Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon PoetryPoetry

What to FORGETWhat to FORGET

• Forget that you “read” poetryForget that you “read” poetry

• Anglo-Saxon audiences listened to a bard Anglo-Saxon audiences listened to a bard (or scop) recite or sing the poetry. Anglo-(or scop) recite or sing the poetry. Anglo-Saxon poetry was oral/aural. Saxon poetry was oral/aural.

• Forget that “nations” are rather large Forget that “nations” are rather large entities now. entities now.

• Anglo-Saxon world was tribalAnglo-Saxon world was tribal

• Different way of seeing where they lived; Different way of seeing where they lived; different “laws” and ways of lifedifferent “laws” and ways of life

The Basic RulesThe Basic Rules•Alliteration: central organizing Alliteration: central organizing

poetic device in Anglo-Saxon poetic device in Anglo-Saxon poetrypoetry

•The basic formal unit in A-S The basic formal unit in A-S poetry is the single line, not a poetry is the single line, not a stanza or a couple of lines stanza or a couple of lines (couplets, quatrains, etc.). (couplets, quatrains, etc.).

AlliterationAlliteration• Alliteration is “The repetition of Alliteration is “The repetition of

consonant sounds in words that are consonant sounds in words that are close to one another” (Elements close to one another” (Elements 1259). 1259).

• It is the use of words with similar It is the use of words with similar sounding beginnings (Great, big gobs sounding beginnings (Great, big gobs of greasy, grimy, gopher guts . . . ) of greasy, grimy, gopher guts . . . )

• Alliteration linked the two halves of a Alliteration linked the two halves of a line of poetry. The line was divided line of poetry. The line was divided by a caesura, which is . . . by a caesura, which is . . .

CaesuraCaesura• . . . Caesura is “A pause or break within a line . . . Caesura is “A pause or break within a line

of poetry, usually dictated by the natural of poetry, usually dictated by the natural rhythm of language” (Elements 1260). rhythm of language” (Elements 1260).

• In Anglo-Saxon, the Caesura occurs in the In Anglo-Saxon, the Caesura occurs in the middle of the line. middle of the line.

• Words in one half of the line were stressed Words in one half of the line were stressed one way, while words in the second half could one way, while words in the second half could be stressed another.be stressed another.

• The stresses, the alliteration, and the caesura The stresses, the alliteration, and the caesura are tied together in a rather complex way . . . are tied together in a rather complex way . . .

An Example:An Example:• The best way to understand Anglo-Saxon poetry The best way to understand Anglo-Saxon poetry

is to see an example:is to see an example:

Alliteration of /sc/ sounds; further alliteration in Alliteration of /sc/ sounds; further alliteration in /b/ sound/b/ sound

““Oft Scyld Scefing sceaOft Scyld Scefing sceaÞÞena ena ÞÞreatum”reatum”

Stresses in first half Stresses in second halfStresses in first half Stresses in second half

CaesuraCaesura

This is the fourth line of This is the fourth line of BeowulfBeowulf..

KenningsKennings• Simple definition: A kenning is a compound Simple definition: A kenning is a compound

wordword• More precise definition (from More precise definition (from ElementsElements):):

– ““The Kenning, a specialized metaphor made of The Kenning, a specialized metaphor made of compound words, is unique to the Old Germanic compound words, is unique to the Old Germanic languages, and is especially prominent in Old languages, and is especially prominent in Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon literature. Norse and Anglo-Saxon literature.

– The earliest and simplest kennings are compound The earliest and simplest kennings are compound words formed of two common nouns: “sky-candle” words formed of two common nouns: “sky-candle” for the sun, “battle-dew” for blood, and “whale-for the sun, “battle-dew” for blood, and “whale-road” for the sea.road” for the sea.

– Later, kennings grew more elaborate, and Later, kennings grew more elaborate, and compound adjectives joined the compound nouns. compound adjectives joined the compound nouns. A ship became a “foamy-throated ship,” then a A ship became a “foamy-throated ship,” then a “foamy-throated sea-stallion,” and finally a “foamy-throated sea-stallion,” and finally a “foamy-throated stallion of the whale-road’” (40).“foamy-throated stallion of the whale-road’” (40).

Why did poets use Why did poets use kennings?kennings?

• ““Scholars believe that kennings filled Scholars believe that kennings filled three needs for these early bards:” three needs for these early bards:” (Elements 40)(Elements 40)

1.1. Alliteration’s centrality to the poetry Alliteration’s centrality to the poetry creates a need for words with certain creates a need for words with certain sounds, so the bards created new sounds, so the bards created new words words

2.2. Bards needed to memorize the poetry Bards needed to memorize the poetry (remember, it was oral/aural), and (remember, it was oral/aural), and kennings helped them remember parts kennings helped them remember parts of the poemof the poem

3.3. Audiences would have liked the Audiences would have liked the “elaborate” coining of the phrases.“elaborate” coining of the phrases.

ToneTone• You will notice that the tone of Beowulf You will notice that the tone of Beowulf

is somber, or dark. There are a few is somber, or dark. There are a few reasons for this (my own reasoning):reasons for this (my own reasoning):– The poet is reminiscing about “the good ol’ The poet is reminiscing about “the good ol’

days” and the code of honor which is dyingdays” and the code of honor which is dying– The poem itself is about loss—loss of The poem itself is about loss—loss of

innocence, loss of life, loss of one’s lords, innocence, loss of life, loss of one’s lords, friends, etc. It is about loss through death.friends, etc. It is about loss through death.

– The peoples in the poem lived in constant The peoples in the poem lived in constant fear of the elements and their human fear of the elements and their human predatorspredators

The Use of DigressionsThe Use of Digressions• The term “digression” has a rather The term “digression” has a rather

negative connotation, but as Seamus negative connotation, but as Seamus Heaney argues, when the Beowulf poet Heaney argues, when the Beowulf poet gets off topic (off of the central story-line), gets off topic (off of the central story-line), it appears almost always to be for a very it appears almost always to be for a very good reason. good reason.

• Ultimately, the poem is very complex, and Ultimately, the poem is very complex, and certainly not “rambling,” or as we say certainly not “rambling,” or as we say today, “random.” The digressions almost today, “random.” The digressions almost always shed light on the characters, their always shed light on the characters, their actions, and the Anglo-Saxon & actions, and the Anglo-Saxon & Scandinavian worlds. Scandinavian worlds.

The Major DigressionsThe Major Digressions• Apart from minor moves in and out of the Apart from minor moves in and out of the

central story line, there are two major central story line, there are two major digressions. Each is an example of a digressions. Each is an example of a story-within-a-story (in this case, a song story-within-a-story (in this case, a song within a song):within a song):

1.1. 883-914: the story of Siegemund’s victory 883-914: the story of Siegemund’s victory over a dragonover a dragon

2.2. 1070-1158: “The Finnsburg Episode”1070-1158: “The Finnsburg Episode”

• There are other digressions, too:There are other digressions, too:– Unferth’s challenge (Unferth tells one version Unferth’s challenge (Unferth tells one version

of the story (brief and defamatory), and of the story (brief and defamatory), and Beowulf tells another (honorable)Beowulf tells another (honorable)

Other Minor Literary/Poetic Other Minor Literary/Poetic Devices Used in Devices Used in BeowulfBeowulf

• Synecdoche: a part used for the wholeSynecdoche: a part used for the whole– Keel used for shipKeel used for ship– Iron used for swordIron used for sword

• Variation: the use of parallel and appositive Variation: the use of parallel and appositive expressions which gives the verse a highly expressions which gives the verse a highly structured and musical quality (structured and musical quality (NortonNorton Introduction Introduction 6) 6)

• Irony: achieved through indirection, sometimes Irony: achieved through indirection, sometimes understatement (litotes = a classical rhetorical understatement (litotes = a classical rhetorical term which means “ironic understatement”). Irony term which means “ironic understatement”). Irony is not just used as a figure of speech, it is used as a is not just used as a figure of speech, it is used as a mode of perception (Beowulf when young mode of perception (Beowulf when young contrasted with older Hrothgar and even older contrasted with older Hrothgar and even older version of Beowulf) (version of Beowulf) (NortonNorton Intro. 6) Intro. 6)

Review of Important TermsReview of Important Terms

• Alliteration (the most important Alliteration (the most important term)term)

• CaesuraCaesura

• KenningKenning

• ToneTone

• Digression Digression

• Story-within-a-storyStory-within-a-story

BibliographyBibliography

• Abrams, M. H., and Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. Abrams, M. H., and Stephen Greenblatt, Eds. Introduction. Introduction. The Norton Anthology of English The Norton Anthology of English LiteratureLiterature, seventh ed., vol. 1. New York: W.W. , seventh ed., vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. 1-22, 29-32. Norton, 2000. 1-22, 29-32.

• Anderson, Robert, et al. Eds. Anderson, Robert, et al. Eds. Elements of LiteratureElements of Literature, , Sixth Course, Literature of Britain. Austin: Holt, Sixth Course, Literature of Britain. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1993. 2-42. Rinehart and Winston, 1993. 2-42.

• Burrow, J. A. “Old and Middle English Literature, c. Burrow, J. A. “Old and Middle English Literature, c. 700-1485.” 700-1485.” The Oxford Illustrated History of English The Oxford Illustrated History of English LiteratureLiterature. Ed. Pat Rogers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1987.. Ed. Pat Rogers. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1987.

• Heaney, Seamus. Introduction. Heaney, Seamus. Introduction. BeowulfBeowulf. Trans. . Trans. Seamus Heaney. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Seamus Heaney. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2000. ix-xxx.2000. ix-xxx.