming translation (1 709) of the Ordonnance by

Claude Perrault; but there is only speculation whether Pozzo

himself was familiar with this work. Although it is not docu-

mented, a connection could have been made through ei-

ther of two visitors to Paris who were in contact with the

Jesuits in Rome after their travels. The first was Gian

Lorenzo Bernini who was invited to design a facade for the

Louvre but not given the commission. The facade which

stands today was eventually to be attributed to Perrault.

Bernini was in the hospitality of Perrault's adversary,

François Blondel, and may therefore have been privy to

Andrea Pozzo, False cu- Dola (above). Church of St. Ignatius, Rome. Orazio Grassi. facade and interior of the Church of St lgnatius (below), Rome.

the controversy surrounding Perrault's perspec-

tive treati~e.~' Leibniz was also in the Company

of Perrault in 1689 and then proceeded to travel

to Rome lodging with the Jesuits while there. Dur-

ing that time, Pouo was painting the dome of

the church of St. Ignatius, four years prior to the

publication of Perspectiva pictorum et

architector~m.~~ In the Ordonnance, Perrault also attempted, as Pozzo, to have an approach which would be

easy for architects to learn, memorize and apply regard-

less of talent."

WhiIe some of his early canvases dealt with perspectival

spaces on a small scale, Pozzo began to paint quadrature,

perspectival illusions on the irregular walls and ceiling sur-

faces in churches throughout northern and central Italy.

From 16764680, Pozzo travelled between Torino, Milan

and Como to complete a number of works both temporary

and permanent. He settled in Rome to paint his most cel-

ebrated masterpieces

from 1681-1702.34

These included the

nave, dome and altar of

the church of St.

Ignatius, the hallway ta

the rooms of St. Ignatius

in the Casa professa, the cappella delia Vigna,

and the convent of

Trinita dei Monti, the location of Maignan's an-

amorphic projection mentioned earlier. While in

Rome, Pozzo also painted several canvases and

the illusionistic side chapels, altar and dome for

the church of II Gesu in Frascati including a por-

trait of himself to the far right in the altar scene.

In 1702, Kaiser Leopold I called Pouo from

Rome to Vienna. As he travelled for two years,

Pono made many more perspectival illusions in

churches and palaui in Florence, Trento and

Montep~lciano.~~ In Belluno, he designed

the architecture for the Jesuit ~o l lege.~~

Pouo spent the final years of his tife in

Vienna designing the illusions in the

Universitatskirche, Franziskanerkirche

and in the palazzo Liechtestein which

Andrea POZZO. sida W. heavily influenced the pain ter^ of the cen- Chruch of SI. Ignatius. Rome. tral European Rococo. Pozzo died in Vienna in 1709.=

In addition to the college of Belluno, Pono witnessed the

construction of his architectural designs in Ragusa, Lubiana,

Trieste, Montepulciano and T r e n t ~ . ~ ~ From his numerous

designs for altars, he executed the elaborate altarconstruc-

tions for both the churches of St. lgnatius and II Gesu in

Rome.

Prior to the publication of his perspective treatise, Pono

wrote a short book documenting the life of St. Aloysius

Gonzaga, entitled La Nuza vita in 1679.

Andrea Pozzo wrote his treatise on perspective in two vol-

umes both en titled Peispectiva pictorum et architecfonrm.

The first volume became the most widely published and

transiated treatise on perspective written to date in 1693.

It contained his

method for the cre-

ation of perspective

drawings and paint-

ings from the plan,

section and elevation

of objects and

spaces. The format

consisted of a textual

description accom-

panying each figure,

one hundred figures

in total. The text was written in both

Latin and an adjacent ltalian ver-

sion. Volume two followed the

same format for the most part and

had 11 8 images; but there were

several instances of a series of

images which were without t e ~ t , ~ ~ (above left and lawer) An- drea Pozzo, Main aitar Published in the year 1700, the second volume included a and detail. Church of II Gesii. Frascati, Itaiy. reftnement of Pozzo's method iollowed by a compendium (above right) Andrea Pozzo. 'Allare dipinto in of his designs for fancifui, proposed and built proje~ts. Pre- Frascati.' Pecàpectiva ~ i c i o l v r n e t ~ i ~ ~ m . sumably for this reason, it had been less translated than v. 2.

Volume One and of a limited distribution.

While volume one began with a description of the tools

necessary to create a drawing in perspective, an allegori-

cal image introduced the reader to volume two. The image

was of a perspectival section illustrating a scene of Minerva

and a draughtsman before a symmetrical Doric niche con-

taining a weil with ropes and a pulley. The draughtsman is

drinking from a vesse1 offered by Minerva, goddess of

memory. Her decorated shield and spear are on the ground

as are his drawing tools and blank paper. The draughtsman

or painter appears to require a moment to drink from the

waters offered by Memory to proceed in his work. The ac-

companying text is reproduced as follows:

AL LETTORE. Finalmente mantego la promessa con mandar alla luce la Seconda Parte della Prospettiva, sperando, che sara rhcevuta con non minor gradimento della Prima, tant0 pic perché in questa spiegasi (per quanto puo farsi con la voce morta) la piu facile, e spiedita regola di quante possino darsi in quest'Arte della Prospeük Per questo mi do a &r; che chiunque s& alquant0 esetùtafo neiie regde&lkPnma PaRe,sdtanto,chechekpninefiguredi questa seam&I nonami brsogno daltroI a th& tutte ne1 mecfesii malb faite, e &postee Que& dunque é quella regoilafacrTl~~l~ma, c h e p e r k ~ s m ' ~ ~ a d p e r a n & fn'm nelrgoere, the ho fatte &r h pru o m s b i Ijl Rma, ed albcove, e l'ho ihsegna I j l bneve tempo, e m p m ~ a n a h e di m d t i d ~ i n g e g n o - Tenaope~Scfiemdtepel~~ne, amrché clbtte h~ albisu.bnze, m aniwanivriio ad mte- né p&ab, acagKKietWkrbroiinelP!edGmmt& e dAfchfieîtuura, c h e p r e s u - g k i notea chisiponea

sWbI essenab questa perappunto la maW1 che compone tutta la machhaI e sostanm aWI'opere fatte h

proseptava; ma perchd questo é un punto ~~ non d dinkordarlbperihuWm, O apposlatamenfe in altre spiegaaoni di questo Libro. Questa dunque é impresa de'fWort eûArchitem; a' quali é indrinata queSfcqDem, clhe per esemizb, Che hanno nel difegna & / l e scy~a- Arti, averanno superato k magghr oWbIta d guesto m. Mi mata@lb pero d a n i ITttud che p e r m W r fa- ad impararqu&Me, k Bks~abno aWo inutib per le figure. Mh s'rngannano mdto, impotfm& aWsimo andte per queste: né M iasc&te pet6 a g g m & / l e bru M e , se non volete ancor wi i m m m h quelli e d m w , cJle nellopem h, non senza riso, si mirano. Epure 1 Pittori senza accorgersene non altro sanno col loro dipingere, che una colorita prospettiva, ancorché sia composta di figure umane, perd conviene ad essi osseder bene que- sta regole, specialmente a guelli, che hanno occasione di far opere grandi, mostrando il loro sapere ne1 digradare, e collocare le figure ne'piani, ne1 dar forza, O debolena all'ombre, ed a' colori, a particolamente per nobilitar I'opere loro con belle composizioni di architetture, altrimenti non solo non saperanno far queste, ma non petranno far cosa grata a persone intelligenti ne ancor ne110 scorcio di una figura. Dovete per tanto sfotzarvi di ben penetrare la forza di pesta regola nelle prime lezioni, nelle quali abbiamo gettati 1 fondamenti delle piri brieve, che non si sia posta al pnncipo, sappiate che cio é stato fatto appostatamente, per non replicar piu volte il medesimo, e per non ossuscar la figura, O la mente de' Scholari c m moiüplkiti di linee, e di parole. Che se poi bramate approsiitawi in brieve tempo in guest'arte, non perdete tempo in sole speculazioni, nné in voltar carte, ma mettete mano al compasso, a alla riga con operare, e cosi a w e d , che vi sentirete spronare di passar sempre piu avanti, non solo per disegnare le figure di questo libro, ma ad inventame delle migliori, conforme il talento, che visad stato communl'cato da Dio, alla cui gloria la vostra, e la mia qualunque fatica offeriremoPO

In summary, Pouo was relieved that the second volume

was finally published for the method was even easier to

construct than the first volume. He also made an effort to

Andrea Pozzo. 'Altare fatto a Verona' (above) and 'Altare dipinto nella chiesa del Collegio Romano,' Perspectiva picforum etarchitectutum, v. 2.

record his many works executed in Rome and

elsewhere. He established that this book was

written for the exercise of painters and architects.

If the reader had followed Volume One, he or

she may understand the method in Volume Two

in the first several figures. Pouo made them

purposefully not to repeat information in as few

words and Iines as possible attempting not ob-

scure neither the figures themselves nor the mind.

In Volume Two Figure four, he recorded what was

apparently his woking adage, "above all, the wise

need few words." Finally, he encouraged the

reader not speculate over the figures but to take

compass in hand and begin to understand

through practice.

Although Volume Two continued to demonstrate

a method for perspective drawing, it also con-

tained perspectival images of many more of

Pozzo's architectural designs. This volume be-

gan with a more difficult figure than the first vol-

ume, a four columned symmetrical archway. In

Figure four, there was a demonstration of the

section through the cone of vision using a man

looking at four freestanding pilasters in space.

In the text, Pouo elucidates this method of de-

riving perspective. He describes two eyes, one at your eye

level and one at your feet. The first would show the corre-

spondences between the heights or elevations to the sec-

tion through the cone of vision. The second would show

the correspondences of the plan to the section through the

cone of vision. Figure five illustrated these correspondences

using the four pilasters. This image was followed by dem-

onstrations of the correspondence between elevation, plan

and perspective drawings using strings to associate the co-

incidence of points. Figure eleven was a simple diagram

of a square listing the rules to construct this type of per-

spective and insuring that they are easy to follow and study

as a reference. The rules presented the direct measure-

ments and system of correspondences to perfom and un-

derstand perspective with a minimum of drawing.

Pono continued with more difficult images, pieces

of architecture, pedestals, doorways, bases, tilted

objects, capitals, pediments and ruins. Pozzo even

reproduced images from his first volume furthering

describing the construction of the faise dome of the

church of St. Ignatius.

Pozzo created more designs for altars, some which

had been or would be constructed and others for

the sake of textual debate such as the "Altare

capriccioso." This altar in particular possessed some

Andrea POUO. fanciful elements. The supporting columns followed Perspeaiva pictonim et a r ~ h i t e c t ~ ~ ~ , V. 2 a curving line creating a bulge near the base. In the

designs for the facade of the church of San

text, Pouo explained that the ar-

chitect should be allowed to explore

his or her imagination without be-

ing bound to traditional rules of

form making.

Three designs for the facade of San

Giovanni in Laterano are com- aovanni in in posed as three buildings in a single drawing: one frontal Andrea Pozzo, Perspective pictomrn et architeaorum, V. 2. and two facing each other flanking the first. Although Pouo

did not get the commission for the project, he also included

a rendered plan, section, and elevation of each design.

The first volume of Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum

was not bound to the second. They existed independently

which fortunately allowed the first volume to be translated

and extensively published throughout the world. The Je-

suits even translated a copy into Chinese by 1737 for dis-

tribution in AsiaY

The original texts of both Volumes One and Two were pub-

lished by Giovanni Giacomo Komarek in Rome in 1693 and

1700, respectively. Komarek also published two transla-

tions of the first volume: an Italianl German version and an

Italianf French version both in 1700. Another German trans-

lation paired with the original Latin text of volume one was

published in Vienna in 1706 by Jeanne Boxbarth and

Conrado Bodenter. The Latin/ English translation already

mentioned was published by John James of Greenwich in

London in 1707 with engravings reproduced by James Sturt,

And finally Giuseppe Castiglione (Pechino) published a

translation into French and Flemish in Brussels in 1708.4

The number and rapidity of there translations testifies to

the success and popularity of Volume One of Pono's trea-

tise.

While the considerable influence of the Jesuit missionary Andrea brotherfood had a great deal of influence in this phenom- Perspectiva prctonim et architectorum. v. 1. fig. 30 and 62. respectively. enon, the unprecedented success of this perspective trea-

.-, -7- - tise over al1 others has also been 18,. .,, " --Y---.-

5 - - z-. .. : +: ,-.. - . . - - attributed to the ease with which

this method may be followed and

4 - i learned which was precisely

Pozzo's intention. At the very least, & --.-. -1 th

the English translation went even

e.:- - .,' - further to present a straightfoward . -

- - . - - - -- .-- - task to be accomplished by mak- r; tic. LUI 6

1 ing the translation of less sugges- 1 : ' , - I - I tive vocabulary than the onginal text. I I C - - - 4

John James was a member of a "tripte partrier-

ship' with Hawksmoor and Sir Christophet Wren

in the Office of Works. According to Joseph

Rykwert, their approbation of Pozzo's text is "rather * +-- 1 : - . . - 2 I 1 in the style of the Venetian censor's 'Imprimatur'."~

/ James had altered the rneaning of passages in i several instances aliowing for a less potent ver- ! 1 : -.<- , _ - - - . . l

I .-., ... ... - i sion of the original. The most poignant example

Andrea Pono. detail illus- lraling Vie line between the existing architecture and hi painting, Church of II Gesu. Frascati. ltaly.

is in the translation of the subtitle

to Figure Thirty. The original Latin

text reads, "Optica projectio adifci

IONICI; ubi de modo jugendi ficium

cum vero." James translated the

section as follows, "An IONICK

Work in Perspective; with the Man-

ner of reconciling the fictitious to the

solid Architecture." While that is one interpretation of what

Pozzo may have meant, Pozzo uses the phrase edifica

solida to signify 'solid architecture' in the Sixty-second Fig-

ure.

Another translation reveals a broadei sense to this pas-

sage. The original Latin may be translated as 'the rnanner

of joining the fictitious to the reaV true.' This understanding

of Pozzo's text embodies the contemporary debate over

the distinction between illusion and truth. Considering

Pozzo's position within the Jesuit order in Rome, it is more

likely than not that he would allude to these controversiaI

debates. This quotation takes on particular importance in

conjunction with his numerous executions of his perspec-

tive method. The subtlety of ioining tnith and illusion was

actually accomplished by Pozzo in Jesuit churches al1 over

Italy.

The centre of the eye is the centre of the crystailine humour?

tiUe page of Gaiileo Galilei, S&IEMS nuncius, 1610.

Prior to the publication of Sidereas nuncius by

Galileo in 1610, the constitution of the moon had

been the subject of many theories Iinking the

material of the moon to a cornplex world view of

that period. The apparently irregular nature of

its surface then had to be reconciled with the

image of the heavenly spheres as perfects orbs.

In de Cab, Aristotle discussed the moon as a

flawless and, therefore, reflective surface. What

was seen to have been discolourations ta the

naked eye were thought to be reflections of the

In Leonardo da Vinci's notebooks circa 151 0, he sketched

the surface of moon as highly irregular? These dtawings

did not atternpt to represent a perfect citcle and were pokeâ and rnaned in such a way as to resernble

( the features of a portrait. His images were

in contradiction ta the prevalent metaphor

in which the moon was a symbol of absolute

Leonardo da Vinci. purity. 'AS pUfe as the mOOnlWaS the drawings of fhe moon, ca. 1510. traced by the metaphor mat the Roman Cathdic church had been using author from Steven F. Ostrow. 'Cigoii's as a representative analogy for the lmmaculate Immacoiata and Galileo's b n Astmnorny and the con~eption.~~ Virgin in the Early Seiwnto Rome.' The Art Bulletrii 78.2 (1 996). pp. 218-23.5. In atternpting ta explain the rnoon's spots while maintaining

its smoothness, other theories were developed in addition

to Aristotle's reflective orb. The moon was thought to be

translucent with different interna1 densities. Francis Bacon

even suggested that the moon was composed of vapor - vplr seeming to have darker areas like that of c l o u d ~ . ~

' All of these theories were dashed with the publication of

Galileo's findings through the telescope in 161 0. Galileo

was to demonstrate with scientificclarity that the moon was

a satellite much like the Earth with craters and mountains

across its surface.

Galileo made some of the most brilliant discovenes of his

time and was the father of modem science, but he was

actually not an avid experimentalist. It was his ability to

look at Nature with fresh eyes which gave hirn an insight

into the mathematical basis of the w~rld.'~ t

The ancient Aristotelian cosmogony had divided the laws

goveming celestial and sublunar world hierarchies. The

Earth was a unique creation unto itself, while the heavens

reflected the perfection of a spirituaf world order. Galiteo,

on the other hand, believed with the modem scientists in

the 'oneness' of rnatter2O These views were in ctear Ga'i" Sidems contradiction to the powerful doctrines taught by the faith nunc& 161 O.

of the Roman Catholic Church. For this and other reasons

to be mentioned later, Galileo was eventually confined to

his own house in Arcetri; but until his trial 1633, he managed

to have many controversial works elude initial censure by

26

practicing the art of dissimulation, or intellectual

In Sidereas nuncius, Galileo presented his knowledge, likely

gained through his relationship with the Accademia del

disegno and with Guidobaldo del Monte, of the way in which

Galileo Galilei. moon sepia wash in Le Opem di Galileo GMei 3 (1892). p.48.

Below Cigoti's lwo mugh sketches at the Sun (16 September 1611) folIOwed by Galileo's sketch of the Sun (1 Oclaber 1611) (traced by the aulhor).

light shades a smooth surface and the

behavior of light, shade, and shadow.

From this understanding, he concluded

that the moon had a varied surface. His

observations were convincing ly mm piled

in a "framework of explanation which

aspired to geometrical certitude."^ GGalileo

built upon his awareness of chiaroscuro

lighting conditions and even converted his

findings into height calc~lations.~~

Galileo transcribed his sketches of the

surface of the moon directly using the

projection from his telescope ont0 paper.

From those sketches, using a delicate

sepia wash, Galileo rendered the image

of the moon to match the subtleties seen

through his telescope. The washes were

'painteriy' with roundness and mass unlike

the flatness of the engravings in Sidereas

nuncius. With at least six layers of wash

to each image, the wash provided less

exaggeration than the engravings which

were ultimately to accompany his pnnted

text. Gathered together with these

washes at the Biblioteca nazionale di

Firenze are diagrams of astrological

horoscopes and lunar heights?

3 0 0 Also at the Nazionale are the pages of

cigoli's drawings by correspondence between Ludovico Cardi (called C i g ~ l i ) ~ ~ compas of sunspots to Galileol (30 June 1612) and Galileo on their discussion of the discoveries that the traced freehand by the author). two men were making through their telescopes. Solar

renderings in these notes resemble diagrams of

Ludovico Cigoli, ceiiing of observations rather than accurate images. The letters date Vie Capella Paulina in Vie Church of Santa Maria from the years shortly after the publication of Sidereas rnaggiore. Rome.

nuncius. It was Cigoli who convinced Galileo to

publish his works in the popular ltalian dialect

rather than in Latin.56 During this time, Cigoli was

painting the ceiling of the Capella paulina in the

church of Santa Maria maggiore in Rome (1 610-

161 2) for the Borghese Pope, Paul V.

In this painting, Cigoli represents the Virgin

characteristically standing atop the moon, her

symbol of purity; but Cigoli's moon was

represented depicting the surface he had seen

through the telescope, with craters and mountain

ridges. Although it is nota precise representation

of Galileo's observations, Cigoli created quite a

controversy which led to the redefinition of what

the 'purity' of the moon meant to the Virgin."

Cigoli also wrote his own treatise on perspective

entitled, Perspettiva practica in 161 3. It was never published

and contained a section on the 'Five Orders of Architecture.'

Similar to Galileo's educational background, Cigoii was

taught mathematics in the Medici court by the same

instructor, Ostilio Flicci.% He apparently had knowledge of

the works on perspective by Albrecht Dürer, Daniel Barbaro,

Leonatdo da Vinci, and Guidobaldo del Monte?

Cigoli's perspective in the ceiling of the Capella paulina uses

the device of more than one view point similar to the work

of Lomazzo to achieve a "more lucid expo~ition."~ This

technique avoided extremes in distortion when

viewed from multiple positions throughout a room.

His perspective was, in the end, somewhat ' distorted in itself, not creating the proper

diminishment for accurate human proportions.

Galileo was also in close contact with Guidobaldo

del Monte, perspective theorist and

mathematician. Guidobaldo invited Galileo in

Guidobaldo del Monte. September of 1593 to Monte Baroccio near

Perspeclivae libn' Urbino to consult with him on his as yet unpublished treatise Pesaro, 1600.

on perspective entitled Perspectivce /ibn se^.^' In 1594,

Galileo travelled to visit his wealthy correspondent. They

had been in contact on various interests including visual

science and astronomical pursuits since 1588F

In this time of a shifting worid order, the Jesuit mission

çought in both science and art to re-center man within a

controlled system. This surrogate world order resulted in a

geometrized space referring to a mathematical totality. The

placement of man at a specific point within the whole

recreated a center for man with the possibility of meaning

found in the unfolding of the perspective artwork. Within

the system, infinity was understood as the most concrete

expression of the existence of God. Jesuit propaganda

fide of the Counter-Reformation built upon man's

understanding of the sensuous and specific to grasp the

religious directives in a universal mathematical world order.

Propaganda fide was based on a question of convincing

the spectator through the use of the visual image to reach

an understanding of religious truth. The Jesuit goal for the

Counter-Refornation was sought through evocative art with

an emphasis on the visual in order to reach the widest audience with their message. The extensive rnissionary

endeavors of the Jesuits led them to lands which did not

share a common European language yet the perspectival

image offered a learned geometrical tnith.

Visualization was the method employed to understand one's

inner spiritual faim for the Jesuit brothers. Their work began

through participation in the outline for instruction presented

in the Spiritual Exercises written by the founder of the

Society of Jesus, St. lgnatius of Loyola. The Spiritual

Exercises are divided into four weeks although each week

may last for more or tess than seven days. Through a series of interna1 spiritual milestones, the exercitant progresses

through a process of visualization to reach a personal

understanding and compassion with Christ and the martyr

saints.

lgnatius asked each man to contemplate places, events,

and persons using a most concrete sense of the imagination

each day. For exarnple, lgnatius wrote in the Spiritual

fiercises:

The first is a mental image of a place. It should be noted at this point that when the meditation or contemplation on a visible object, for example, contemplating Christ Our Lord during His Life on earth, the image will consist of seeing with the mind's eye the physicaI place where the object that we wish to contemplate is present?

lgnatius invoked each sense independently to proceed

through a place and understand it intimately within one's

self. lgnatius writes of this clearly on hell:

This is a representation of a place. Here it will be to see in the imagination the length, breadth, and depth of hell. To see in the imagination the great fires, and the souls enveloped, as it were, in bodies of fire. To hear the wailing, the screaming, cries, and blasphemies against Christ Our Lord and al1 His saints. To srnell the smoke, the brimstone, the corruption, and the rottenness. To taste bitter things, as tears, sadness, and remorse of the conscience. Witti the sense of touch to feel how the flames surround and bum the seuls.@

This type of commentary is typical to open each day with

Andrea Porzo, ceiling of the nave of the Church of St, Ignatius, Rome (above) and (below) detail

an image to carry through the

introspective exercises which follow.

The Jesuits recognized the power of

the visual image above al1 other

senses. They used its allure as a

tool in their crusade against heretics

in the Counter-Reformation. It was

the task of the Jesuit artist to

persuade the viewers of the glory of

God and the Roman Catholic faith.

The perspectival illusion offered a

possibility of revealing superior truths

in a moment of unfolding. A symboiic

space depended on the

representation of the moment of ritual

within the timeless space of

perspective.

For Pozzo, the Jesuit mission was

at the center of his work. The narrative

themes which he painted on the walls and

ceilings of Jesuit churches glorified the

stories of the lives of Christ, the Jesuit

martyrs and their founder. lgnatius and

his miracles occupied the central theme

of his work in Rome.

The subject painted on the ceiling of the

nave of the church of St. lgnatius in Rome

Andrea Pozzo, details of the ceiling a i aie nawe of the Churcti of S t ignatius. Rome. representing ARW& Afraca and hia. -b*

is presented within the illusion of an open

ceiling ringed by columns and arches. It

represents the theme of the Jesuit mission

itself to spread the word of God given

through lgnatius to the four corners of the

worid. Pozzo employed the popular image

of the Iight of God to trace the spread of

his glory. While the Sun is at the centerof

this image it represents "that one true

point, the Glory of God," where ail points

of the perspective corne togetheP5

Glowing brightly in the center of the light

source is Christ bearing the cross. Pozzo

wrote in the caption to this image

(apparently inserted later into Volume One

of the 1693 printing) that the source 'sends

forth a ray of light into the heart of lgnatius

which is then transrnitted by him to the

most distant regions of the four parts of

the ~ o r l d . " ~ ~ The ray of light terminates in

representations of the four continents,

Europe, Asia, Africa, and America,

consisting of a female representation with

supporting male figures and beasts. The

detâiis of this information were sent to

Pono in letters and sketches from his

missionary brothers around the world.

Also present, seated in the billowy douds,

are Saints Aloysius Gonzaga, Francis

Andrea P o w . detaif of th8 ceiting of the nave of the Church of St. Ignatius. Rome, representing the Jesuit Saints.

as follows, "1 am corne to send fire

on the Earth and what will I if it be

already kindled,"

PERCEPTION 34

Philosophy is written in that vast book which stands forever open before our eyes - I mean the universe - but it cannot be read until we have leamt the Ianguage and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the characters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word?

Galileo heralded the birth of the new science with these

words. The secret workings of Nature herself could be

deciphered with a knowledge of Euclidean geometry and

observation through the senses. Galileo was opposed to

the Aristotelian philosophical assumptions based in sensual

stimulation related to the physical world. He often illustrated

the fallacies to which a dependence on perception alone

can lead. For example, when a feather is held to the nose,

it is said that it tickles the nose; but the feather does not

possess this property? One should not assume that a

sensation is an inherent property to that thing which initiates

the feeling for in fact it may be produced by many factors.

Galileo did not seek to reject Aristotle but to offer a new

interpretation of the sensible world, different and opposed

to the Scholastic interpretati~n.~ Alexandre Koyré wrote in

Galilean studies that Aristotelian arguments "presuppose

that we are able by the perception of the senses to directly

grasp physical reality, and that this is in fact the only means

of grasping it, and that consequently, a physical theory can

never throw doubt on the phenomena given directly in

per~eption."~' 00th Galileo and Descartes thought that one

must believe first in order to see the inherent order existing

in Nature. They awarded a certain distrust to the senses

that the Scholastic tradition believed led to proclaimed

truths. Koyré also made evident this position when Galileo

"asserts (a) that physical reality is not given in perception,

but is, on the contrary, grasped by reason; and (b) that

motion does not affect the moving body, which remains

unchanged by any motion which impells it, and that motion

only affects the relations between a moving body and a

stationary abject.""

The new science engendered increased study of the

perception of the physical world including the structure of

the eye and its mechanics. Many perspective treatises

avoided mention of the anatomy of the eye altogether.

Those that were interested tumed to the original, ancient

texts on which to base their theories.

Euclid's Optics represented the first known record of the

awareness of the distinction between what appears and

what is. His perspective understanding of vision was based

on the angles in a sphen'cal model, rather than a linear

structure. In the controversial "Theorem Eightn of the Opiics,

Euclid wrote, "Two objects of equal magnitude placed at

unequai distances are not seen according to the ratio of

their distances? Because of the basic conflict with the

structure of perspectnla afl'ficialis, Renaissance translations

of Euclid omitted this the0rem,7~ In extromission theory,

the cone of vision emerged from the eyes. Perspecfiva

Andreas Vesalius, The illustrations from the Warks of Andreas Vesalius of Brussels. (New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1950).

Egnatio Danti from Vigola. Le due regole. Fiame, 1583.

naturalis was meant to mimic the expenence of

vision in a heterogeneous and inexact world. It

was based on a spherical understanding of the

world in which lines were at once converging and

diverging in one scene.

Scholars such as Egnatio Danti rejected Euclid's

theory of extromission without mention of the

sphencal quality of vision in conflict with linear

perspective and refuted Vesalius' structure of the

lens located in the back part of the eye. Danti

together with many other scholars began to

understand the eye as a passive receptor of Iight

ray~.?~ It was Felix Platter in the late sixteenth

century who was the first to state that the retina

and the optic nerve were the organs of vision. Also refuting

extromission theory, Giovanni Battista della Porta wrote of

the eye as a miniature camera obscura collecting light rays

from objects placed in front of itaT6 Johannes Kepler,

influenced by Platter and della Porta, wrote the first

comprehensive theory of the retinal image in his A d

Vitellionem paral~pomena in 1604. He explained t hat when

passing through an aperture rays of light will project the

shape of the light source rather than the shape of the

aperture-7ï

Danti's diagrams of the structure of the eye influenced such

theorists as Guidobaldo del Monte, Simon Stevin, and

François d'Ang~ilon.~~ Prior to these men, there was little

mention of the structure of the eye itself

in perspective texts except in Kepler's

Leonardo da Vinci, anarnorphic eye found in Martin Kemp. nie Saence of Art: Optical Themes irom Brunelleschi to Seurat, (New Haven. Connecticut: Yale

Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo. figure Wdy for the vauit of the Church of San Marco. Milan, 1570.

writings and in the anatomical studies of

Leonardo da Vinci.79

Michelangelo was against perspectival construction entirely

claiming that the artist must exercise the "compasses in

the eye" not mathematical procedures. Lomazzo attempted

to reconcile these words with his profession by explaining

that Michelangelo's experience was so ingrained that it was

instinct for him to see and draw in perspective. For

Lomazzo, the "judgment of the eye and the intellect acted

in complete concert." In the late sixteenth century, Lomauo

still upheld the model of extromission theorye0

By the middle of the seventeenth century, the debate among

theories of vision was taken up by artists, scientists, and

philosophers alike. Abraham Bosse, who compiled

Desargues' work on perspective entitled Maniere

universelle, wrote of the need for geometrical techniques

over the perception of the eye. He was sharply attacked

for these views by Grégoire Huret in Optique deportfajcture

et peinture in 1670. An entire section of his treatise was

dedicated to an anti-Bosse polemic praising the ability of

the eye to properly judge the physical world in order to adjust

for visual iIlusions.B1

It is worth mentioning again that Claude Perrault upheld

the position that the eye itself measures and has the

capacity to perceive precision; and therefore, there was no

need for optical correction in architecture, sculpture and

painting.

Guarini rejected extromission theories of the mechanics of

the eye as a Iuminous body which reaches out and touches

objects. For Guarini, the eye was composed of a crystalline

lens which produced a smaller inverted image within the

eye. He referred to this as an 'unreal image.'@ In his

Architecture Civile published in 1737, Guarini admonished

perspective illusions for creating a crisis of surface in

architecture, a disturbing gap between what the eye

perceives and the order of the world? Jeanne Debanné

summarized Guarini's position on perspective painting as

follows:

..O T Guarini objects to over-permissiveness with regards to

j. perspective; that is, the use of perspective not aimed at restituting material presence, and recovering true symmetry. Aneed for distance transpired from this, that was enmeshed in architecture's end of being tn~thful.~

For Descartes, sense perception and vision in particular

were underrnined in his model for rationai thought. Although

vision was privileged among the senses, Descartes

understood the profound mental exercise necessary in order

to eliminate doubt from percepti~n.~~ To understand the

Rene ~ i s ç o ~ r ~ functioning of the eye demonstrated in the camera obscura, de la mdthode plus la aboptriwe,fesmBréoreset Descartes suggested to his readers to place a dissecteci la gBom6trie. Leiden. 1637. human eye, or any relative animal eye, in a shutter through

which to view the images forrned on a piece of paper held

to the back of the eye? He wrote of the eye as the passive

receptor of Iight declaring that the "first opaque structure in

the eye receives the figure impressed upon it by the light.u87

Descartes clarified his theory of the transmission of Iight

stating :

I would have you conceive of light in a 'luminous' body as being simply a certain very rapid and lively movernent or activity, transmitted to out eyes through air and other transparent bodies, just as the movement or resistance of the bodies a blind man encounters is transmitted to his hand through his

In The World, the work also called Treatise on Light,

Descartes differentiated between the sensation of Iight and

its cause using the analogy of language: the relationship

between what is represented to the thing itself. As the

eye truly becomes the passive receptor, the image acquires

an objectivity, a truth. Reflections and images appear to

be the real things because they affect the eye in the same

ordered correspondence of light rays? In this sense, vision

can be easily deceived.

In the Dioptries, Descartes concluded that the senses must

belong to the soul, because in dreams or in an ecstatic

state, the body is unaware of its surroundings and believes

to be inhabiting another space with sights and smells of its

~ w n . ~ ' For Descartes, vision became the gaze of the

geometer, that of a third party, no longer an embodied

experience?

SHADOW Before the second quadrature this same spot is seen walled around by some darker edges which, Iike a ridge of very high mountains turned away from the Sun, appear darker; and when they face the Sun they are brighter. The opposite of this occurs in valleys whose part away from the Sun appears brighter, while the part situated toward the Sun is dark and shady. Then, when the bright surface has decreased in size, as soon as almost this entire spot is covered in darkness, brighter ridges of mountains rise loftily out of the darkne~s.~

In the above quotation, Galileo explained his reasoning

behind the changing light patterns across the moon. It was

the projection of shadows on the surface of the maon that

led Galileo to understand the role of the Sun illuminating

the ridges and valleys of the Earth's satellite.

It was not always taken for granted that one could

conceptualize Light and create a system for the projection

of shadows among perspective theorists. Even the

mathematical mind of Girard Desargues was unable to fully

conceptualize Light. A shadow was generally considered

to be a trace of the Divine and notable to be reduced to the

rules which were goveming the physical world.

For most scholars at this point in time, the conceptualization

of Light in perspective renderings was understood as two

types of shadow projections. Firstly, the rays of the Sun

due to their immense distance from the object projected

parallel shadows. Secondly, light from a point source such

as a torch or candlelight projected perspectival shadows.%

The sun itself eventually became the obiect of Galileo's

telescope. An increased magnification allowed him to study

more closely the dark spots which marred the surface of

the great star. Galileo also used his understanding of

perspectival projections to explain the movement of such

spots upon a spherical surface. Galiteo's pupil, Benedetto

dei Castelli, devised the method for projecting the image of

the sun through the telescope onto a piece of paper to

accurately measure and track the movement of the spots

in each image. First, he scribed a circIe with a compass

into which fie matched the projection through the telescope.

Therefore, an ellipticat projection was avoided, and each

image was exactly the same size as the 0ther.9~ Galileo

pubtished these findings on the movement of sunspots,

shortly after Sidereas nuncius, in the treatise entitled, lstonTa

e dimonstrazione in 1 6 1 3.

Prior to Galileo's demonstration of the movement of the

spots related to the movements of the sun and the Earth,

the spots were thought to have been stars seen between

the Earth and the suri? lt was Galileo's inherent support

of the Copernican hetiocentric universe in these discussions

which eventually led to his censure and incarceration at

the hands of the Inquisition.

00th GaIiIeo and Descartes sought to define existing

phenomena through the contemplation of a totalic system

which couId never exist on Earth or, therefore, be disproved.

Gaiileo substituted and reconstructed reali i after an ideal,

imagined reality. His mathematical world view created a

chasm between the ideal and the real phenomena of

unexplainable facts? Such as in the case of the properties

found in a vacuum, he was able to postulate unreal bodies

in an unreal space. His experiments could never perfectly

achieve the conclusions of his postulates, because, for

example, a frictionless environment could not have been

created at that time so Galileo used an inclined plane in his

experiments.

Galileo described Iight as corpuscular. In the Assayer, the

tenn atoms was resenred for "luminous infinitesimal particles

of discontinuous material, capable of penetrating ~ i g h t . " ~ ~

While bodies were geometric, Euclidean bodies subject to

gravity, substances were quality distinctions both of a

separable propeity from their bodies in the mind and also

of an inseparable nature. Separable substances were such

qualities as smelt and sound. The inseparable were visible

or physicd charactetisticsP9

For Galileo and Descartes, movement became an analysis

of relational instances cornpletely removed from place.1w

Mathernatization of the wodd pemieated each field of study.

Apparently, every aspect of the world was written in the

language of geometry. The flow of time was the final

impossibility to truly conceptualize. This was evident for

Galileo and Descartes when they attempted to solve the

equation for the free fall of bodies. Three men unknowingly

and simultaneously worked on this problem: Descartes,

Galileo and Beekman. Each formulated the same theory

of falling bodies separately and each contained the same

error which Beekman later fixed.

Galileo began under the assumption that the speed of

acceleration was connected to the distance traversed,

overlooking its connection to the t h e elapsed. Descartes,

being more of a mathematician than a physicist, simply

interchanged the variables for distance with that of tirne

from the equation which Beekman presented to him.

Unwittingly, he had given Beekman the solution that

acceleration increased according to the time elapsed.lol

The idea of time or motion being a temporal reality became

a strength in Galileo's work. Unlike Descartes, Galileo

understood that every attempt to represent time results in

a geometrization of time. The conceptualization of tirne

was in contradiction to the continuous aspect of time which

eludes representation or mathematization. This

understanding enhanced the basis of Galileo's thought.lM

Perspectival illusion represented the conceptualized instant

isolating a moment in time from the flow of al1 others. This

moment was present according to a model of vision. In the

process of unfolding of the perspectival illusion, time was

expanded once again at the moment in which the illusion

appears to exist in the physical world.

ILLUSION

Andrea Pozzo. False cupola in the Chufch of II Gesu, Frascati. Italy.

I suppose, therefore, that whatever things I see are illusions; I believe that none of the things rny lying rnemory represents to have happened really did so; 1 have no senses; body, shape, extension, motion, place are chimeras. What then is true? Perhaps only this one thing, that nothing is certain.lm

Descartes ernployed many analogies of light and

vision to describe reason and rational thought.

He wrote in his Rules for the Direction of the Mind

in 1628 of the lack of reason being virtually equal

to blindness. "For it is very certain that

unregulated inquiries and confused reflections of

this kind only confound the natural light and blind

our mental powers. Those who so become

5..r - - accustomed to walk in I

/- darkness weaken their

eyesight so much that

afterwards they cannot

bear the Iight of da^."'^ 1 ! 1 i I . - lndulging in illusions t

1 . . . -- _ - - -_ . -

and the deception of the ! senses dulls the

intellect and irnpedes

the recognition of truth

in Descartes' view.

Andrea Pozzo. Perspecliva pictamm et afchitecto~m. V. 2 fig. 49 According to Descartes, the mind may be easily led into and 50. respectively. lm. delusions of al1 sorts, hallucinations, lunatic ravings, and

dreams, that in these cases sensual perception seems so

evidently true and yet is not real.lo5 Although he was

surrounded by a proliferation of treatises on and examples

of perspectival illusions, Descartes opposed any art fom

which sought ta confuse the senses especially,

anamorphosis. As in the case of Galileo, Descartes also

philosophicalIy objected to the disjunction between the

apparent image and its disguised reconstruction.

POINT OF VlEW 46

An Answer to the Objection made about the Point of Sight in Perspective.

Every one does not approve, that in Perspective of great Extent one Point of Sight only should be assign'd the whole Work; as for Example, In the whole Length of the Nave, Cupola, and Tribune, express'd in the Ninety-third Figure, they will by no means allow of one single Point, but insist upon several.

ANSWER, This Objection may be understood in two ways; either that one Point alone is not sufficient for that whole Length, and in this sense 'tis tnie; for that Space being very long, it ought to be divided into Parts, and proper Points assign'd to the Tribune, Cupola, and Vault of the Nave: as is commonly taught, where the Situation is of a great Length, and not very high. Or it may be understood of any One of the said Parts, and so is altogether false. First, Because in the Vaults of Halls or Churches painted by the greatest Masters, if they consist of one Piece only, we find but one Point of

Sight assigned. Secondly, Since Perspective is but a countetfeiting of the Truth, the Painter is not obliged to make it appear real when seen from Anypart, butfrom One determinate Point only. Thirdly, Because, if in a Vault, for

i Example, where you would paint one entire Design of Architecture and Figures, you assign several

Andrea Pozzo. Points of Sight, you will find no Perspecliva p c t o ~ m et place whence you may take a perfect View of the Whole, architactomm. v. 1, fig. 7s.

and at best you can only view each Part from its proper Point. From al1 which Reasons I conclude, that the Introduction of many Points into the same Piece, is more injunous to the Work, than making use of one only ... 1 confess that 1 myself make use of one Point of Sight only, in very large Vaults that consist of one Design, such as that of the Nave of the Church of S. Ignatius. If

therefore thro' the lrregularity of the Place, the Architecture appear with some Deformity, and the Figures intermix'd therewith seem any thing lame and imperfect, when view'd out of the proper Point, besides the Reasons just now given. It is so far from being a Fault, that 1 look upon it as an Excetlency of the Work, that when view'd from the Point determin'd, it appear, with due Proportion, straight, flat, or concave; when in reality it is not so.'=

At the end of the first volume of Perspectiva pictonrm et

architectonrm, Pouo included these words in response to

those who advocated the use of multiple viewpoints within

a perspective illusion. For the most part, Pouo employed

a single point of view in his quadrature. The viewer is able

to walk around the space to witness the scene from an

improper position realizing the distortions needed to produce

an illusionistic effect from one point. Generally, Pouo

marked the exact point from which to stand to view the

work in the floor of the churches either using a paving pattern

of marbte or placing a bronze disk in the existing marble

patterns.

As Pozzo stated in the above tesponse, the ability to reveal

the distortion of figures in an illusion from othetangles lends

to the efficacy of the ilIusion in his opinion. The dramatic

effect when positioned in proper respect to the illusion

produces a greater sense of wonderment. The exampIe of

which he had written, the nave of the church of Si. tgnatius,

is an extremely large work. There is one single point marked

in the marble ffoor from which to view the piece. On that

point, the perspective unfolds. In the quadratura painted in

the nave, the viewer may turn his or her body around to

witness the perspective spread out from that point in al1

directions. The viewer is positioned at the center of the

mathematical system.

Another work by Pono not farfrom the church of St. Ignatius

is the hallway outside the rooms of St. lgnatius preserved

in the Casa professa. Pouo painted this cycle around the

Andrea Pono, haliway to Vie moms of St. IgnaUus. Casa professa. Rome: entrance abdve and detail below.

becomes extremely elongated. The

figures are stretched in the horizontal

direction when viewed facing the wall.

$1 year 1680. In the eighteenth or nineteenth

, century, some of the paintings in this hallway were

overpainted, including the framed image of

Madonna and child. An extensive restoration in

the late 1980s revealed two major panels.

In the rather short and narrow hallway, contrary

to popular advise Pono employed one single

! point of view. Within the overall illusion, Pouo

painted framed perspective scenes fmm the life

of St. Ignatius to be viewed frontally. This

situation invites the viewet to walk around the

room destroying and revealing the illusion.

Toward the corners of the hallway, the distortion

The hallway, which is a plain banel vaulted

space, appears to have omate pink marble

columns with gold composite capitals and

enormous golden detailed brackets

supporting a flat ceiling. The space of the

brackets extends the height of the small

room. When approaching the room, the

entry wall was painted with niches

containing the Jesuit saints Aloysius

Gonzaga and Stanislaus Kostka. The

entry is immediately off of the landing of a

wide stair, a tight space, not lending well

to the illusionistic effect.

Upon entering, a few steps place the

viewer above a marble rose bloom wtiich

marks the proper point of view on the floor. Andrea Poao. haltway 10 the mms çr Ignauus, The far wall, which is crudely angled, is painted to appear Casa professa, Rome: viaw above and window longer and flattened with a pair of angeis piayirlg musical details below.

instruments under an archway. Beyond the ornately

columned archwav. . - there seems to be a

domed space

terminated by a

relatively simple

altar for St. Ignatius.

This space appears

to be illuminated

from above. The

hallway itself

contains four large

windows in the wall

detail fmm Andrea Pozzo. haliway 10 the mms of St. Ignatius. Casa professa. Rome. Church of S. Flora and Lucilla of the Badia. Arezzo, My: klow view of interior and lollowing page false cupola.

to the right and a hidden doorway.

Opposite the window wall, is the door to

the rooms of St. lgnatius a few steps

higher than the level of the hallway and a

window into one of those spaces. The

window is duplicated in the illusion in order

to carry a symmetry in the arcade of the

side wall. The stairs and the door leading

to the rooms present the most difficult

piece to incorporate into the illusion.

Pouo was somewhat successful with the

door varying the thickness of the marble

frame; but the stairs and their railings are

not at the appropriate angle or scale to

appear as a part of the perspective illusion.

Within the ornate gold leafed beams of the ceiling

are a variety of figures and framed images. The

larger adult angels are painted as fleshy winged

beings carrying framed monochromatic profiles

of important Jesuit brothers. There are two

versions of putti, rosy fleshed babes and grey

stone statues. These cherubs are at

approximately the same scale lending to the

interplay between flesh and painted stone. This

is the type of illusion capable in painting which

Galileo praised in his conespondence with Cigoli.

Also framed in the ceiling are monochromatic

scenes from the life of St. Ignatius.

The technique of contrasting monochromatic

images with full color scenes was also used by

Giorgio Vasari in an illusionistic painted room in

his own home in Arezzo. Pouo painted the false

cupola in the church of S. Flora and Lucilla of the

Badia in Arezzo where Vasari had designed the

altar and painted its centerpiece and other

canvases. The altar painting is entitled 'S. Giorgio e la

Macidalena,' a self-portrait also including his wife and

relatives. Pouo similarly included hirnself in the altar of

the church of II Gesu in Frascati already mentioned. Pozzo

may have drawn from the work of Vasari in these instances.

Andrea Pono. view of the hallwaytoîhemmsolSt. Turning around completely, the view in the hallway faces Ignatius. Casa professa. Rome. the opposite direction toward the entry wall. Looking in this

direction, one can see the stairs to the

rooms of St. Ignatius. Above the entry

door is written "S. Ignatio, Soc. lesu

fundatore." Atop the door frarne is the

crest of the Society of Jesus with their

symbol, IHS, surrounded by two painted

stone putti.

The side walls contain seven bays which

alternate behnreen two styles according to

the windows. Opposite the window bay

the niche appears deeper with two adult

angels standing below a framed scene

from the Iife of Christ. The other type of

bay is iess wide but contains a longer frame

containing a scene of a recorded miracle from

the life of St. ignatius. Under this frame are fleshy

putti also with vases of flowers. Above the frames

in the space of the ornate brackets are many

fleshy putti with tiny wings. Some of the fleshy

Andrea Pozzo. detailsof the hallway IO the rooms of st Ignatius. Casa The hallway invites the viewer to participate in professa. Rome.

the roorn, to walk around the space in order to

view the different aspects of the illusion. This

process simultaneously reveals and destroys the

illusion previously witnessed. As Pozzo wrote in

his response to those who were adamantly

opposed to this process, this enlightening

approach adds to the wonderment of the illusion.

The positioning of the point of view was more

complicated in the case of the design of stage

set panels. Baroque theather productions were

very important to Counter-Reformation

propaganda, and Pono himself produced many

designs. In Volume One of his treatise, Pozzo

discussed in the Seventy-fifth Figure how to

Andrea Pozzo, Pefspectiva picmrum et arrhitectanrm. v. 1, tg. 75.

Ferdinand0 Galribiena. L'Architeitura Civile .... 1711.

produce these particular illusions with the

placement of staggered panels necessitating the

exact alignment of perspective angles. Pouo

suggested raising the stage floor and overtapping

the point of view. This slight confusion lends to a

greater number of seats able to participate in the

illusion. Pouo also recommended the placement

of hidden candles to illuminate the screens in the

Seventy-first Figure.

In 1711 , Ferdinand0 Galli-Bibiena published his

treatise on perspective entitled, L'Architettura

Civile preparata su la Geometria, e ridotta aile

prospeffive. Considerarione pratiche. Galli-

Bibiena devised the two-point perspective, which

he termed perspettiva per angoio, for stage

designs eliminating any problern seats within the

audience. With a second vanishing point, almost

every seat could participate in the illusion.107

Conceptually, this perspective method produces

a world in perspective which one naturally

inhabits rather than the symbolic unfolding of a

single point of view. The distinction between

stage set and theater was systematically

destroyed.

TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 54

FlGU RA Trigesima. Optica projectio ædificii IONICI; ubi de modo jungendi fjctum cum ver^.'^^

The interest of the Scientific Revolution in the determination

of truth from falsehood led to a critique of perspectival

illusion which sought to deceive the senses. Ttiere was a

-

.

-d Andrea Pozzo, Perspectjva pictamm et

crisis between truth and the appearance of things

which underrnined the traditional philosophical

understanding of the world. The quest for the

perfect model of vision involved perspectival

representation in the most heated debates of the

time. The conception of the universe itself was

changing from the heterogenous finite worid view

of the middle ages to the homogenous space of

the infinite universe. Perspectival theon'sts had

to be sensitive to the issue of the vanishing point

extending to infinity. In the eyes of Roman

Catholic Church leaders, only God was or ever architactmm, V. 1. fig. I. could be infinite. Pozzo wrote of this point in his introduction

to Volume One definitively stating that the lines of

perspective converged to Yhat one true Point, the Glory of

G a i U

Althougti the Roman Catholic Church and the powerful

Jesuit leaders endorsed the use of perspectival illusions,

other artists and philosophical leaders of the time debated

the vatidity of a systematic deception of the senses. The

practice of anamorphosis bore the brunt of their objections.

Perspective survived as a part of the scientific quest to

understand the senses and vision in particular.

Jean François Ntceron, mamalUrgus opiicus,

Andrea Pono, iwo & e h images. defails from the hallway IO the m ~ n s of St Ignatiw, Casa Pmfessa, Rome.

Pouo did not specifically engaged in these debates of

record; but having been such a prolific artist and writer with

access to one of the most extensive Jesuit libraries at the

Biblioteca della Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, it is evident

that Pouo was aware of the significance of his writings

and his painted works to the broader disciplines at the time.

Descartes' critique of iIlusion extended to the visible in

general. Fteflection, trompe l'oeil, quadrature and

anamorphosis, al1 were artifice as an obstacle to the seatch

for objective tmW* Pouo even defines perspective as a

"Counterfeiting of the Truth" in Volume One in the

aforementioned "Answer to the Objection ... " l n

contradiction to his intentions, Descartes' philosophies

actually led to the reduction of Nature

herself to a theater of iltusions, "an effect

of human artifice."l1° In a similar way,

perspective transformed an understanding

of reality into appearance. The subject of

art became psychological, and as would

follow, the divine was reduced to a matter

for contemplation by the hurnan mind.ll1

To paraphrase Vittorio de Feo in Andrea

Pono: architettura e itiusione, 'more than

performing mathematical perspective with

precision, Poao recognized a possibiiii

of reality. .. where perspective translates the virtuality of the

real/ ... with the help of the imaginati~n.'"~ It was the

incorporation of the viewer in his works which opened the

narrative possibilities of perspectival illusions. Rather than

simply reproducing a narrow model

of vision, Pozzo's intentions were

of a religious end, the Jesuit

mission, propaganda fde. Pozzo

employed perspective to actively

persuade the individual of the glory

of God and the Jesuit order.

Andrea Pono, detail fmrn the roams of SL Ignatius, Casa professa. Rame.

The viewer was positioned within the perspectival system

only to be invited to move through the space destroying,

revealing, and ultimately understanding the illusion. The

joining of truth and illusion for Pono contained a distinctively

religious end. The moment in the unfolding of a perspectival

illusion was intended to create a miraculous revelation, a

moment of symbolic ritual expanding the present moment

in time.

MACHINES Those lines I will draw with a straight stroke of the pen and write the main lines on top of them so that the invisible lines may be thereby comprehended for in that manner the inner meaning must be dernonstrated e~ternally."~

Albrecht Dürer wrote the above section on

perspectival construction lines in his

treatise entitled Unterwessung der Messung in 1525.114 Dürer sought to

define the laws of visual perception using several

adaptations of a framed grid of strings. In his

woodcut prints, he depicted these machines in

perspectival scenes illustrating their use.

Although Dürer did not ultimately arrive at a

unified mathematical perspective, it is important

to bear in mind his intention which was to

represent the physical world through a precision

of observation.

The machines, designed to aid in the drawing of

perspective directly from reality such as Dürer's Albrecht Dürer. top abave plate f,, un,,,,,, use of the grid, lost their position in perspective treatises der Messung. 2nd edn., (Nuremberg, 1538) and afkr 1630. The main scholars who upheld the tradition middle and bottom above phtasirom Untemysung after Dürer were Vignola1 Egnatio Danti, Ludovico (Cigoli) der Messung. 1st edn., (Nuremberg, 1525). Cardi, and Ma~olois.~~~ Guidobaldo del Monte also produced

several machines for drawing in his treatise. After 1630,

the trend in perspective treatises returned to the brief

mentiming of a device similar to the concept presented in

Dürer's woodcuts of a basic veil, or grid of strings.R6

In fact, Pozzo emptoyed the use of a very large grid in Figure

One-hundred of Volume One of his treatise to project a

perspective drawing onto the irregular surface of a barre1

vault in the nave of the church of St. lgnatius (illus., p. 46).

AIthough conceptualIy he wrote of the traditional use of a

light source placed at the view point, in practice the Iight

would never be strong enough to cast a shadow of the

strings onto the vault with sufficient intensity to be lightiy

traced. Pozzo recommended the placement of a grid of

strings at the level of the spring of the vault. Using a long

string one person would stand at the view point holding

one end of the string while the other person on scaffdding

in the vault would align the other end of the string with a

cross point in the grid and extend the string to the vault.

Therefore the grid would be accurately transferred ont0 any

irregular surface no matter how far removed from the source.

Pozzo possibly could have been exposed to another

measuring device illustrated in Vignola's Le due regole

(illus., p. I l ). It is in this image that Vignola demonstrates

the precision of measurement using two people, one to

measure the points of importance on a sliding t-square ruter

and the second person to record those points onto the pâper.

The second person who is actually producing the drawing

is not looking directly at the object being drawn.lT7 Vignola

also emptoyed the mettiod of a projected grid in his

illustration of how to ammplish crude anamorphic images.

Not surprisingly, Cigoli's discussion of the projection of

images ont0 vaults and domes carried many

affinities to Galileo's explanation of the movement

of sunspot~.~~~ In his treatise, Perspettiva prattica,

Cigoli's machines represent a crossbreed

between Dürer's veil and Vignola's measuring

sticks.llg Guidobaldo del Monte's machines for

drawing in perspective are also close to the

Vignolal Danti type.

It is not possible to be certain from which sources

Pozzo developed his understanding of

perspective projection. Vittorio de Feo posited

that he was influenced by Palladio, Vignola,

Colonna and Mitelli, Morazzione, Richini, Bemini Ludovic0 Cigoli. three abave images from and Borromini. De Feo also described Pozzo as being Perspetfiva pratica. c. 1610-1613, presenily in predisposed toward Guarinian meditations.lZ0 Considering Vie Gabinetto di Disegni e Srampe. Uffizi Gallety, Guarini's critical position in regard to perspectival illusions, Fiorence.

it is unlikely that Pozzo considered Guarini to be a kindred

spirit, or vice versa. In addition to the Iist of possible

influences on Pozzo's work, de Feo neglects to explain any Andrea Pouo. pe~wdiva picfoNm et coincidences in their lives or work to warrant these ties. archilecto~nl, v. 1. fig. 83.

r* .YP

; 2 ' . .,,- Even Pozzo's simple rendition of ' t

the method for projecting a lattice

ont0 a vaulted surface reinforces

his intentions to create a basic,

easy-to-follow method for the

production of perspectivai

drawings. Rather than debate the

Andrea Pozzo, Palan0 Contuen'. Montepulaano.

Andrea Pozzo, above Palazzo Lichtestein. Rossau and below W. Halbax, ûiihofstimrner, Vienna

possibility of the correspondence between

drawing and architectural space, Pozzo

easily demonstrated the method for joining

the built world with painted illusions. The

coincidence between plan and elevation

drawings to locate the points in a

perspective have been clearly

systematized (only to be confounded on

Figure four of Volume two witht he mention

of two eyes). Each of his perspectival

demonstrations illustrated this point: the

relationship between orthographic

drawing and perspectival projections was

unified in a mathematical, what was

eventually to be termed as Cartesian,

space. Koyré wrote of Descartes' spatiaI

understanding in his introduction to

Descartes' Philosophical Works as:

... applied mathematics, or mechanics; a physics based on the clear and distinct ideas of extension and motion,

a physics that reduces al1 material being to an endless interplay of movernents, governed by strict mathematical laws, in the uniform space of the infinite universe.

Pozzo's position with respect to the

joining of truth and illusion is

J. Kramolin. Chureh of the Gesù at Jihlava. Iglau.

enhanced by his vast nurnber of executed

perspectival illusions. When viewed during the

proper light of day, his method produced fascinating

visual deceptions with an almost complete blending

of built architecture and painted space.

During his final years in Vienna, Pozzo designed and

assisted in the execution of major perspective woM.

His designs decorate the ceiling of the ornate

Universitatskirche, the architecture of the impressive

freestanding main altar of the Franziskanerkirche,

and the ceiling in the ballroom of the paiazzo

Lichtestein in Rossau. These pieces greatly

infiuenced the painters of central European Rococo

C.O. Asam. Church of

movement. The artists who continued in

the vein of the work of Pozzo adapted the

perspective point of view to suite their

evolving understanding of perspectival

space. The Rococo movement saw the

removal of the embodied point of view

from spatial perspectival illusions. Such

painters as Halbax, Tausch, Kramolin and,

of course, Cosmas Damian Asam (1686-

1 739) introduced a disem bodied

perspective which sought to more

assertively trespass the boundary Weingarten. between the physical environment and the painted illusion.

Their frescoes incorporated elements of sculpture to blend

the edges of the illusion into the ar~hitecture.'~'

Andrea Pozzo, ialse cupola and nave of the Universitatskirche, Vienna

Also distinctively absent from their

perspectival spaces was the embodied

viewer. The Rococo painter raised the point

of view from eye level to somewhere floating

in the space above the viewer. The space of

the perspective became uninhabitable, a

spectacle for a distanced viewer. The Rococo perspectival illusion was somewhat in

contradiction to the origins of perspectiva

artificialis as the embodied experience of

geometric order in space.

There was an abstraction of the observer following the

Cartesian representation of the ultimately passive, receptive

eye? Eighteenth century philosophes lost interest in the

study of perspective drawing. While light remained a central

metaphor during the Enlightenment, there was a pervading

sense of conditionality, perspectival light rays from a point

source rather than the parallei infinitely distant light of

GO^.'*^ Natural light was thought to De inherently

misleading, for truth must have a well-ordered origin in

Method and a position within a system as dlAIembert stated

in his En~ylcopédia.~~~

FROZEN MOMENT An absolute master of perspective, Pouo created on the flat surfaces of the walls and the gentle curve of the vault the illusion of immense space filled with complex architectural and human forrns.

Walk around either end of the comdor and look around. You will discover that the beams of the ceiling that seemed straight are really curved, that the cher- ubs on the walls are thoroughly dis- torted, that the deep chape1 at the end of the corridor is really painted on a flat, slanted wall. As you walk toward the center again, you watch the archi- tecture slide into focus. Pouo joined mechanical precision with playiul con- fidence in his craft and deep love for his subject, St. l g n a t i u ~ . ~ ~ ~

The passage above written by Thomas M.

Lucas, S.J. for the opening of the exhibi-

tion to celebrate the completion of the res-

toration of the rooms of St. lgnatius sum-

manzes the dynamic spatial

understanding in Pozzo's

perspectival illusions. Al-

though he supported the

use of one point of view

within a space, Pouo in-

vited the viewer to pass

through the space to reveal

his artistry in the distortions

of the figures and architec-

tural elements. Through a spatial narra-

tive in the revelation of the illusion, Pono

allowed for the expansion of the frozen

moment in time inherent in perspectival

illusions. He participated in the decep-

tion of the senses opposed by contempo-

in the Spintual Exercises, Pozzo's work employed the use

of the seoses, of vision, to convince the observer of the

glory of God, the point to which al1 lines converge. In his

self-portrait, Pono sits in the robes of his faiîh pointing up

and over his shoulder to a representation of his famous

faIse cupoia as he gazes into the eyes of the obswer.

List of Works

Self-portrait, Uffizi Museum, Florence, Italy.

Perspective paintings on the Vauk of nave, Cupola (80 palmi diarneter = approx. 18m), and Main altar, Church of St. Ignatius, Rome, ltaly (1 688-1 694).

Architecture of side altar of St. Luigi Gonzaga, Church of St. Ignatius, Rome My.

Corridor to the rooms of St. Ignatius, Casa professa adjacent to the Church of II Gesu, Rome, ltaly (1681).

'San Francesco Borgia adora I'Eucharista,' Church of II Gesii, Rome, ltaly (1683-1685).

Cappella della Vigna, Rome, ltaly (1 682-1 686).

Refectory, Church of Tn'nita dei Monti, Rome, ltaly (1 694).

'Cristo accoglie Sant'lgnazio in cielo,' Church of II Gesu, Rome, ltaly (1 697-98)-

Architecture of the Main altar to St. Ignatius, Church of II Gesu, Rome, Italy.

Perspective paintings on the Cupola, Side altars, Main altar and Framed perspectives including 'Martirio dei Santi Sebastiano e Agnese' and 'Sant'lgnazio accoglie San Francesco Saverio,' Church of II Gesu, Frascati, ltaly (1 683-1 684).

'Madonna col bambin0 e santi Michele e Giovanni Battista,' Cathedral, Cuneo, My.

'La Vergine e santi Michele e Giovanni Battista,' Cathedral, Cuneo, M y (1 685).

'Risposo in Egitto,' Church of Santa Maria, Cuneo, Italy.

Architecture of the Main altar to St. Ignatius, Church of Santi Martiri, Torino, ltaly (1 677-1 680).

"Cristo crocifisso,' Church of San Lorenzo, Torino, Italy (1 679).

'Adorazione dei Magi,' Congregazione dei mercanti, Torino, ltaly (1 697).

'Adorazione dei pastori,' Congregazione dei mercanti, Torino, ltaly (1 701 ).

'Fuga in Egitto,' Congregazione dei mercanti, Torino, ItaIy (1 701).

'Strage degl'innocenti,' Congregazioni dei mercanti, Torino, ltaly (1 703).

'Immacolata concenzione con San Stanislao,' Church of SantlAmbrogio, Genova, ltaly (1 665-1 670).

'San Francesco Borgia in preghiera,' Church of Sant'Ambrogio, Genova, ltaly (1665-1670).

'Ss. Ambrogio e Andrea,' Genova, ltaly (1 671 ).

'San Francesco Borgia con la Madonna, il Bambino e sant'Annal and 'L'lmmacolata concezione con San Stanilao Kostka,' Church of II Gesu, Genova, ltaly (m. 1671).

'Annunciazione,' Sacristy of the Cathedral, Mondovi, ltaly (1 692, Rome).

'Gloria di S. Francesco Saverio,' Cupola in the church of Missione, Mondovi, Italy.

'Angelo custode,' Church of San Fracesco Saverio, Mondovi, Italy.

'Gloria di S. Francesco Saverio,' Cupola, Church of San Francesco Saverio, Mondovi, ltaly (1 676).

Altar and Nave, Church of San Francesco Saverio, Mondovi, Italy.

'Prostrati I'adorandu,' main altar of Pia Congregazione e Banchieri, Arezzo, ltaly (1 693).

Perspective painting of the Cupola, Church of Badia delle Ss. Rora e Lucilla, Arezzo, ltaly (1 702).

'Flagellazione di Cristo,' collection of Silvino Borla, Trino Varcellese, Italy.

'Cattura di Cristo,' Collection of Silvio Boria, Trino Varcellese, Ital y.

Architecture of the Main altar, Church of Ss. Giovanni e Paoto, Venice, ltaly (1674).

'Predicazione di San Francesco Saverio,' Jesuit College, Novi Ligure, ltaly (1 665-70).

'Martirio di San Venanzo,' Church of San Venanzo, Ascolia Piceno, Italy (1 683-86).

'Sant'lgnazh accoglie San Francesco Borgia,' Church of Santo Stefano, San Remo, ltaly (1 665-1 670).

'Prospettiva con Ultima Cena,' Museo Diocesano, Trento, Italy.

'Prospettiva con Circoncisione,' Museo Diocesano, Trento, Italy.

'Presentazione al Tempio,' Museo Diocesano, Trento, Italy.

Architectural design, Church of San Francesco Saverio, Trento, Itaiy.

'S. Francesco Saverio batteua le genti,' Museo nazionale, Trento, ItaIy.

'Sacra Famiglia,' Parrochiale, Lasino [Trento], ltaly (1703).

Architectural design, Church of St. Ignatius, Ragusa, ltaly (1 702).

Architectural design, Duomo, Lu biana (1 702).

Salon, Palauo Contucci, Montepulciano, Italy.

Perspectives in the side altars, Church of II Gesu, Montepulciano, Italy.

Church of San Bernardo, Montepulciano, Italy.

Church of S. Maria dei Servi, Montepulciano, Italy.

'Predicazione di San Francesco Saverio,' Church of San Francesco Saverio, San Sepolchro (1690).

'San Siro risana gli infermi,' (attr.) Duomo, Pavia, Italy.

'Disputa di Gesu fra i dottori, Altar lunette in the Basilica of San Defendente,' Romano di Lombardia [Bergame].

Architectural Facade, Church of Santa Maria maggiore, Trieste, ltaly (aft er 1 702).

Architectural design, Jesuit college, Belluno, ltaly (1704- 1 705).

'Gloria di Sant'lgnazio,' finished by Chnstopher Tausch, Gorizia, Austria.

'Crocefissione,' Jesuitenkirche, Wenna, Austria.

'Cristo crocifisso,' Universitatskirche, Wenna, Austria (ca. 1 705).

'CAssunta,' Universitatskirche, Vienna, Austria (1 709).

'Sant'lgnazio e San Stanislao Kostka,' Universitatskirche, Vienna, Austria (1 704-1 705).

'Archangelo Raffaele,' Universitatskirche, Wenna, Austria (1 704- 1 705).

'Fuga in Egitto,' Universitatskirche, Vienna, Austria (1704- 1 705).

'Sacra famiglia,' Universitatskirche, Vienna, Austria (1 704- 1 705).

'San Giuseppe,' Convento delle Orsoline, Innsbruck, Austria (1 703).

Architecture of the Main altar, Franziskanerkirche, Wenna, Austria (1 706-1707).

Ballroom, Palazzo Lichtestein, Rossau [Vienna], Austria (1 704-1 709).

Main aItar, Casa professa of Kirche am Hof, Vienna, Austria (1 709).

NOTES 70

Gaileo wrote this passage in Istorie e dimonstrazione, 1613 in response to those who betieved that cornets produce their own light. See M. Clavetin, The Natud Philosophy of Galileo, (Cambridge, Massachsettes: The MIT Press, 1974) or Martin Kemp, The Science ofAR: Optical Themes in Westem Art fram Brunelieschi to Seurat, (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 96.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat, p. 1 96.

Ibid., pp. 93-96.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: 0pti;cal Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi fo Seurat

see Erwin Panofsky, Galileo as a Cn'tic of the Arts, (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1954).

Al berto Pérez-Gomez, Architecture and the Cn'sis of Modem Science, (Cambridge, Massachusettes: The MIT Press, 1983).

see Martin Kemp, The Science ofAfl: Optical Themes in Westem Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat, 1 990).

S. Y. Edgarton, "Galileo, Florentine 'Disegno,' and the 'Strange Spotteûnesse' of the Moon," Ar? Journal, XLIV, (1 984), pp. 225-232.

Martin Kemp, The Science ofArt: Optical Tfremes in Westem Art fmm Bnrnel!eschi to Seurat, pp. 93-98.

Ibid., p. 93.

Stillman Drake, GaliIeo at Wok a Scientific 8iogmphy, (New York: Oover Publications, Inc., 19781, p. 35.

Martin Kemp, The Science of AR: O p W Themes in

Western Art from Brunelleschi to Seurat, p. 76.

Ibid., p. 79.

Ibid., pp. 86-92.

Rene Descartes, Philosophical Writings, transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, (New York: Columbia University Press, 19611, p. 34.

This statement was recorded in Howard Hibbard, Bernini, (London: Penguin Books, 19651, p. 19, as according to Basil Willey, The Seventeenth-centuy Backgmund, (Hamonds-Worth, l962), pp. 9ff. and passim.

Op-cit., p. xxi, in the introduction written by Alexandre Koyré.

Ibid., p.13.

see Erwin Panofsky, Galiieo as a Cn'tc of the Arts.

see the section entitled 70 the Lovers of Perspective' in Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecturé and Painting: an Unabndged Repnht of the English-Latin Edition of the 1693 'Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum", (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, (New York Dover Publications, Inc., l989), p.12.

Vittorio de Fm, Andrea Pozzo:Architettum e illusione, (Rome: Officina Edizioni, 1988).

1 bid.

Ibid.

Nino Carboneri, Andrea Pozzo Architetfo, (Trento: Collana Artisti Trentini, 1961).

see Figure Nine in Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an Unabridged Reprint of the English-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pictonrm et architectomm", (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, p. 30.

see Figure 53 in Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an Unabmged Repniit of the Engiish-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum", (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, p. 118.

see Figure 53 in Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an Unabridged Reprint of the English-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pktonrm et architectorvm: (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, p. 121.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Alf: Optical Themes in Western Art from Bnrnelleschi to Seurat, 1 WO), p. 69.

Alberto Pérez-Gomez and Louise Pelletier, Anamorphosis: an Annotated Bibliognphy with Special Reference to Architectural Representation, (Montréal: McGill University Libraries, 1 995), p.82.

see introduction by Alberto Pérez-Gomez in Claude Perrault, Ordonnance for the Five Kinds of Columns after the Method of the Ancients, trans. Indra Kagis McEwan, (Santa Monica, California: The Getty Venter for the Humanities, 1993).

Rosario Assunto, 'Un filosofo nelle cappitali d'Europa (La filosofia di Leibniz tra Barocco e Rococo),' Storia dell'Arfe 3, (1 9691, pp. 296-337.

Alberto Pérez-Gomez, Architecture and the Crisis of Modem Science, p. 31 and the introduction by Alberto

Pérez-Gomez in Claude Perrault, Ordonnance for the Five Kinds of Columns after the Method of the Ancients, trans. Indra Kagis McEwan, p.21.

34 see Vittorio de Feo, Andrea Pouo: Architettura e illusione and Dunbar H. Ogden, The Ialian Baroque Stage: Documents by Guilio Trolli, Andrea Pozzo, Ferdinand0 Galli-Bibiena, Baldasare Orsini, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 169. The second text includes images and excerpts from Volume Two of Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum.

35 Ibid.

36 Roberta Maria Dal Mas, "Le opere architettoniche a Ragusa, Lubiana, Trieste, Montepulciano, Belluno e Trento," in Andrea Pouo, eds. Vittorio de Fm and Valentino Martinelli, (Milano: Electa, 1 W6), pp. 184- 203.

37 Op. cit.

38 Roberta Maria Da1 Mas, "Le opere architettoniche a Ragusa, Lubiana, Trieste, Montepulciano, Belluno e Trento," in Andrea Pouo, eds. Vittorio de Feo and Valentino Martinelli, pp. 184-203.

39 The section entitled "Ad Lectoremn in Andrea Pouo, Perspectiva pictorum et architectomm Andrea Putei e Societate Jesu pars secunda, (Rome: Giovanni Generoso Salomoni, 1758) edition in the collection of the Biblioteca della Pontificia Universita Gregoriana.

40 Marina Carta and Anna Menichella, "II successo ediioriale del Trattato," in Andrea Pozzo, eds. Vittorio de Feo and Valentino Martinelli, p. 230.

41 Ibid.

Joseph Rykwert, The F h t Modems: the Architects of the Eghteenth Century, (Cambridge, Massachusettes: The MIT Press, l98O), pp. 142-1 54.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art hom Bninelleschi to Seurat, p. 79.

Steven F. Ostrow, "Cigoli's lmmacolata and Galileo's Moan Astronomy and the Virgin in the Eariy Seicento Rome," The Art Bulletin 78,2, (1 996), pp. 21 8-235.

Ibid.

S. Y. Edgarton, "Galileo, Florentine 'Disegno,' and the 'Strange Spottednesse' of the Moon," Art Journal, pp. 225-232.

Ibid.

William R. Shea, "Panofsky Revisited: 'Galileo as a Critic of the Arts'," Renaissance Studies in Honour of Craig Hugh Smjdh, (Florence, 1 985), p. 483.

Alexandré Koyré, Galilean Studies, (Hassocks, Sussex: The Hatvester Press Limited, 1 939), part ill.

Pietro Redondi, Galileo Heretic, trans. Raymond Rosenthal, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987).

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Ait fmm Brunelleschi to Seurat

S. Y. Edgarton, "Galileo, Florentine 'Disegno,' and the 'Strange Spottednesse' of the Moon," Art Journal, pp. 225-232.

I bid.

54 Ibid.

Erwin Panofsky, Galileo as a Critic of the Arts.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western AR from Brunelleschi to Seurat.

Miles Chappell, 'Cigoli, Galileo, and Invidia,"e Art Bulleth 57, (1 9751, pp. 9 1-98,

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western Art from Brunelleschi tu Seurat, p.97.

Ibid.

Stillman Drake, Galilecr at W o k a Scientjfic Biogmphy, (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 19781, p. 35.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: O p t i ~ l fhemes in Western Art hum Brunelleschi to Seurat.

lgnatius of Loyola, The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius, trans. Anthony Mottola, Ph.D., (New York: Bantam Doubleday Oell Pu blishing Group, Inc., [1964] 1989), p. 54.

Ibid., p. 59.

Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an Unabn'dged Reprint of the English-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pictorum et afchitectorum: (a reprinting of the London, 1707) tfans. John James of Greenwich, p. 12.

Ibid., p. 139.

Bernd Wolfgang Lindemann, "Ex aliena luce quaerito' - Kosmologie und Staatsverstàndis im barocken Denken bild, " Sitzungsbenchte, Kunstgeschichtiiche GesteIIschaftzu Beriin N.F., 31, (1 982-1 W), pp. 3-7.

67 see Gaiileo Galilei, II saggiatore, in Opere VI, (1 8961,

p. 232. Translation found in William R. Shea, "Panofsky Revisited: 'Galileo as a Critic of the Arts'," Renaissance Studies in Honourof Craig Hugh Smyth, p. 483.

Pietro Redondi, Galiko Heretic, trans. Raymond Rosenthal, pp. 57-58.

Ibid.

Alexandre Koyré, Galilean Studies, part I I 1.

Ibid.

Martin Kemp, fhe Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western AR from Brunelleschi to Seurat, pp. 34-36, pp. 92-97.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 81.

Alberto Pérez-Gomez and Louise Pelletier, Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge, ( Cam bridge, Massachusettes: The MIT Press, 1997), p. S I .

Ibid., pp- 5t -55.

Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optial Themes in Western AR fmm Bruneileschi to Seurat, pp. 34-36 and p. 81.

Ibid., p. 165.

Ibid., p. 83.

Ibid., p. 122.

81 Janine Debanne, Between Reiiquary and Cenotaph:

Gaurino Guarini's Cappella Santa Sidone, (Montréal: McGill University, Master Thesis, History and Theory of Architecture, 1995).

82 Ibid., p. 77.

83 Ibid., p. 81.

84 Dalia Judovitz, "Vision, Representation and Teehnology in Descartes," Modemity and the Hegemony of W o n , ed. David Michael Levin, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 63.

85 Rene Descartes, Philosophical Wntings, transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, pp. 244-245.

87 Rene Descartes, Philosophical Wntings, transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, p. 241.

88 Oalia Judovitz, "Vision, Representation andTechnoIogy in Descartes," Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision, ed. David Michael Levin, p. 71.

89 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Primacy of Perception and Other Essays on Phenornenologid Psychology; the PhilosophyofArt, Historyand Politics, t m s . James M. Edie, (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1964), p. 170.

90 Rene Descartes, Philosophical Wfitings, transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geactt, p. 242.

92 Gaiileo Galilei, Sidereas nuncius or the Sidereal Messenger, trans. Albert Van Helden, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 45.

93 Alberto Pérez-Gomet, McGill University, lecture delivered on 1 3 February 1 997.

94 Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Optical Themes in Western AR from Brunelleschi to Seurat, pp. 34-36 and p. 95.

95 Ibid.

96 Alexandré Koyré, Galilean Studies, part III.

97 Definitions found in Galileo's the Assayer. See translation in Pietro Redondi, Galileo Heretic, trans. Raymond Rosenthal, p. 59.

98 Alexandré Koyré, Galilean Studies, part III.

99 Ernst Cassirer, Symbol, Function and Einstein's Theory of Relativity, transes. William Curtis Swabey and Marie Collins Swabey, (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, l923), p. 75.

100 Op.cit., part II.

101 Ibid.

102 Rene Descartes, Philosophical Writings, transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, p. 66.

103 Quotation written by Rene Descartes in Rules for the D i m o n of the Mindin 1628 (published post-humously in 1701). The translation is in the article by Dalia Judovitz, "Vision, Representation and Technoîogy in Descartes," Modemity and the Hegemony of Vision, ed. David Michael Levin, p. 67.

104 from Rene Descartes, Meditations on the First Philosophy Wherein are demonstrated the Wstence of God and the Distinction of Sou1 fmm Body, 1642. Translation in Rene Descartes, Phiiosophical Wntings,

transes. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, pp. 61 -62.

1 O5 Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an.Unabrfdged Reprint of the English-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pictorum et architectonrm: (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, p. 221.

1 O6 Werner Oechslin, Xrchitecture, Perspective and the Helpful Gesture of Geometty," Daidalos, p. 40.

107 Andrea Pozzo, Perspective in Architecture and Painting: an UnabMged Reprint of the EngIish-Latin Edition of the 1693 "Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum", (a reprinting of the London, 1707) trans. John James of Greenwich, p. 73.

1 O8 Daiia Judovitz, 'Vision, Representation and Technology in Descartes," Mademity and the Hegemony of Vision, ed. David Michael Levin, p. 63.

109 Ibid., p. 65.

11 0 Martin Kemp, The Science of Art: Opfical Themes in Western Art h m Bnrnelleschi to Seurat, pp. 34-36 and p. 72.

1 1 1 Vittorio de Feo, Andrea Pouo:Alchitettura e illusione, pp. 14-15.

11 2 Translation found in Werner Oechslin, 'Architecture, Perspective and the Helpful Gesture of Geometry," Daidalos, p. 46. Original text wriiten by Albrecht Dürer, Untenveysung der Messung, 1525.

11 3 Martin Kemp, The Science of AR: OptW Themes in Western Art h m Brunelleschi to Seurat, pp. 34-36 and p. 171.

114 Ibid., p. 184.

115 Ibid.

116 Ibid., p. 174.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid., pp. 177-180.

1 1 9 Vittorio de Feo, Andrea Pozzo: Architettura e illusione.

120 Richard Bosel, "Le opere viennesi e i loro riflessi nelllEuropa centro-orientale," in Andrea Pozzo, eds. Vittorio de Feo and Valentino Martinelli, (Milano: Electa, 1 %6), pp. 204-229.

121 Alberto Pérez-Gomez and Louise Pelletier, Architectural Representation and the Perspective Hinge, pp. 74-75.

122 Hans Blumenberg, 'Light as a Metaphor for Truth: At the Prelirninary Stage of Philosophical Concept Formation," Modemity and the Hegernony of Vsiun, ed. David Michael Levin, (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 1993), p. 53.

124 Thomas M. Lucas, A Guide to the Rooms of St. Ignatius Loyola, (Rome: Sograro, 1 990).

Andrea Pozzo: Primary Sources.

Pozzo, Andrea. Breve descrizione della pitlura fatta nella voffa del tempio di Santo lgnazio scoperta I'anno MDCXCIV. (Rome, 1694) Biblioteca nazionale di Firenze

Pouo, Andrea. La Nuza vita. (Naples: Bulifonianis, 1679) Biblioteca della Pontificia Università Gregonana

Pozzo, Andrea. Perspectiva pictonrm et architectorum Andrea Putei.. .pars prima ; Latin and Italian. (Rome: J. J. Komarek, 1693 & 1700) volume also containing Perspettiva de pittori e architetti duAndrea Pozzo.. .parte seconda; ltalian and French. (Rome: Gio. Giocomo Komarek, 1700) Biblioteca della Pontificia Università Gregoriana

Pouo, Andrea. Rules and Exampies of Perspective proper for Painters and Architects.. . ; Latin and English. John James of Greenwwich, trans. (London: John Sturt, ca. 1707) McGill University McLennan- Redpath Library

Pozzo, Andrea. Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum ...p ars prima ... ; Latin and Italian. (Rome: Joannis Zempel Austriaci, 1741) Wesleyan University Library

Pozzo, Andrea. Perspectiva pictorum et architectomrn.. .pars secunda.. . ; Latin and Italian. (Rome: Antonio detRossi, 1737) Wesleyan University Library

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