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Asthma Pathophysiology by Armando Hasudungan Here is a transcription of the narration by Armando and his accompanying drawings. Figure 1: Human respiratory tract and asthma definitions. In this video we are going to talk about asthma, so here I am drawing the human respiratory tract. Asthma is defined as a chronic inflammation disorder of the airways. Asthma can be divided as either atopic or nonatopic. Atopic asthma is described as extrinsic asthma, meaning it is triggered by environmental factors and this type of asthma is the most common. Atopic asthma involves inflammation media by systemic IgE production. Non atopic is an intrinsic asthma and this is far less common. This refers to an intrinsic asthma that is not caused by exposure to an environmental factor (an allergen). Inflammaton is mediated by local IgE production. (Figure 1).

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Asthma  Pathophysiology  by  Armando  Hasudungan  Here  is  a  transcription  of  the  narration  by  Armando  and  his  accompanying  drawings.        

   Figure  1:  Human  respiratory  tract  and  asthma  definitions.      In  this  video  we  are  going  to  talk  about  asthma,  so  here  I  am  drawing  the  human  respiratory  tract.    Asthma  is  defined  as  a  chronic  inflammation  disorder  of  the  airways.  Asthma  can  be  divided  as  either  atopic  or  non-­‐atopic.  Atopic  asthma  is  described  as  extrinsic  asthma,  meaning  it  is  triggered  by  environmental  factors  and  this  type  of  asthma  is  the  most  common.  Atopic  asthma  involves  inflammation  media  by  systemic  IgE  production.    Non  atopic  is  an  intrinsic  asthma  and  this  is  far  less  common.  This  refers  to  an  intrinsic  asthma  that  is  not  caused  by  exposure  to  an  environmental  factor  (an  allergen).  Inflammaton  is  mediated  by  local  IgE  production.  (Figure  1).                              

 

   Figure  2:  Cross-­‐section  and  histological  representation  of  the  normal  lung.      So  let’s  look  at  a  cross-­‐section  through  a  normal  lung.  Here  we  have  the  mucus  layer,  we  have  pseudostratified  endothelial  cells,  we  have  the  lamina  propria  and  the  smooth  muscles  surrounding  all  of  this.    If  we  were  to  look  at  an  asthmatic  bronchiole,  the  lumen  (the  inside)  would  be  seen  to  be  much  narrower.  But  before  we  focus  on  the  asthmatic  bronchiole,  what  do  the  normal  histological  layers  look  like?  We  have  a  mucus  layer  and  the  pseudostratified  columnar  epithelial  cells.  Below  this  we  have  a  basement  membrane,  and  within  the  epithelial  layer  we  can  find  goblet  cells  that  are  responsible  for  secreting  mucus  into  the  lumen.  Below  the  epithelium  we  have  the  lamina  propria  which  contains  the  main  cells  including  macrophages  and  mast  cells.  Mast  cells  are  responsible  for  secreting  histamine.  Below  the  LP  we  have  the  smooth  muscle.  (Figure  2).                

   Figure  3:  Asthmatic  bronchiole.    If  we  were  to  compare  the  normal  bronchiole  with  the  asthmatic  bronchiole  we  would  see  many  differences.  Firstly  we  would  see  an  increase  in  in  mucus  production,  so  there  is  an  increase  in  goblet  cells.  Also  there  is  an  increase  in  eosinophils  in  the  mucus  and  tissue.  Here  we  have  the  pseudostratified  columnar  epithelial  cells  and  below  it  the  basement  membrane  thickens.  Within  the  lamina  propria  we  see  an  increase  in  mast  cell  numbers  so  we  get  an  increase  in  histamine  release.  We  also  get  an  increase  in  neutrophils  and  T  helper  cells.  We  see  smooth  muscle  hypertrophy  which  means  an  increase  in  smooth  muscle  size,  and  this  is  due  to  an  increase  in  constriction.  (Figure  3).        

     Figure  4A  (left)  –  three  main  characteristics  of  asthma,  and  4B  (right)  –  main  symptoms.    Because  of  all  these  changes  there  are  three  characteristics  of  asthma.  These  are  airflow  obstruction,  bronchiole  hyper-­‐responsiveness  because  of  histamine  release,  and  inflammation  due  to  the  increased  release  of  neutrophils  and  other  immune  cells  to  the  area.  Symptoms  of  asthma  include  shortness  of  breath  therefore,  wheeze,  chest  tightness  and  dry  irritating  cough.  (Figures  4A  and  4B).  

 Figure  5:  Pathophysiology  of  asthma.    So  now  that  we  have  identified  some  changes  that  occur  in  an  asthmatic  bronchiole,  let  us  look  at  the  pathophysiology.  Let’s  look  at  some  players  in  the  pathophysiology.  The  main  one  is  IgE  antibodies.  This  are  important  because  they  bind  to  receptors  on  mast  cells  forming  a  mast  cell-­‐IgE  complex.  The  complex  will  recognise  antigens  and  start  releasing  histamine.  Other  players  include  eosinophils,  dendritic  cells  and  T  helper  cells.  There  are  2  types  of  T  helper  cells,  Th1  and  Th2.  In  the  lungs  Th1  are  usually  found,  but  in  asthma  there  is  an  imbalance,  and  Th2  cells  that  are  not  normally  found  in  the  lungs  are  up-­‐regulated  in  asthma.  So  we  have  more  Th2  cells  in  the  lungs  of  asthmatics.    Th1  usually  promotes  inflammation  by  increasing  cell-­‐mediated  immunity,  but  Th2  promotes  inflammation  by  increasing  the  humoral  immunity,  promoting  antibody  production,  so  I  hope  you  can  see  how  this  correlates.  (Figure  5).    

   Figure  6.    Pathogenesis  of  atopic  asthma.    By  putting  these  cells  together  we  can  do  a  diagram  focusing  on  the  pathogenesis  of  atopic  asthma.  We  have  the  pseudostratified  columnar  epithelial  cells  and  goblet  cells  secreting  mucus  into  the  lumen.  Below  the  pseudostratified  columnar  cells  we  have  the  lamina  propria  where  we  have  the  mast  cells  and  dendritic  cells  and  macrophages.    Let’s  say  the  asthmatic  inhales  an  allergen  and  this  allergen  will  trigger  a  reaction.  The  allergen  will  be  engulfed  by  dendritic  cells  and  then  activate  the  dendritic  cells.  The  columnar  epithelial  cells  recognise  this  and  secrete  a  substance  called  thymic-­‐stromal  lymphocyte  (TSL).  TSL  will  condition  activated  dendritic  cells  to  produce  chemokines  to  attract  specifically  Th2  cells;  the  activated  dendritic  cell  itself  activates  the  T  helper  cells  to  differentiate  to  Th2  and  secrete  chemokines  to  attract  Th2  to  the  lungs  and  bronchioles.    The  activated  T  helper  2  cells  do  several  things.  Firstly  the  Th2  role  is  to  promote  humoral  immunity  so  will  stimulate  plasma  cells  thru  IL13  and  Il4  and  this  will  promote  IgE  production  by  the  plasma  cells.      IgE  will  help  bind  to  mast  cells  to  create  the  IgE-­‐mast  cell  complex.  Th2  itself  via  IL9  will  stimulate  or  promote  mast  cell  activity.  Another  important  activity  of  Th2  cells  is  to  stimulate  eosinophil  production  from  the  bone  marrow  via  IL5,  so  you  get  more  eosinophils,  and  there  is  a  chemotactic  response  occurring  to  attract  the  eosinophils  to  the  lungs,  so  we  have  increased  eosinophil  amounts  in  the  lungs.    The  inhaled  allergen  will  bind  to  IgE-­‐mast  cell  complex  causing  it  to  release  histamine,  prostaglandins  and  leukotrienes.  All  of  this  will  stimulate  smooth  muscle  in  the  airways  to  constrict,  so  we  get  bronchiole  constriction.  There  is  also  a  release  of  stem  cell  factors  to  maintain  mast  cells  in  the  area.    

So  if  there  is  IgE  being  produced,  essentially  memory,  whenever  the  same  type  of  allergen  is  inhaled  again  we  get  the  whole  process  reoccurring.  (Figure  6).      That  is  the  end  of  the  learning  material  relating  to  the  pathogenesis  of  asthma.                NOTE  Asthma  Pathophysiology  by  Armando  Hasudungan    For  students  studying  biomedical  science  at  UWE  it  is  noted  that  this  video  was  randomly  selected  from  YouTube  for  the  purposes  of  this  research,  and  that  UWE  would  not  necessarily  endorse  the  quality  of  it.    It  is  published  under  a  Standard  YouTube  License  and  we  are  reproducing  it  here  solely  for  research  purposes.