animal behavior consulting: theory and practice: spring 2007

Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and PracticeSpring 2007

Animal Behavior

Consulting:

Theory and Practice

Vol. 3, No. 1Spring 2007

A publication of The International Association

of Animal Behavior Consultants


Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice

Vol. 3, No. 1 Spring 2007

PresidentLynn Hoover, LSW, CDBC

EditorsBeth Adelman, MS, CABC

Mychelle Blake, MSW, CDBC

Journal Review Board

Susan Bulanda, MAT, CDBC

Mary Burch, PhD, CABC

Linda Case, MS, CABC

Steve Dale, CABC

Ian Dunbar, PhD, DVM, CABC

Lynn Hoover, MSW, CDBC

Pam Johnson-Bennett, CABC

Sue Kapla, PhD, CABC

Myrna Milani, DVM, CABC

James O'Heare, CDBC

Joanne Oliva-Purdy, PhD, CABC

Merope Pavlides, PhD, MEd

Valerie Pollard, CDBC

Veronica Sanchez, MEd, CABC

Dani Weinberg, CDBC

Liz Wilson, CVT, CPBC

The International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants

The International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants, Inc. is a professional association for the field of animal behavior consulting. The association represents the professional interests of behavior consultants throughout the world. It is involved with the problems, needs, and changing patterns of animal-owner relationships, and helps to ensure that the public’s needs are met by trained practitioners. The association provides the tools and resources animal behavior professionals need to succeed. It works tirelessly to nourish the animal-human bond.

The association’s members meet rigorous standards for education and training and are held to the highest ethical standards of the profession. Clinical members qualify as Certified Animal Behavior Consultants (CABC). They work with multiple species, including dogs, cats, horses, birds, and other animals. They have met the highest standards of the profession for education and clinical experience. Associate members are consultants in clinical practice, on the path to Clinical membership. The IAABC facilitates research, theory development, and education. It develops standards for education and training, professional ethics, and the clinical practice of animal behavior consulting. Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice is the professional journal of the IAABC and is published semi-annually. All published work contained within is copyright 2007 The International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants, unless otherwise indicated.


Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice is published in accordance with the purposes of the sponsoring organization, the International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants, Inc. (IAABC). The IAABC Mission is to assist and educate owners and handlers of companion animals to prevent problems and to interrupt the cycle of inappropriate punishment, rejection, and euthanasia of animals with behavior problems that are resolvable. This mission is accomplished by providing state-of-the-art education and training to animal behavior professionals, so they can analyze, predict and resolve problem behaviors, and by advocating and promoting humane intervention.

The IAABC Journal accepts articles on the following topics:

• Case studies

• Research reviews and studies

• Animal behavior consulting practice

• Book and DVD/video reviews

• Essays

Articles are selected on the basis of appropriateness, clarity, significance, timeliness, and contribution to the field of animal behavior consulting. Authors need not be members of the IAABC to submit manuscripts. No remuneration is paid for accepted manuscripts.

Business matters are handled by IAABC’s business office. Inquiries should be addressed to IAABC, 505 Timber Lane, Jefferson Hills, PA 15025. Phone: (412) 384-2677, or e-mail [email protected].

Copyright on all materials published in Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice is held by the authors. Permission to reproduce such copyrighted materials must be obtained through IAABC and the authors. Requests can be made by emailing [email protected]. No portion of an article may be reproduced without permission in writing. Reprint orders for individual articles are handled by the IAABC business office. If the manuscript contains more than 100 words of material previously published elsewhere, the authors must obtain written permission from the copyright holder to include this material in publication of their manuscript in Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice. Any costs associated with obtaining this permission are the responsibility of the author or authors.

Manuscripts should be submitted to [email protected] by electronic submission. Microsoft Word or RTF files are the preferred format.

Manuscripts are accepted for consideration with the understanding that they have not been published previously and are not being considered simultaneously for publication elsewhere. The right to reject any manuscript or return it to the author for format, style, or other revisions before accepting it for publication is reserved by the editor-in-chief. Submission of a manuscript by the author(s) assumes acceptance of editing by the Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice editorial staff.

Please submit with your article

• highest earned degree(s).

• professional certifications (e.g. CPDT, CDBC).

• current professional or departmental affiliation if applicable, and location.

• any changes in affiliation subsequent to the time of the study if this is a research submission.

• previous presentations of the paper, grants, or thanks and acknowledgments.

Submission Guidelines


• contact information including e-mail.

Citations

The guide for citation style is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). This guide can be obtained from the Order Department, American Psychological Association, PO Box 92984, Washington, DC 20090. The guide can also be ordered on the American Psychological Association’s Web site, www.apastyle.org/pubmanual.html. A more detailed description of citation style and formatting can be obtained from the editors.

PLEASE NOTE: Articles with incorrectly formatted references will be returned to the author for corrections.

A note regarding terminology: There is controversy, frequently quite heated, over whether a person who keeps a companion or service animal should be called that animal’s “owner” or its “guardian.” Because usage here often reflects a writer’s strongly held ethical beliefs and political opinions, to impose another term may effectively misrepresent his or her point of view. The editors of Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice have concluded that it is best to let each writer make the choice of terminology. Therefore, the use of terminology regarding animal ownership or guardianship is a reflection of the author or authors’ own beliefs and not necessarily a reflection of the beliefs of the editors or the IAABC. We ask our readers and members to bear in mind that whatever our differences in this respect, we are united in our goal of working with animals and people in the most scientific and compassionate way possible.

If you wish to submit photos with your article, they must be in 200 dpi or higher resolution.

Submission Guidelines


Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice

Vol. 3, No. 1 Spring 2007

Table of ContentsPresident’s Message .................................................................................................... 6

The IAABC Board of Directors and IAABC Divisions .......................................................... 7

Association & Member News ......................................................................................... 8

IAABC in the News ...................................................................................................... 9

IAABC Commitees ...................................................................................................... 10

IAABC Statement on Core Areas of Competency ............................................................. 11

IAABC Vision and Mission Statements and Core Values .................................................... 14

Professional Relations Strategy Group ........................................................................... 15

Bengal Cats: A Study in Behavior ................................................................................. 16 Marilyn Krieger, CABC

Electronic Training Devices: A Review of Current Literature .............................................. 22 Jo Jacques, CPDT, CPCT and Sandy Myers, CDBC

Extinction of a Disruptive Behavior in a Learning Challenged Domestic Cat: A Case Study .... 40 Jennifer LeBaron Michels, CABC

Case Study: Cat Meets Dog - Bringing Magic Home ......................................................... 48 Amy D. Shojai, CABC

Protocol for Relaxation in Equines ................................................................................. 55 Connie Dwyer, MS, CABC, CPDT and Debbie Strother, MS, BCBA, CABC

Book Review: Help for Your Fearful Dog by Nicole Wilde ................................................... 59 Reviewed by Valerie Pollard

Letters to the Editor may be sent to [email protected].


Message From the Presidentby Lynn D. Hoover, LSW, CDBC

“There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncer-tain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.”

~ The Prince by Machiavelli

Three and a half years ago, we set out to establish the profession of animal behavior consulting. While we appreciate the contributions of the allied professions and wish them well, we carved out an original path for the IAABC. Animal behavior consultants have a unique knowledge, skill, and ethics base, and provide an incomparable service.

The IAABC is on track for a newly emerging profession. IAABCs Commission on Standards is mid-stream in a seven-year plan to meet real-time needs in the communities where companion animals with issues live. We are past the grandfathering period with certification and the process is complicated, thorough, not easily understood. Standards reviewers get to know applicants over time, and with input from applicants, discern areas of competency and areas for growth. The purpose of the certification process is to enhance learning throughout. A tremendous amount of reviewer and applicant energy is being devoted to establishing plans with provisions that must be met for certification.

Certification is evolving. The Standards Exam Commission is chaired by Dr. Lore Haug, with Leslie McDevitt, Carol Stewart, Barbara Davis, Elise Gouge, and Lee Livingood. They defined beautifully the core areas of competency and will bring us objective testing as an added and, eventually, the primary measure of competency.

We recently formed the Professional Relations Strategy Group with a powerhouse group to work through conceptual issues and advocate for our profession: Jim Barry, Dr. Mary Burch, Elisabeth Catalano, Kathie Compton, Cassia Drake, Dr. Ian Dunbar, Nancy Frensley, Lynn Hoover, Pam Johnson-Bennett, Mira Jones, Niki Lamproplos, Trish McMillan, Dan McNally, James O’Heare, Valerie Pollard, Dr. Sarah Richardson, Stephen Robinson, Veronica Sanchez, Jeff Silverman, Debbie Strother, Janice Triptow, Tom Van Winkle, and Janet Velenovsky. In addition, a high percentage of the membership is involved in supporting the profession and advancing the IAABC mission.

In sum, we can hold our heads high. Life’s work here is being well done. We will spend more time in 2007 educating members about terminology, boundary issues with the allied professions, and what members can do to promote animal behavior consulting and the IAABC. Of course, we speak best for our profession when we handle consulting with excellence that leads to improvements in conditions for animals.

I look forward to meeting many IAABC members at IAABC’s April conference in Cleveland. I wish you could all celebrate with us. We will post pictures for those who could not attend.

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THE IAABC BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Lynn HooverPresident

Pam Johnson-BennettVice President

Veronica SanchezVice President

Debbie WinklerVice President

Liz WilsonTreasurer

Beth AdelmanMember

Chris BachMember

Chris HamerMember

Mira JonesMember

Debbie StrotherMember

IAABC DIVISONS

Cat Behavior Consulting DivisionPam Johnson-Bennett, Chair & Founder; Beth Adelman, Steve Dale, Marilyn Krieger

Dog Behavior Consulting DivisionLynn Hoover, Chair; Jim Barry, Tutorial

Horse Behavior Consulting DivisionDebbie Strother, Chair; Melinda Berger, Connie Dwyer, Co-Chairs;

Lauren Berrouard, Coordinator Student Affiliate Program; Nikki Dwyer, Associate Coordinator Student Affiliate Program

Human-Animal Mutualism Division Veronica Sanchez, Chair & Founder; Darlene Arden, Nina Bondarenko, Susan Bulanda, Christy Hill, Tara McLaughlin,

Jane Miller, Robin Pool, Janet Velenovsky,

Parrot Behavior Consulting Division Liz Wilson, Chair & Founder; Bonnie Kenk, Karen Webster


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Association and Member News

The Cat Division has a new book discussion group. The discussion is held via teleconference. Participation in the book discussion group enables a member to earn CEUs. Members who want more information can e-mail Pam Johnson-Bennett (Cat Division Chair) at [email protected].

Pam Johnson-Bennett, CABC, has a new book coming out in November, 2007. The title is Starting From Scratch: How to Correct Behavior Problems in Your Adult Cat. The publisher is Viking/Penguin.

Member Elise Gouge, along with trainer Alyssa B. Ward, have created a directory listing local pet care providers in the Pioneer Valley of Massachusetts. The directory includes veterinarians, trainers, groomers, doggie daycares, kennels, pet sitters and dog walkers. All providers have been evaluated to ensure that they offer progressive, high-quality services for pet owners. It can be viewed on line through www.petbehaviorsconsulting.com and www.friendlypettraining.com.

Darlene Arden, CABC, has a new book to be released in June, 2007. Rover, Get Off Her Leg! is published by H.C.I. Arden describes the book as “a behavior book with a warped sense of humor. I identify behavior problems, what to do, and what not to do. Along the way are real anecdotes with the names changed in most cases to protect the guilty. The information is solid, but it’s intended to make the pet owner not feel so ‘alone,’ because the same thing or worse has probably happened to someone else.” Arden will be at Book Expo America at the Jacob Javits Center the first week in June to sign books. Says Arden, “It was a tremendous honor to have my publisher invite me to be part of this prestigious book event. And, yes, IAABC is certainly mentioned in the book!”

Aggressive Behavior in Dogs by James O’Heare, released in March 2007, is a comprehensive technical manual written for professional dog behavior consultants. It discusses understanding aggressive behavior in dogs, functionally assessing the behavior, and constructing systematic behavior change programs, as well as consulting skills and case management. See www.dogpsych.com for details.

Cynology College has changed its name. It is now The Companion Animal Sciences Institute and can be found at www.CompanionAnimalSciencesInstitute.com. The change reflects expansion of the coursework into other species, such as parrots and cats, as well as in fitness and nutrition.

Jim Barry and Susan Smith, together with co-author Mary Emmen, have published Positive Gun Dogs: Clicker Training for Sporting Breeds. Positive Gun Dogs is the first book published in the United States on positive training for field sports. It is available from Karen Pryor’s Sunshine Books at www.clickertraining.com/store/?item=pogundo.

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Member & Association News

IAABC in the News“Kids and Dogs: A Cautionary Tail,” by Veronica Sanchez, Chair of IAABCs Human-Animal

Mutualism division, was published in the March 2007 issue of Washington Parent. http://www.washingtonparent.com/articles/0703/dogs.html.

IAABC President Lynn Hoover’s letter is being published in response to the In Brief: Practice and Procedure, in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Jan./Feb., Vol 2, No. 1, “The role and limitations of trainers in behavior treatment and therapy,” by Andrew U. Luescher PhD, DACVB, DECVBM-CA, Gerrard Flannigan DVM, MSc, DACVB, Diane Frank DVM, DACVB, and Petra Mertens FTAV, CAAB, DECVBM-CA, DACVB. The IAABC’s statement on the profession of animal behavior consulting will be published in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior, March/ April, Vol. 2, No 2, www.journalvetbehavior.com. Hoover’s letter is also posted on the IAABC web site, http://www.iaabc.org/JVetBeh.htm.

An article and audio an interview Steve Dale, CABC, did with Cesar Millan, with IAABC President Lynn Hoover contributing, can be found at http://www.stevedalepetworld.com.

Cassia Drake, MA, CDBC, CPDT, has accepted a part-time fellowship with the Center to Study Human-Animal Relationships and Environments at the University of Minnesota. She will be evaluating and analyzing current literature on the human-animal bond and preparing educational materials based on those findings.

Leslie McDevitt's book, Control Unleashed: Creating a Focused and Confident Dog, will be available the first week of June 2007. The book contains a program designed to help reactive or easily stressed or distracted dogs learn to focus, relax around their "triggers," and reliably work off lead in challenging environments, such as agility trials. It will be published by Clean Run Press, and includes a foreword by Sue Sternberg.

Bonsai Birds is pleased to announce that you can shop online in our web store to support our efforts to start a nonprofit organization for parrot rescues, re-homing, and educational materials for aviancare-givers. All sales generated through our web site and in our actual store go towards these efforts. Our mission statement is, "Striving for optimum avian care through education, outreach and experience,” and we need your help to reach these big goals and dreams for the birds! All of our products are approved bird-safe by Dr. Greg Burkett, Diplomate of the American Board of Veterinary Practitioners in Avian Practice. We do the best that we can to keep our pricing competitive and your IAABC membership get you a discount on all of your purchases! Don't forget to check out Ann Castro's “The bird school: Clicker training for parrots and other birds.” Contact us through our web site for more information: www.BonsaiBirds.com.

Mira Jones and the TailLights crew have recently relocated from Texas to the Upstate of South Carolina.

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IAABC COMMITTEES

Certification Exam CommitteeLore Haug, Chair; Leslie McDevitt, Barbara Davis, Elise Gouge, Carol Stewart, Lee Livingood

Consultant for Feline Behavior Consulting Education Pam Johnson-Bennett

Editorial & Journal Review Board Mychelle Blake, Beth Adelman, Editors; Susan Bulanda, Mary Burch, Linda Case, Steve Dale,

Ian Dunbar, Lynn Hoover, Pam Johnson-Bennett, Sue Kapla, Myrna Milani, James O'HeareJoanne Oliva-Purdy, Merope Pavlides, Valerie Pollard, Veronica Sanchez, Dani Weinberg, Liz Wilson

Education CommitteeChris Hamer, Sylvia Koczerzuk

Ethics CommitteeMichael Burkey, Chair; Carolyn DiFiore, Niki Lamprolos, Angie Neal

Members Assisting with Standards, Criteria, and Consultant Education Jim Barry, Patricia Bentz, Mychelle Blake, Mary Burch, Kathie Compton, Barbara Davis, Michelle Douglas, Anne Ferry, Elise Gouge, Lore Haug, Lynn Hoover, Pam Johnson-Bennett, Mira Jones, Bonnie Kenk, Marilyn Krieger, Pam Kundro,

Lee Livingood, Lorraine Martinez, Leslie McDevitt, Lisa Mullinax, Susan Pfadt, Valerie Pollard, Kelly Ryan, Pia Silvani, Carol Stewart, Dani Weinberg, Liz Wilson, Debbie Winkler

Membership CommitteeMira Jones, Chair; Kathie Compton

Panel Discussions Committee (Ad Hoc)Chris Bach, Jim Barry, Mychelle Blake, Cindy Bruckart, Connie Dwyer, Obi Fox, Nancy Frensley, Lynn Hoover,

Eve Marschark, Leslie McDevitt, Chris Redenbach, Morgan Spector

Professional Relations Strategy GroupLynn Hoover, Chair; Jim Barry, Mary Burch, Elisabeth Catalano, Kathie Compton, Cassia Drake, Ian Dunbar,

Nancy Frensley, Pam Johnson-Bennett, Mira Jones, Niki Lamprolos, Trish McMillan, Dan McNally, James O'Heare, Valerie Pollard, Sarah Richardson, Stephen Robinson, Veronica Sanchez, Jeff Silverman, Debbie Strother,

Janice Triptow, Thomas Van Winkle, Janet Velenovsky

Publications Consultant Beth Adelman

Scientific Studies Committee Sandy Myers, Chair; Linda Case, Amy Cook, Barbara Davis, Jo Jacques Valerie Pollard, Daphne Robert-Hamilton,

Norine Twaddell, Thomas Van Winkle

Shelter Task Force Jenn Barg, Mary Burch, Vinny Catalano, Dee Ganley, Sarah Kalnajs, Jill Nugent, Pia Silvani, Sue Sternberg,

Kelsey Williams

Tutorials CommitteeJim Barry, Dog Division; Liz Wilson and Bonnie Kenk, Parrot Division;

Pam Johnson-Bennett and Marilyn Krieger, Cat Division; Connie Dwyer, Horse Division

Veterinary Newsletter CommitteeChris Redenbach, Chair; Marie Alonso, Patricia Bentz, Jamie Bozzi, Ann Castro, Steve Dale, Obi Fox, Lore Haug,

Pam Hogle, Cara Vacchiano

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IAABC Statement on Core Areas of Competency

I. ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

A. History Taking Skills And History Assessment

1. Eliciting accurate information

2. Interpretation of information provided

3. Assessing owner interpretation of behavioral issues

B. Behavior Problems

1. Separation related problems

2. Aggression

3. Problems related to social signaling

4. Sexual/reproductive

5. Maternal

6. Fears/phobias

7. Anxiety disorders

8. Repetitive behaviors

9. Unruliness

10. Vocalization

11. Ingestive disorders

12. Elimination disorders

13. Destructive behavior

C. Behavioral Observation Skills

1. Accurate observation and interpretation of behaviors demonstrated by the

animal

2. Ability to integrate information obtained by direct observation of the animal

and the humans involved

D. Integration of behavioral, historical, medical and physiologic data

E. Intervention Strategies

1. Management and safety interventions

2. Behavior modification protocols

3. Knowledge and appropriate use of training equipment

4. Ability to apply scientific learning theory principles to treatment strategies

F. Training Methods

1. Lure/reward

2. Shaping

3. Clicker training

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4. Prompting

5. Compulsion

G. General knowledge of psychopharmacological use

II. COUNSELING SKILLS AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS ASSESSMENT

A. Awareness of social structure and proximate environment on animal’s behavior

B. Ability to assess human attitudes and how these impact the animals behavior and

the outcome of the problem

C. Ability to asses family’s goals and discuss these in non-judgmental manner

D. Awareness of human personality types

E. Observation and interpretation of human behaviors

F. Awareness and ability to utilize human learning styles

G. Ability to develop solutions that function for all members involved

H. Ability to assist in counseling family members in conflict to arrive at a common goal

I. Awareness of ancillary support services

1. Veterinarian

2. Social services

3. Alternative practitioners

4. Psychological counseling

III. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE

A. Learning Theory

1. Operant conditioning

2. Classical conditioning

3. Desensitization, counterconditioning

4. Observational learning

5. Habituation, sensitization

6. Latent learning

7. Flooding

B. Evaluation of scientific information and data analysis

C. Use of scientific data to enhance understanding of behavioral systems

D. Ability to apply scientific data to behavior modification programs

E. Ability to collect and utilize data related to modification programs to monitor and

improve performance

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IV. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

A. Ethology

B. Communication behaviors

C. Genetics

D. Domestication and evolution

E. Wild ancestors and the implication for evaluating domestic animal behavior

F. Basic neuroanatomy and neurobiology (as relates to behavioral assessments)

G. Endocrinology and physiology

V. SPECIES SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE

A. General overview of gross anatomy

B. Physiology

C. Nutrition and diet

D. Exercise and housing requirements

E. Breed specific characteristics

F. Common health issues

G. Interpretation of body language

H. Developmental stages

IAABC Standards Exam Commission: Lore Haug, Chair; Carol Stewart, Leslie McDevitt, Barbara Davis, Elise Gouge, Lee Livingood

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VISION:

IAABC is dedicated to becoming the premier international organization that represents the animal behavior consulting profession and strengthens and enhances animal-human relationships throughout the world

MISSION:

The IAABC Mission is to assist and educate owners and handlers of companion animals to prevent problems and to interrupt the cycle of inappropriate punishment, rejection, and euthanasia of animals with behavior problems that are resolvable. This mission is accomplished by providing state-of-the-art education and training to animal behavior professionals, so they can analyze, predict and resolve problem behaviors, and by advocating and promoting humane intervention.

CORE VALUES:

Positive Regard: We believe that positive regard and respect for colleagues and clients are essential to advancing our profession and meeting the needs of animals with issues. As professionals, we are expected to treat others with respect, including those whose opinions and methodologies differ from our own.

Humane Practices: We support humane methods and embrace the LIMA principle (Least Intrusive and Minimally Aversive interventions). We advocate for companion animals but do not support extreme positions or welcome activism that causes harm.

Innovation: We believe in visionary thinking and progressive action to bring about positive change to animals and our profession. We will continually search for new ways to improve IAABCs efficiency and effectiveness so we can maximize its contribution to society. We support member creativity and innovation.

Collaboration: We value our members as our primary human resource and asset in achieving IAABCs Vision and Mission. As leaders, we recognize that cooperation and exchanges of usable information between animal behavior consultants, clients and the allied professions is essential to our success.

Integrity: As evidenced by the individual effort of each member to act as professionally, ethically, honestly and compassionately as possible under all circumstances.

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PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS STRATEGY GROUP

The purpose of the Professional Relations Strategy Group is to advance the profession of animal behavior consulting in communities throughout the world. Strategy group members write

and publish articles, educate members about terminology and professional issues, influence legislative trends and activities, define terms and professional boundaries, and develop

collaborative approaches to working with the allied professions.

Jim Barry

Dr. Mary Burch

Elisabeth Catalano

Kathie Compton

Cassia Drake

Dr. Ian Dunbar

Nancy Frensley

Lynn Hoover

Pam Johnson-Bennett

Mira Jones

Niki Lamproplos

Trish McMillan

Dan McNally

James O’Heare

Valerie Pollard

Dr. Sarah Richardson

Stephen Robinson

Veronica Sanchez

Jeff Silverman

Debbie Strother

Janice Triptow

Tom Van Winkle

Janet Velenovsky

Thank You!

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Bengal Cats: A Study in BehaviorMarilyn Krieger, CABC

Bengal Cats are unique. They differ from other domestic cats in many ways. These include their look, personality, intelligence, and activity levels. The origin of the Bengal Cat is different from other domestic cats because the breed was developed by crossing the Asian Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis)1, a small wild cat indigenous to Asia and parts of Russia, to a domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus). The domestic cat most commonly used in the development of the breed is the Egyptian Mau, and early on, the Domestic Shorthair. The result of this union is the Bengal Cat, a domestic cat who has a delightful personality and is extremely intelligent and affectionate.

The majority of Bengal Cats who are adopted or sold as companion animals are at least four generations away from the Asian Leopard Cat (ALC). The closer the Bengal is to the ALC, filially (F), the more ALC personality traits typically show up. Bengals who have a parent (F1), grandparent (F2), or great grandparent (F3) are considered Early Generation (EG) or Filial Bengals. Typically, Bengals who are in pet homes are four to seven generations away from the ALC.

Some media sources and individuals describe all generations of Bengals as wild, temperamental, untamable, and prone to behavior problems. This is simply not true. As with all breeds, there are many factors that can affect a cat’s behavior throughout her life. The way people interact with cats is one of the major factors that can influence a cat’s behavior. Having the genes of an ALC in the Bengal Cat lines doesn’t make them any more wild, or prone to behavior problems, than any other domestic cat breed.

The following four rescue groups were polled on how many cats were brought in to rescue for behavior problems in 2006: Great Lakes Bengal Rescue, Maine Coon Adoptions (California Chapter), Pennsylvania Manx Rescue and Southern California Abyssinian Rescue2. Each group was asked the following questions:

1. How many cats were brought in to the rescue group in 2006?

2. How many of those cats were brought in due to behavior issues?

3. How many of the cats with behavior issues were rehabilitated and rehomed?

4. How many were unable to be rehabilitated and rehomed due to behavior issues?

The results of the poll, illustrated in Table 1 (see page 21), indicate that Bengals surrendered to rescue groups are not more prone to behavior issues than are other breeds of cats. On the contrary, these statistics indicate that Bengal Cats may be less prone to behavior issues then some of the other breeds. (A more complete study would need to be conducted to confirm this.)

In order to understand the Bengal Cat’s uniqueness, it is important to become familiar with the Asian Leopard Cat. Please note that many of the comments in this paper concerning ALCs are based on observations of ALCs born in captivity. Some of these captive ALCs are extremely tame, having been bottle-fed and well-socialized since birth by their care providers. Most of these ALCs are currently being used in the development and refinement of the Bengal Cat breed.

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The ALC is a small, shy, non-aggressive cat who is both prey and predator. In their natural environment, they would rather flee from potential threats than fight. They are very agile and elusive and have adapted well to their environment. Being nimble jumpers and accomplished swimmers, they are comfortable high up in the treetops or swimming in a marsh.

Water serves many purposes in the life of an Asian Leopard Cat. In her natural environment, the ALC is very comfortable swimming and fishing in swamps, streams, and other bodies of water. It is not unusual for ALCs to dispose of their excrement in running water. One theory for this behavior is that the feces will be

washed downstream by the running water, thus hiding the ALC’s scent and location from large predators. Hiding their feces and urine scents also helps to ensure that their food sources will not be scared away by their excrement scent, because ALCs are also predators. In captivity, it is not uncommon to find ALCs eliminating in their water dishes and in sinks.

It is rare for later generation Bengals (those who are at least four generations away from the ALC), to urinate in their water dishes or in the sink. Inappropriate elimination challenges are typically caused by the same triggers as are found in other cat breeds: dirty boxes, not enough litter boxes, inappropriate litter box locations, too many cats, improper introductions, etc. Like other domestic cats, Bengals are easy to train/retrain to use the litter box. It is very important that their boxes are clean, uncovered, and in good permanent locations.

Some of the Early Generation (F1-F3) Bengals will eliminate in their water dish or in the bathtub or sink. One F1 Bengal owner shared that when he uses the bathroom, his F1 Bengal jumps in the bathtub, balances himself over the drain, and defecates. Other Early Generation Bengal owners observe that sometimes their F1s urinate in their water bowls. This behavior can be modified through simple changes in the environment, such as changing the location of the water bowls, or switching to a water dish that the cat can’t position himself over.

Water also provides a variety of functions in Bengals’ lives. Most Bengals, no matter how far removed they are from the ALC, love to play in water. Some will take showers or baths with their human companions, splashing around, chasing toys, and having a wonderful time. If given a choice, the majority of Bengals prefer to drink their water directly from a faucet or from a fountain with fresh filtered water.

Asian Leopard Cats in captivity have been observed to form strong pair bonds. In captivity, it is not uncommon for the ALC males to mate for life with one female. There are reports of male ALCs giving their food and sleeping areas to their females. One example of this relationship is Simon and Celeone. Simon and Celeone are a pair of bonded Asian Leopard Cats, owned by ALC breeder C. Griffiths. C. Griffiths described an incident where Celeone, the queen, stopped eating for no apparent reason that the veterinarians could determine. Simon joined her in her hunger strike. When Celeone finally started to eat, Simon, did also (personal communication, January 5, 2007). Additionally, there are

Bengal Cats: A Study in Behavior

Asian Leopard Cat (ALC) Felis bengalensis prionailurus. Photo: MKrieger

Bottle-fed ALC kitten using the dog’s water dish as a bathroom. Photo: Cocoaspride, C. Griffiths

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reports of captive males sharing the responsibility of rearing the cubs with the female to which they are bonded.

ALC breeders and owners C. Griffiths, G. Lush, M. Bloodgood, and J. Giacinto have all stated separately that the young hand-raised cubs love to be touched and groomed and are very affectionate with their human caregivers. It is common for the cubs to form strong bonds with one human caregiver—a bond that continues throughout their lives (personal communications, 2004-2007).

The Bengal tendency to strongly bond to their human companions can be traced back to the captive ALCs who have been used to develop the breed. This author has observed that the closer a well-socialized Early Generation Bengal is to the ALC, the stronger the bonds are with their caregiver. Some Early Generation Bengals form such strong bonds with their human companions that changing owners or homes can cause them to become depressed and then ill. Many stop eating in their depression. Because the Early Generation Bengals are so close to the ALC, they do not show that they are ill until they are very seriously ill. In 80%y percent of the cases that involve transitioning Early Generation Bengals to a different owner that this author has been involved, the cats have become very depressed and sick. Ten percent of those who became sick, unfortunately, died3.

Later generation well-socialized Bengals usually form very close bonds with their human companions. It is not uncommon for Bengals to follow their human companions around from room to room. Most need to be involved in many of the activities their favorite humans are involved with. Since Bengals are very socially motivated, leaving them alone every day for hours without a companion to interact with can lead to behavior challenges. Many Bengals are surrendered to rescue groups and shelters due to challenges that developed because they are left alone without companionship for hours, day after day.4

Generally speaking, Bengals do not do well when confined. This can be a serious, even life-threatening problem for Bengals who end up in shelters. Many shelters euthanize Bengals, labeling them as wild and unadoptable because they react badly when they are taken from the homes and family they have bonded to, and are then confined in small cages. Through the education and persistence of rescue groups, more shelters are contacting the appropriate Bengal rescue groups for help. Unfortunately, many Bengals, specifically the Early Generations, who end up in animal control shelters are euthanized needlessly.

Most Bengals do not like being confined in one room. Bengals want to be in the middle of everything, part of the family, always interacting with their special human companions. This is important to keep in mind when working with a Bengal with a behavior challenge. Sometimes the treatments that are used for resolving behavior challenges result in either escalating the behavior or creating another one.

Both captive and wild ALCs are very strong, muscular, and athletic cats who prefer surveying their world from the highest possible locations. Additionally, they are capable of jumping long distances in order to access high branches.

Bengals are very muscular, strong, and athletic, like the ALC. It is commonly said that Bengal Cats are at least twice as strong as other domestic cats. Most love being up high—the higher the better. Bengals also make good use of vertical territory. The majority of cats, regardless

ALC kitten being cuddled. Photo: Cocoaspride, C. Griffiths

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of breed, use vertical territory as a means to display their position in the animal hierarchy. For most cats, vertical territory also provides a sense of safety, giving them an opportunity to survey their territory and another way to locate a potentially tasty snack that was otherwise overlooked. What distinguishes a Bengal from other breeds of cats is that typically they perch higher and jump farther then most other cat breeds. It is not uncommon to find Bengals sitting on top of doors or perched on the tops of high cabinets. Bengals are very adept at scaling high walls and allegedly cat-proof fences.

Bengals are busy little cats with agendas. Like the ALC, Bengals are very smart, agile, and alert. They learn from watching and can easily figure out how to open doors, windows, and cupboards. They also love to play fetch for long periods of time. This author timed one of her Bengals playing fetch for a solid two hours. Bengals need things to do, or they will make their own entertainment.

Bengals do very well with clicker training. Since they are so athletic and smart, training them to run agility courses inside the home is a very easy and fun task. Years ago, this author learned

the Bored Bengal Lesson the hard way, coming home after being out for several hours, only to find the Bengals had turned the water faucets on in the bathrooms and kitchen and were happily sliding and chasing each other through the house soaking wet.

The Bengal has inherited traits from both the ALC and the domestic cat. The result of this union is an affectionate, active, and intelligent cat with a unique personality. Although Bengals are different from other domestic cats because of their ALC ancestry, they are not more prone to developing behavior challenges then any of the other domestic cat breeds. When working with clients who have Bengals with behavior challenges, it is important to take into consideration the environmental influences along with the ALC and domestic cat heredity.

1. There are many subspecies of Leopard Cat. The two that have been commonly used in the development of the Bengal Cat breed are: prionailurus bengalensis bengalensis and prionailurus bengalensis euptilura.

2. Great Lakes Bengal Rescue: Janet Saltzman; Maine Coon Adoptions California Chapter: Elaine Lyford; Pennsylvania Manx Rescue: Bob Davis; Southern California Abyssinian Rescue: Lyn Hoffmaster

3. California Bengal Cat Rescue, Cases cited: Tally, Duke, Milton, Junior, Nia, Asia, Pharoah, Zora, Masai

4. National Bengal Rescue Network, California Bengal Cat Rescue

Maulee (Princess RajaPurr) 10 year old Bengal on top of a door. Photo; MKrieger

An F4 Bengal. Photo: MKrieger

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Glossary:

Asian Leopard Cat (ALC) (Prionailurus bengalensis bengalensis): A domestic sized wild cat indigenous to parts of Asia that is used in the formation of the Bengal Cat Breed. Part of the Asian Leopard Cat Group.

Early Generation (EG): Three-four generations away from the Asian Leopard Cat. The EG males are rarely fertile

Filial (F) F1-F4: Another way to refer to the EG Bengals. F1 indicates that a parent is a Asian Leopard Cat, F2 means that a grandparent is a Asian Leopard Cat.

© March 2007 by Marilyn Krieger, CCBC.

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Bengal Cats: A Study in BehaviorTable 1: Rescue Statistics for 2006

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Electronic Training Devices: A Review of Current Literature

Jo Jacques, CPDT, CPCT and Sandy Myers, CDBC

This research is divided into four main areas:

1. Electronic training devices and how they work

2. Physiological effects

3. Psychological effects

4. Effects on learning

A Summary is included at the conclusion of this article, along with explanations of electrical terms (Appendix A) and Internet resources (Appendix B).

Introduction

The use of electronic devices to train animals is a controversial issue that elicits strong emotions. This literature review summarizes currently available scientific research concerning the effects of electronic training devices and related issues. The role of a literature review is to find and present pertinent work from peer-reviewed journals that publish original research findings. The literature is then presented in a logical, organized manner. Every effort was made to give a synopsis of the research without personal opinion or conjecture.

Electronic Training Devices and How They Work

“Remote collar,” “electronic collar,” and “shock collar” are terms used to describe electronic training devices. Common variables of all of these devices include the level of shock or stimulation, the quality of the equipment, and the person with the control device. In Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training: Procedures and Protocols, Vol. 3 (2005), Lindsay explains in detail the electrical engineering that goes into these collars (pp. 570-573). There is no evidence of standardization for electronic training devices, and the quality varies from one manufacturer to the next. Some manufacturers have developed collars that have a wide range of settings and the ability to administer various levels of electricity. High-quality collars consistently produce a less unpleasant sensation when they are on a low to medium setting.

In the simplest terms, electrical stimulation can be categorized by levels: low, medium, and high. Low-level electrical stimulation creates a tickle and tingle effect, mid-level electrical stimulation enables the handler to annoy or startle, and high-level electrical stimulation is believed to produce significant pain and distress in dogs (Lindsay, 2005, pp. 575-577). It would be far too difficult within this article to discuss each and every possible level of electrical stimulation; therefore, these three categories will be used exclusively throughout this paper. The experimental studies cited below used electrical stimulation at various levels.

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In experiments that applied shock to the feet, Lessac and Solomon (1969) determined that leg flexion required around 0.08 mA electric intensity and elicited a yelp response at 2.80 mA (1969). Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary defines flexion as a bending movement around a joint or limb (www.merriamwebster.com, accessed January 28, 2007). In a similar study, Brush determined that avoidance learning increased with shocks up to 4.8 mA, with the desire to escape appearing above 5.0 mA intensity (1957).

To understand the physical effect of a shock collar, it is necessary to look at the closed-circuit values. Pulse duration and pulse repletion rate are very important factors in determining the collar’s adverse effects. In 1991, Kaczmarek wrote that the collar will be more aversive when the electrical pulse is longer and the repetitions are more rapid. Current passed through narrow electrodes, as used in e-collars, causes significantly less discomfort than the same current passed through wider diameter electrodes (Lindsay, 2005, p. 775).

The length of coat, hydration of the dog, how the dog holds his head, and amount of dirt and debris on the dog are also factors in the amount of electronic stimulation/shock the dog receives. Other factors that affect the degree of stimulation include the size and type of electrodes (as noted above), distance between electrodes, voltage and amperage levels, as well as the impedance of the tissue at the sites of contact with the electrodes. Impedance is defined as how much resistance the electricity encounters to complete a circuit, or electric charge (http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com, accessed 28 July, 2006). The greater the tissue impedance, the less electrical conductivity is seen; conversely, less tissue impedance results in greater electrical conductivity. Tissue impedance is affected not only by the location of the electrodes, but by the amount of connective tissues and fat deposits, as well (Ahn, Wu, Badger, Hammerschlag, & Langevin, 2005; Tagliabue, et al., 2001).

Physiological Effects

To determine whether electronic training devices cause physical stress, it is necessary to look at the animal’s physiological reaction to these training devices. By looking at scientific data, we are better able to make an educational assessment. There are several studies cited below that enable us to observe documented changes in heart rate and cortisol levels when electric shock is being used. For the purposes of the following discussion, “stress” is defined as “a physiologic condition in response to environmental or psychological pressures. These pressures are referred to as stressors. This condition is accompanied by, but not limited to, elevation in corticosteroid levels and may be accompanied by concurrent behavioral changes” (Marder & Voith, 1991).

Behavioral, saliva cortisol, and heart rate responses to different types of stimuli in dogs (Beerda, B. (1998). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 58, 365-381).

The goal of this study was to establish parameters for determining stress elicited by different stimuli in dogs. Guidelines for physiological levels indicating stress were determined from previous studies, one of which showed that when a dog was exposed to noise, heart rate and cortisol levels increased at 30 seconds and returned to normal at 4 minutes (Engeland, 1990).

The dogs in the Beerda study were exposed to a loud noise, electric shock (estimated to be medium level electrical stimulation, or MLES), a bag dropped from the ceiling, physical restraint, and an umbrella opening. Body posture, saliva cortisol levels, heart rate, and behavior responses were analyzed. The average heart rate for dogs in the study was 75 BPM (beats per minute). Heart rate following the presentation of stimuli increased to an average of 160 BPM. The base

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saliva cortisol level for dogs in the study was 6.0nmol/1. Saliva cortisol levels, on average, increased to 13nmol/1 following the presentation of stimuli.

The results of this study showed that the greatest increase in cortisol levels occurred when dogs were exposed to loud noise, a bag dropped from the ceiling, and electric shock. The time necessary to return to the baseline heart rate was longer when the dogs were exposed to the loud noise and the bag. Heart rates were not measured when the dogs were exposed to electric shock (monitors were removed to guard against equipment damage from electrical currents). This study reported behavioral responses of very low body posture to the dropped bags, loud sounds, and shock, while the restraint and umbrella responses included restlessness, defined as high levels of body shaking and verbal behaviors (social communication). The authors of the study were quite clear in stating that while the stress responses to the bag, sound, and shock were distinctly higher than to the restraint and umbrella stimuli, the fact that a human was present in the restraint and umbrella tests enabled the dog to anticipate the stimuli before they occurred.

This study is a good example of signs of stress, positive as well as negative associations to humans, and the increase of stress when electric shock is used in unpredictable situations. Several studies have noted a change in the physiological effect on the dog when in the presence of a person. It is important to understand these effects when looking at physiological reactions to electronic training devices, because a human is often a component in the equation.

Note: We personally believe that while this study was a good example of using cortisol to measure stress, that was the only hormone measured. However, other studies have shown that cortisol is not the only hormone affected under stressful conditions. In fact, since cortisol level is used as a determinant when diagnosing various adrenal autoimmune disorders, we’re left wondering if the levels obtained may have been influenced by other conditions.

The effects of petting on classically conditioned emotional response (Lynch, J.J. & McCarthy, J.F. (1996). Behavior Research and Therapy, 5(1), 55-62).

In this study, the authors observed the physiological effects of human contact on the dog. The research found that the dogs’ heart rate increased when a tone was followed by an electric shock of a medium level. The electric shocking device used was a high-voltage system, one-second shock, different for each dog according to the dog’s reaction at each interval. The level of shock used was intense enough to cause the dog to fully flex his leg off the table.

Heart rate was measured during a 10-second tone-shock sequence (conditioned reinforcer, or CR) for three separate conditions: dog alone; person present but no physical contact; and person petting the dog. The initial results showed that when the dog was alone, the tone (CS) caused the dog to anticipate the shock, resulting in an increased heart rate from 82 BPM to 150 BPM (9 seconds prior to the shock). When the person was in the room but not making contact, the dog’s heart rate initially decreased to 80 BPM right after the tone, but rose to 150 BPM just before the shock was administered. The last sequence consisted of a person petting the dog during the tone-shock sequence; the dog’s heart rate was recorded at approximately 70 BPM during the tone phase. (The normal rate for a dog is approximately 70 BPM.)

Initially, the presence of a person decreased the dog’s heart rate. However, the authors found that after two or three days the heart rate decrease was extinguished when a person was present. A conclusion can therefore be drawn that the physiological reaction of the dog to the presence of the human initially lowered stress. However, the authors concluded that, over time, the value of the human as a de-stressor was extinguished.

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Are we dog’s best friend? Predicting canine cortisol response from human affiliative and punitive behaviors (Jones, A.C. & Josephs, R.A. Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine 2005 – Papers Presented at the 5th International Veterinary Behavior Meeting, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press:194-197.)

The goal of this study was to determine the physiological influence human behavior has on dogs. 184 dogs participated in the study, and cortisol levels were measured before and after an agility competition. The results of this research showed that play and petting decreased cortisol levels, while punitive behavior (yelling and physical non-play) on the owners’ part increased cortisol levels.

“Affiliating (play, tug of war, chase) behaviours are associated with a lesser increase in dog’s cortisol levels (beta weight= -0.131); punitive behaviours (yelling, physical pushing) are associated with greater increase in dogs’ cortisol levels (beta weight = 0.119),” the authors stated. In their conclusion, the authors also said that dogs who frequently had elevated cortisol levels may suffer from illness, including cognition degradation and physical problems that could shorten their lives.

Clinical Signs caused by the use of electronic training collars on dogs (Canis familiaris) in everyday life situations. (Schalke E, Stichnoth J, & Jones-Baade R. Journal of Applied Animal Behavior Science, doi:10.1016/j.japplanim.2006.11.002.)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether any stress is caused by the use of electric shock collars or not, and in this way contribute to their evaluation with respect to animal welfare. Baseline heart rates and cortisol levels were measured, in addition to measurements taken at various stages of the study, and their training as well as the experiments themselves were carried out in a building, in order to remove the influence of external stressors. In addition,each dog was allocated an individual time slot for training, in order to exclude circadian deviations. Electronic collars were used to train all of the dogs. The collars were the Teletakt micro 3000 (ohm levels of 500 to 2.2 kohm). All dogs were trained for three months by the same trainer to successfully hunt (that is, chase) a dummy rabbit. The dogs were then divided into three study groups. Group A (Aversive) was trained to avoid prey by receiving a shock at the precise moment they touched the dummy rabbit, forming an association between touching the prey and shock. Group H (Here) received additional training to come on command, and were then tested in a situation where they were asked to avoid prey with a “here” command. If they did not respond to the “here” cue, they received a shock. Group R (Random) was given a random electric shock prior to attention toward prey, while hunting, or after the hunting sequence when the prey had been removed. The timing of the shock was decided by drawing lots.

Prior to any testing, a baseline cortisol level was established for each dog. Preliminary levels were taken when the dogs participated in two tests (on different days), “Simple hunting” and “hunting impeded.” “Simple hunting” was when the dogs were allowed to hunt with no restrictions. “Hunting impeded” was when the dogs were restricted from hunting by using a leash. Beginning ten minutes after the end of the hunting sequence, five saliva samples were taken every five minutes. Once divided into the three groups, the main experiment was conducted. During the main testing phase, electric pulses were given according to the group each dog was in. Each dog was allowed a maximum of only one shock per day; and heart rates were continuously monitored. Cortisol levels were tested in 5 minute intervals, beginning 10

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minutes after the application of shock. Post-testing was also performed: during the 4 weeks following the main test, the dogs had no contact with either the environment or the persons conducting the test. At the end of that time, they were taken back to the experimental environment, and cortisol and heart rates were measured (without additional testing).

The dogs in Group R (who received random shock) showed the highest cortisol level of all three groups, leading the researchers to hypothesize that cortisol increased in this group because the dogs had no chance to associate their behavior or a warning signal (the cue “here”) with the punishing stimulus. Group A, the group that received aversive training in association with prey, had the smallest increase in cortisol levels. Significant differences were also found when comparing heart rate values between the three groups. As with recorded cortisol levels, heart rates were highest with Groups R and H, and lowest with Group A.

Comparisons were then made between the preliminary, main, and post-testing phases. Within Group A (Aversive), cortisol levels were significantly higher during testing than during preliminary or post testing. In Group H (Here), cortisol levels during post-testing were significantly higher than the values recorded during testing.

Concerning Group R (Random), however, the levels measured during post-testing were higher than those gathered during the preliminary testing as well as the main testing phases. The researchers feel this result corresponds with Polsky’s (1994) statements that poor timing and/or shock that lasts too long causes a fear of the environment and/or people in dogs.

The ability of the dogs to predict an outcome did affect the level of cortisol increases seen. Those dogs who had been trained to see prey and avoid it had learned how to avoid the electrical stimulation. Those dogs who understood “here” but had not learned to respond when prey was present had increased stress and cortisol when electrical stimulation was given, and those dogs in the last group could not avoid the electrical stimulation because they had no predictor of its cause.

The researchers state, “This study indicates that the general use of electronic shock collars is not consistent with animal welfare. It has to be assumed that pet owners do not have the sufficient knowledge about training and skill to avoid the risk that dogs will show severe and persistent stress symptoms.” They further conclude, “The results of this study suggest that poor timing in application of high electric pulses, such as those used in this study, means there is a high risk that dogs will show severe and persistent stress symptoms. We recommend that the use of these devices should be restricted with proof of theoretical and practical qualification required, and then the use of these devices should only be allowed in strictly specified situations.”

Fear conditioning occludes LTP-induced presynaptic enhancement of synaptic transmission in the cortical pathway to the lateral amygdala (Tsevtkov, E., Carlezon, W., Benes, F., Kandel, E., & Bolshakov, V. (2002) Neuron, 34(2), 289-300).

This study attempted to prove a longstanding theory that learning takes place and memories are formed when the same message travels repeatedly between specific cells in the brain. During the study, researchers introduced rats to a sound that was accompanied by an electric shock to the foot. The shock, while of a low intensity, did cause the rats to be visibly startled. The day after the rats were trained this way, they were exposed to the sound but were not shocked. However, the sound still frightened them, even more so than during the initial training, and their fear increased as time passed.

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To determine that there was a physical change, the researchers used the sound to stimulate rats who had not been trained with electric shock and found there was a flood of nerve impulses between specific cells in the amygdala. In the trained rats, however, there was no flood of communication between the cells, showing that the cells had not only retained the training, but had been physically changed by the experience. The brain change wasn’t temporary—it lasted for the rest of the rat’s lives (two to three years).

These results indicated that the pathways to the amygdala are modified during the acquisition of a fear response. The researchers also concluded that the physiological changes occurring during emotional learning contribute to intense anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and are what makes these fears so resistant to extinction.

Biobehavioral monitoring and electronic control of behavior (Lindsay, S. (2005). Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training: Procedures and Protocols, Vol. 3. Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, 557-665.)

In his recent book, Steven Lindsay cites many research studies concerning electronic training devices. In the chapter,“Biobehavioral Monitoring and Electronic Control of Behavior,” he states that electric shock at high levels can cause distress and emotional harm to dogs (p. 576). With all the factors and electrical contingencies, the best way to understand the level of electrical stimulation is to feel it. Contact with electricity causes the body to respond as if injured (at low levels there is no physical damage)—the brain perceives a threat to survival that causes neurological, psychological (fear of pain), and physiological responses (heart rate and cortisol levels increase).

High-level electric shock (HLES) causes a neurological response and a perception of pain, and activates muscular and skin-burning sensations even if there is no physically burned flesh and although no physical damage has actually occurred. The study specifically stated that the sensation of burning was perceived even when there was no actual physical injury (Sang et.al., 2003). Medium-level electric shock (MLES) produces sharp pricking, jabbing sensations. Low-level electric shock (LLES) causes tapping, tickling, and/or tingling sensations. According to Lindsay, it is important to remember that high voltage does not mean a higher level of shock; other variables contribute to the perception of pain, such as ohms, impedance, and the individual dog’s tolerance, temperament, and relative sensitivity to aversive stimuli.

While many researchers have cited cortisol levels as an indicator of stress, Lindsay reports that King, et al., (2003) have suggested that heart rate might be a more practical and sensitive measure of a dog’s reaction to novelty and fear. Other researchers in the field have found that a reactive pattern of cardiac acceleration and deceleration in response to social and environmental stressors seems to correlate with an increased vulnerability to reactive social behavior and susceptibility to stress (Vincent & Mitchell, 1996; Vincent & Leahy, 1997). Blood pressure and heart rate changes appear to be highly sensitive to traumatic events, and these conditioned cardiovascular changes may persist or worsen long after the escape/avoidance behavior has ceased (Dykman & Gant, 1997). Dogs affected by this social anxiety may exhibit signs of persistent anxiety or arousal, as well as hypervigilance and readiness for defensive autoprotective behavior. These changes are correlated with heart rate, heart-rate variability (HRV), and other indicators of autonomic activation. (HRV is the beat-to-beat changes in heart-rate rhythm that occur in response to anxiety and excitement.)

Lindsay also cites research concerning the physiological effect of stress (pp. 562, 579-580). A study by Beerda, et al., (1998, cited earlier in this paper) reported a nonspecific increase in

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heart rate in response to both social and non-social stressors, concluding, “Heart rate increases should best be regarded as general responses to possibly meaningful events, irrespective of whether these are appreciated as positive or negative.” Although these researchers could not demonstrate the existence of discriminative heart rate changes in response to acute social and nonsocial stressors, they did show differences in HPA (hypothalamic/pituitary/adrenal) activity of dogs exposed to nonsocial stressors (e.g., loud sound, electric shocks, and a falling bag) versus dogs exposed to a social restraint (holding the dog down) and startle delivered by a social object (opening an umbrella in the dog’s direction). The HPA system is brought into play during times of biological and physiological stress, and stimulates the release of cortisol into the bloodstream. Dogs who could control the occurrence of shock by escaping had significantly less cortisol response than dogs who where unable to escape a shock (Dess, et al., 1983).

Lindsay reports on a study done by Anderson and Brady (1971) that found that dogs exhibit a significant and stable reduction in heart rate and an increase in blood pressure during a one-hour waiting period immediately preceding a two-hour period of shock-avoidance training. The dogs were conditioned to a particular schedule of shock training. The divergence between heart rate and blood pressure steadily increased over the course of the waiting period, with heart rates becoming lowest and blood pressure becoming highest just before the onset of shock-avoidance training.

Psychological Effects

At issue is the question, “Do electronic training devices elicit psychological responses?” This section cites several research studies in which the psychological impact of the use of electronic training devices was analyzed. It is difficult, at best, for anyone to determine the full psychological effect of these devices or training methods until we can agree on exactly what constitutes a stress signal in a domestic dog. Not only do none of the researchers agree on what it is, but it varies from dog to dog. It is even more difficult for humans to determine the full effect of shock on a dog (or any animal) due to the animal’s hard-wired need to hide pain in order to survive in the wild.

Training dogs with the help of the shock collar: Short and long term behavioral effects. (Schilder, M. & van der Borga, J. (2004). Applied Animal Behavior Science, 85, 319-334).

The goal of this study was to determine the behavioral changes in dogs during training using electronic training collars. Thirty-two dogs were divided into two groups, each receiving both general obedience and protection training. One group was trained with shock collars and the other group without shock collars. The dogs trained with the shock collars displayed signs of stress: lowering of body posture, high-pitched yelps, barks and squeals, avoidance, redirected aggression, and tongue flicking. It was also noted by the authors that, even during play and relaxed walking, the group of dogs trained with shock collars continued to show signs of stress while in the company of their handler.

The authors concluded that shock-collar training is stressful; receiving shocks is a painful experience to dogs; and the shock group of dogs evidently learned that the presence of their owner (or his commands) announced the reception of shocks, even outside of the normal training context. They suggest that the welfare of these shocked dogs is at stake, at least in the presence of their owners.


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This study has come under considerable fire because the experience of the handlers and dogs is not clear, and the level of shock is not stated. With that said, it does suggest that dogs are stressed by the experience of being shocked during training.

In rats, sighs correlate with relief (Soltysik, S. & Jelen, P. (2005). Psychology and Behavior. 85, 598-602).

This study was designed to discover if a deep breath (i.e., a sigh) in mammals, which functions to prevent airlessness in hypoventilated parts of the lungs, can also signify relaxation or relief. Sighs can be associated with emotions in humans, and, in addition to their respiratory functions, there may also be a selective facilitation of sighs in animals to indicate fear, anxiety, or relief.

To induce fear, a “danger” stimulus (a light or a tone) was paired with an electric shock applied to the tails of rats five times in a daily session. To provide a relief signal, another stimulus signifying “safety” (a tone or a light), presented before the normally expected shock, was followed by the omission of the shock. In 16 rats experiencing a shock during the danger stimulus and a relief during the safety stimulus, the rate of sighing was 7.5 times higher during relief and 20 times higher between trials. This serves to support the hypothesis that sighs in social animals may function as a signal of relief.

Effects on Learning

Electronic training devices result in aversive conditioning, once the link is made between the behavior and the aversive stimuli (electric shock). Aversive stimuli, by definition, cause discomfort, pain, or an otherwise negative experience. It has been shown that while aversive conditioning can take place rapidly and can influence the suppression of unwanted behavior, this suppression is restricted to the presence of the conditioned stimulus after full conditioning has taken place (Seligman and Johnston, 1968). As well, while aversive conditioning may eliminate an unwanted behavior, it does not serve to establish an acceptable alternative. This is most likely due to response blocking—the dog learns that not responding leads to the absence of the aversive stimuli, and stops responding (Seligman and Johnston, 1968).

Can aggression be elicited through electronic pet containment systems? (Polsky, R.H. (2000). Journal Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3, 345-357).

The author surmises that the use of electronic containment systems can cause dogs to attack humans. Five cases involving severe attacks to humans by dogs kept in with electronic containment systems were analyzed. The information about these cases was derived from legal documents. An electrical engineer who examined several receiver collars from different manufacturers reported outputs of 1,500 to 4,500 volts, but no reported levels for mA were given. In all cases, the dogs did not have a history of any type of aggression before the use of an electronic containment system. They were all adult males, had received little obedience training, and most were not neutered.

The attacks happened on or near the boundary and the fence system was working in every case. Of the victims, all adults were known to the dog, all children were not known. In all cases, the dog was positioned directly within the signal field, and therefore must have received a shock. In all but one case, no “dominant-appearing” or threatening action was performed by the victim toward the dog. In all cases, the dogs gave no warning prior to the attack, and there was


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repeated biting of all victims, resulting in serious injuries to head, face, back, and neck.

The author believes the analyzed cases suggest that these dogs became aggressive because of the electronic containment system. What is not known is the type of training the dog received when introduced to the containment system, if the dogs spent a lot of time outside unsupervised, and at what shock level the collars were set. In all cases, the victims were in or near the signal field and each received several serious bites. According to the author, one factor that suggested the attacks occurred because of the dog’s exposure to the system was that the reaction of all dogs was inconsistent with past behavior. Only one dog had ever bitten a human, and no dog had a marked history of displaying aggression toward humans. As well, since there were no developmental behavioral histories of these dogs, one would not expect attacks of such severity.

Nonlethal techniques for managing predation: Primary and secondary repellents (Shivik, J.A., Treves, A. & Callahan, P. (2003). Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1531-1537).

The purpose of this study was to develop techniques to decrease the conflicts between humans and wolves when the wolves are seeking prey (cattle, sheep, and dogs) by discouraging wolves from eating prey left in certain areas. The researchers presented freshly killed carcasses to groups of wild wolves in specifically demarcated pens. They tested primary repellents (flags, and a behavior-contingent light and sound device) and secondary repellents (shock collars that were proximity-activated, using buried perimeter wires) to determine which were most effective in deterring wolves from eating the killed prey. The researchers calculated the amount of food consumed prior to, during, and after the testing to determine the efficacy of each type of repellent.

The wolves in the group inhibited using shock collars had various reactions: running away, yelping, or appearing mildly annoyed but continuing to consume the carcass. In post-treatment trials the wolves in all of the test groups consumed all food and none of the aversive methods had any long-term effect on predation. The level of shock was not disclosed; however, it was noted that an electronic containment system was used to establish the point at which the aversive stimuli would be administered.

This study demonstrates the use of aversive techniques in a situation unlinked to the presence of humans. It also shows how wolves can misinterpret intended links between the stimuli and shock/pain and/or discomfort. The authors noted that aversive stimuli could be difficult to apply, as wolves may not associate the pain with the presence of prey, but with another environmental cue.

Behavioral changes and aversive conditioning in hunting dogs by the second-year confrontation with domestic sheep (Christiansen, F.O., Bakken, M., & Braastad, B., (2001A). Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 72, 131-143).

The authors of this study were trying to determine the effectiveness of electronic training devices, as well as observe any long-term effects the use of these devices might have. This study was conducted over a two-year period and involved 114 dogs. Three hunting breeds participated in the test: Norwegian Elkhounds, English Setters, and hare hunting dogs. To determine baseline behaviors, each dog was given a “path test.” During the path test, each dog was exposed to novel and startling stimuli while being walked on leash by the owner. At this point in the test, each dog was exposed to a sheep tied five meters away from the dog.

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The second test was the “sheep confrontation” test. During this test, each dog wore an electronic training collar, and for safety reasons, had a long line attached to his collar. Each dog was released into a sheep pen with a herd of sheep, and if the dog approached within one to two meters of the sheep, the collar was activated (a one-second shock at 3000V and 0.4 A). Shocks were administered only if the dog approached the one to two meter distance. Observational data was collected in both tests, as well as in a questionnaire in which the owner was asked about their dog’s previous experience with sheep, living environment, response to gunshots, and aggressiveness toward humans and dogs.

After a year had passed, the tests were repeated. The owners were asked if they noticed any changes in behavior, interest in sheep, and increase/decrease in aggression toward humans or dogs. 88 of the dogs in the study were reported by their owners to have no changes in behavior from the first to second year; 18 of the dogs showed less interest in sheep (one of these had received a shock the first year and 17 had not received any shock). The owners’ observations were an important element in this study. The level of knowledge and/or expertise of these owners is unknown and is therefore subject to conjecture.

Second-year testing results showed that dogs who had received a shock the first year responded or moved away much sooner from the novel stimuli or sheep than they had the previous year. The second-year tests also showed a decreased number of shocks given to the dogs who had received a shock(s) the first year. Age, breed, and previous experiences did affect each dog’s reaction to the sheep from one year to the next: The younger the dog, the less bold his approach toward the sheep the first year. One year later, those same dogs seemed more confident and willing to approach. The authors hypothesized that “dogs could not reliably be tested toward sheep before they are two to three years of age.”

As with several of the other research studies reviewed in this paper, each dog is different in his tolerance and sensitivity to electrical stimulation. The authors did reference the difference in retained learning between coyotes and dogs. The dogs did learn to inhibit their approach of sheep from one year to the next, while the inhibition effect for coyotes persists approximately four months (Andelt et al., 1999).

Dog training methods: Their use, effectiveness, and interaction with behaviour and welfare (Hilby, E.F., Rooney, N.J., & Bradshaw, J.W.S. (2004). Animal Welfare, 13, 63-69).

This study was designed to examine the relative effectiveness of different training methods and their effects on a pet dog’s behavior. The study results came from evaluating a questionnaire distributed to and answered by 364 dog owners in the U.K., and was based on how basic tasks (give/leave an object, heel, sit, down, come, house-training, stealing, chewing) were trained. The methods reported included punishing the dogs to eliminate behaviors (hitting, jerking the leash, yelling, etc.) and rewarding the dog for desired behaviors (using play, praise, and food rewards). Of the respondents, 20.2% used rewards only; 9.8% used punishment only; 9.6% used miscellaneous (i.e., redirection) or no methods; and 60.4% used a combination of rewards and punishment.

The results show that in four specific areas—house-training, the recall, stealing, and sit—there was no significant difference in the level of obedience obtained (shown by percentage of proper behavior shown) among the methods used to train. However, for the rest of the tasks, the training method that used rewards only achieved a significantly higher rate of obedience than other methods. Similarly, using rewards only greatly reduced the incidence of problematic behaviors, including aggression toward people and other dogs, fear, repetitive behaviors, over-

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excitement, anxiety, and separation issues.

The results suggest that the use of punishment seemed to be linked to an increase in the occurrence of the problematic behaviors listed above. The number of times owners reported using punishment-based methods correlated positively with the number of problem behaviors seen. While it may be that punishment increased the number of problem behaviors, it’s also possible that the owners of dogs already exhibiting problem behaviors are more likely to use punishment when training. Nonetheless, the authors of this study believe that for the general dog-owning public, using rewards exclusively in training may produce a more balanced and obedient dog, thereby reducing the number of owner-relinquished dogs in shelters.

This study has come under fire due to the method used for collecting the data. As stated above, the results were obtained by tabulating responses from questionnaires filled out by dog owners and distributed by veterinarians working with the owners involved in the research project in order to obtain a ‘relative’ effectiveness score. This kind of self-reporting is not objective. A high percentage of owners reported that, while their dogs showed behavior issues that they themselves did not regard as a problem, others experiencing the same issues might. This could suggest that owners who use punishment-based training may be more likely to view their dog’s behavior in a negative light, while owners using reward-based training may be more likely to view their dog’s behavior in a positive light. However, since the study examines the efficacy of training as determined by the owners of these pet dogs, it bears re-examination as owner perception is one of the strongest indicators of pet retention.

Differential diagnosis and management of human-directed aggression in dogs (Reisner, I.R. (2003). The Veterinary Clinic Small Animal Practice. 33, 303-320).

This paper was written to give insight into human-directed aggression. The author cites many studies that show contributing factors and reasons why dogs act aggressively toward humans (Guy, Luescher, Dohoo, et al. 2001B; Borshelt, 1983; Moyer, 1968; Overall, 1997; Beerda, Schindler, vanHooff, et al., 1999). Many aggressive behaviors are triggered by anxiety. Highly sensitive dogs have a greater risk of displaying anxiety-related behaviors: exaggerated watchfulness, reactivity to a perceived threat, and the inability to perform normal avoid or escape behaviors. Breeds that are highly sensitive include, but are not limited to, Border Collies, German Shepherd Dogs, and Australian Shepherds. It is also interesting to note that these are breeds that are known for their high level of intelligence and trainability. A repeated point of this paper is the importance of establishing the sensitivity, or level of anxiety of an individual dog and avoiding aversive training methods, which the author feels has been shown, historically, to increase aggressive or anxiety-related responses.

Public health authorities report that the most severe dog attacks were committed by dogs left alone outside for long periods of time (Gershman, 1993). The lack of supervision and environmental control increases the potential for aggressive behaviors to occur. Therefore, the author recommends that owners do not rely on underground electronic fencing for containment; if the dog must be housed outdoors, he should be enclosed in a secure chain-link run or within a secure, visible fence.

The author also advises that, in order to reduce aggression, all circumstances, provocations, and aversive interactions associated with the dog’s aggression need to be avoided. Many aggressive dogs are anxious or fearful, and punishment of any kind should be avoided. The author states, “Aversive tools such as electric stimulation (shock), prong, or training (choke) collars that require pulling and jerking to work, hitting and scolding can increase anxiety and

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therefore increase the risk of biting; in addition, they are likely to lead to treatment failure”

Biobehavioral monitoring and electronic control of behavior. (Lindsay, S. (2005). Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Vol. 3: Procedures and Protocols, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, 557-665).

In his Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Vol. 3: Procedures and Protocol, in the chapter “Biobehavioral Monitoring and Electronic Control of Behavior,” Lindsay recounts several studies that show dogs exposed to inescapable shock, increased levels of shock, and unpredictable shock demonstrated impaired ability to escape (learned helplessness) (Houser and Pare, 1974; Seligman and Maier, 1967; Seligman et al., 1968). In the section on “Electronic Containment Systems,” Lindsay states that dogs who are inappropriately exposed to an invisible fencing system using electric shock collar may subsequently show intense fear and avoidance of the yard.

Lindsay adds that the first experience of some dogs to being walked on leash by a stranger is when they experience intense electrical shock by a containment-system salesperson or installer. As a result, dogs may show generalized anxiety or reactivity when on leash, as well as wariness or auto-protective behavior toward strangers encountered near the fence boundaries. The resulting social fear response toward the unfamiliar persons may be highly durable and resistant to extinction and counter-conditioning efforts. A shock that occurs during play or in proximity to children can cause a loss of trust and security and may compromise a dog’s ability to feel safe or to relax when in similar situations (Polsky, 1998; 2000).

These findings seem to correlate with the brain changes seen in the amygdala during the acquisition of fear, including the duration and increasing intensity of the expression of these fears (Bolshakov et al., 2002). These correlations suggest that while electronic avoidance training may be useful in certain situations, such as livestock and predatory problems (Christiansen, et al, 2001A, 2001B), they may not be the best choice for the average pet owner, who may be unable to deal with increasing fear responses for the duration of the dog’s life (Polsky, 1998; 2000).

Summary

In reviewing many research studies, a common thread was repeated: electronic training devices are aversive. Electronic training devices should not be used as the first level of training, and when used, should be used only by skilled and experienced handlers. Currently, little scientific research has been published concerning the practical use of electronic training devices for companion animals. The research studies that have been included in this paper are a compilation of those studies currently available. A very important component when discussing the use of these electronic devices is the human factor involved—reliability when using aversives may be a focus for a future article, as well as laws governing the use of electronic, citronella or bark-activated collars, and ultrasonic devices.

There have been hundreds of studies concerning the effects of electronic stimulation/shock in multiple settings, including clinical use. To date, electronic stimulation has become the most studied form of aversive stimulus that dog trainers use, though most studies involving dogs have discernable methodological weaknesses. Studies show that when used correctly by a skilled trainer, no physical injury should occur. As with most tools, the handler’s ability can help determine the effect of the aversive; however, each dog is an individual and the response to aversive stimuli will be different for each dog. A low-level electrical stimulus for one dog can be

34



entirely different for another. It may be difficult for a novice to determine exactly what effect the collar is having on a dog if they are not aware of the subtleties of canine communication signals.

However, can the majority of dog owners be counted on to deliver shocks reliably? Studies, such as those by Schalke, et.al., seem to illustrate the possible outcome of poor timing and/or excessive use. In the conclusion of his chapter “Biobehavioral Monitoring and Electronic Control of Behavior,” Lindsay’s opinion is that average dog owners typically lack the skill and knowledge to use e-collars effectively and safely on their dogs, and, whenever possible, they should be encouraged to receive hands-on instruction from skilled trainers and other experienced professionals (p.626).

He goes on to state:

“The humane use of electronic training equipment depends on an educated end-user; oddly enough, though, few manufacturers have come to grips with their responsibility in this regard, and, along with pet supply retailers, appear content with the status quo and short-term profits to a relatively ignorant dog-owning public—a state of affairs that is difficult to fathom when one considers the high stakes. Eventually, this strategy may prove foolhardy, perhaps leading concerned individuals and organizations critical of such devices to seek legislative action to restrict their sale and use by the public altogether.” (Lindsay p.627)

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APPENDIX A: DEFINITIONS OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

Ampere:

1. A measure of electrical current flow.

2. A measure of how much electricity is moving through a conductor.

3. The unit of measurement of electric current. It is proportional to the quantity of electrons flowing through a conductor past a given point in one second. It is analogous to cubic feet of water flowing per second.

4. The unit of measurement used to determine the quantity of electricity flowing through a circuit. One ampere flows through a one ohm resistance when a potential one volt is applied.

5. One ampere is the current flowing through one ohm of resistance at one volt potential. Analogous to gallons of water flowing past a given point.

mA:

1. Milliampere: one thousandth of an ampere.

1. Milliamps, 1000 MA = one amp.

Impedance:

Impedance is a measure of how hard a signal has to work to get through a cable, speaker, or piece of equipment. Always rated in ohms, the higher the impedance, the harder for the signal to get through a material’s opposition to the flow of electric current; measured in ohms.

Ohm:

1. The amount of resistance overcome by one volt in causing one ampere to flow. The ohm measures resistance to current flow in electrical circuits.

2. A measure of how much something resists (impedes) the flow of electricity. Larger numbers mean more resistance.

3. A unit of electrical resistance equal to that of a conductor in which a current of one ampere is produced by a potential of one volt across its terminals.

4. One ohm is the value of resistance through which a potential difference of one volt will maintain a current of one ampere.

5. Unit of electrical resistance used to measure a material’s resistance to the flow of electric current.

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APPENDIX B: WEB RESOURCES

The following Web sites have articles on the use of electronic training devices:

Smith, C. (2006). What do you say when your clients want electronic containment systems.

Animal Behavior Consulting: Theory and Practice, 2(1), 27-32. www.iaabc.org.

Shock collars: The shocking truth. Association of Pet Behavior Counsellors, www.apbc.org.uk.

The Delta Society, www.deltasociety.org, Section 3.10, Remote Training Collar.

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REFERENCES Ahn A., Wu J., Badger G., Hammerschlag R., & Langevin H. (2005). Electrical impedance along

connective tissue planes associates with acupuncture meridians. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 5, 10.

Anderson D.E. & Brady, J.V. (1971). Preavoidance blood pressure elevations accompanied by heart rate decreases in the dog. Science, 172(983), 595-7.

Andelt W.F., Phillips, R.L., Gruver,K.S., & Guthrie,J.W. (1999). Coyote predation on domestic sheep deterred with electronic dog-training collar. Wildl Soc Bull, 27, 12-18.

Beerda B. (1998) Behavioral, saliva cortisol and heart rate responses to different types of stimuli in dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 58, 365-381

Beerda B., Schilder M.B., & van Hooff J.A. (1999). Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. Journal of Behavioral Responses, 66, 233-42

Bolshakov V., Kandel E., Benes F., Carlezon W., & Tsevtkov E. (2002). Fear conditioning occludes LTP-induced presynaptic enhancement of synaptic transmission in the cortical pathway to the lateral amygdala. Neuron, 34, 289-300.

Borshelt, P.L. (1983). Aggressive behavior of dogs kept as companion animals: classification and influence of sex, reproductive status and breed. Applied Animal Ethology, 10, 45-61.

Brush, F.R. (1957). The effects of shock intensity on acquisition and extinction of an avoidance response in dogs. J Comp Physiol Psychol, 50(6), 547-552.

Christiansen, F.O., Bakken, M., & Braastad, B. (2001A). Behavioral changes and aversive conditioning in hunting dogs by the second-year confrontation with domestic sheep. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 72(2), 131-143.

Dess, N.K., Linwick, D., Patterson J., et al (1983). Immediate and proactive effects of controllability and predictability on plasma cortisol responses to shock in dogs. Behavioral Neuroscience, 97, 1005-1016.

Dykman, R.A. & Gantt, W.H. (1997). Experimental psychogenic hypertension: Blood pressure changes conditioned to painful stimuli (schizokinesis). Integr Physiol Behav Sci, 32, 272-287. (Originally published by the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Aug 1960, Vol 107).

Engeland,W.C. (1990) Pituitary-adrenal and adrenomedullary responses to noise in awake dogs. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol, 258, R672-R677.

Friedberg, J. (1928). Shock treatment, brain damage and memory loss: A neurological perspective. American Journal of Psychiatry, 134(9), 1010-4.

Gershman, K.A. (1993). Which dogs bite? A case–control study of risk factors. Pediatrcs, 93(6, Pt1), 913-7.

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Guy, N.C., Luescher, U.A., Dohoo, S.E., et al. (2001A). A case series of biting dogs: characteristics of the dogs, their behaviour and their victims. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 74, 43-57.

Guy, N.C., Luescher, U.A., Dohoo, S.E., et al. (2001B). Risk factors for dog bites to owners in general veterinary caseload. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 74, 29-42.

Hilby, E.F., Rooney, N.J., & Bradshaw, J.W.S. (2004). Dog training methods: Their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare. Animal Welfare,13, 63-69.

Houser, V.P. & Pare, W.P. (1974). Long-term conditioned fear modification in the dog as measured by changed in urinary 11-hdyrocorticosteroids, heart rate and behavior. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 9, 85-96.

Jones, A.C. & Josephs, R.A. (2005). Are we dog’s best friend? Predicting canine cortisol. Current Issues and Research in Veterinary Behavioral Medicine. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press, 194-197.

Kaczmarek, K.A. et al. (1991). Electrotactile and vibrotactile display for sensory substitution systems. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 38,1-16.

King, T., Hemsworth, P.H., & Coleman, G.J. (2003). Fear of novel and startling stimuli in domestic dogs. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 82, 45-64.

Lessac, M.S. & Solomon, R.L. (1969). Effects of early isolation on the later adaptive behavior of beagles: A methodological demonstration. Developmental Psychology, 1:14-25.

Linsday, S. (2005). Biobehavioral monitoring and electronic control of behavior. Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training: Procedures and Protocols, Vol 3. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Publishing, 557-627.

Lynch, J.J. & McCarthy, J.F. (1967). The effects of petting on classically conditioned emotional response. Behavior Research and Therapy, 5 (Issue 1), 55-62.

Marder, A.R. & Voith, V. (1991). Defining and assessing physical and psychologic well-being. The Veterinary Clinics of North America, 21(2) March 1991 W.B. Saunders, 371-373.

Moyer, K.E. (1968). Kinds of aggression and their physiological basis. Common Behavioral Biology, 2, 65-87.

Overall, KL, (1997) Treatment of behavioral problems. Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals, St Louis, Mo., Mosby Publishing, 289.

Polsky, R.H. (1994). Electronic shock collars–Are they worth the risk? Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 30: 363-468

Polsky, R.H. (1998). Shock collars and aggression in dogs. Animal Behavior Consultant Newsletter, 15, 2.

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Polsky, R.H. (2000). Can aggression be elicited through electronic pet containment systems? Journal Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3, 345-357.

Reisner, I.R. (2003). Differential diagnosis and management of human-directed aggression in dogs. The Veterinary Clinic Small Animal Practice, 33, 303-320.

Sang, C.N., Max, M.B., & Gracely, R.H. (2003). Stability and reliability of detection thresholds for human A-Beta and A-delta sensory afferents determined by cutaneous electrical stimulation. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 25, 64-73.

Schalke, E., Stichnoth, J., Ott,S, & Jones-Baade, R.(2006) Clinical Signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dog in everyday life situations. Journal of Applied Animal Behavior Science, doi:10.1016/j.japplanim.2006.11.002

Schilder, M. & van der Borga, J. (2004). Training dogs with the help of the shock collar: Short and long term behavioral effects. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 85, 319-334.

Seligman, M.E.P. & Maier, S.F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1-9.

Seligman, M.E.P., Maier, S.F., & Geer, J.H. (1968). Alleviation of learned helplessness in the dog. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 73, 256-272.

Shivik, J.A., Treves, A., & Callahan, P. (2003) Nonlethal techniques for managing predation: Primary and secondary repellents. Conservation Biology, 17:1531-1537.

Soltysik, S. & Jelen, P. (2005). In rats, sighs correlate with relief. Psychology & Behavior, 85, 598-602.

Tagliabue, A., Andreoli, A., Comelli, M., Bertoli, S., Testolin, G., Oriani, G., & DeLorenzo, A. (2001). Prediction of lean body mass from multifrequency segmental impedance: influence of adiposity. Acta Diabelol, 38(2), 93-7.

Vincent, I.C. & Mitchell, A.R. (1992). Comparison of cortisol concentrations in saliva and plasma in dogs. Research in Veterinary Science. 53, 342-345.

Vincent, I.C. & Leahy, R.A. (1997). Real-time non-invasive measurement of heart rate in working dogs: A technique with potential application in the objective assessment of welfare problems. Veterinary Journal, 153, 179-184.

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Extinction of a Disruptive Behavior in a Learning

Challenged Domestic Cat: A Case StudyJennifer LeBaron Michels, CABC

Abstract

In this study, a cat’s behavior of jumping onto the owner’s desk, preventing the owner from using the computer, is extinguished. Due to the participant’s slow learning and low motivation, four behavioral techniques were used in combination to address the problem. First, after determining that attention from the owner was maintaining the behavior, it was applied on a continuous schedule for 17 consecutive days in a baseline phase. In the treatment phase, we used extinction (withdrawal of the reinforcer), differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (settling on a nearby acceptable location in the office), and noncontingent reinforcement in areas away from the computer desk on a fixed interval schedule. Despite an initial delay in learning, the treatment was continued and the problem behavior decreased.

After fish, the domestic cat is the most popular pet in the United States (AAPMA, 2005/2006). However, the public is generally unaware of methods for solving behavior problems in cats. This is evidenced by the fact that approximately 350,000cats are surrendered to shelters in the United States annually for behavioral reasons (Miller, Staats, Partlo & Rada, 1996; LeBaron & Pryor, 2005). However, many behavior problems can be solved through the application of learning principles.

Extinction of a problem behavior involves identifying the reinforcer(s) responsible for maintaining the behavior, and completely withdrawing them (Martin & Pear, 2007). In conjunction with removal of the identified reinforcer, other techniques can be used to either speed the extinction process, prevent an extinction burst, or both.

Differential reinforcement of other or incompatible behaviors (DRI) is often used when the problem behavior is maintained by attention, and has been shown to expedite learning (Taylor, Sisson, McKelvey & Trefelner, 1993).

Behaviors that are intermittently reinforced are more resistant to extinction than those that are always reinforced. Therefore, for problem behaviors that have been intermittently reinforced (which is generally the case), it is helpful to apply continuous reinforcement for a period of time before attempting extinction (Valles, Rocha, & Nation, 2006). This will speed the extinction process, because the transition from continuous to no reinforcement will be more abrupt and noticeable to the subject.

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), in which the reinforcer is of the same type as that used to maintain the problem behavior, has been shown to meet the need for reinforcement, thus making it less likely to cause the problem behavior (Fisher, Deleon, Rodriguez-Catter & Keeney, 2004). In other cases, it is found that NCR in which the reinforcer is of a separate category may also be beneficial in preventing the problem behavior (Hanley, Piazza, & Fisher, 1997). In either case, these techniques have been shown to reduce or eliminate extinction bursts.

In the present study, continuous reinforcement, withdrawal of reinforcement, DRI, and NCR

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are all used in an attempt to extinguish a long-standing disruptive behavior performed by a learning challenged cat.

Method

Participant

The subject is a six-year-old neutered male domestic longhair cat (Felis silvestris catus), Jonah, of a mixed tabby variety. He lives with an adult couple and a five-year-old female domestic shorthair, Tabitha, who is also a mixed tabby variety.

Jonah was adopted at the age of five days and hand-reared by the owner. Attention, in the form of petting, cuddling, breathing warm air on the cat’s forehead, and speaking to him in a soft but upbeat voice began immediately, and has been given regularly in various contexts over the cat’s six years. Jonah is very affectionate with his owner and her spouse, and he seeks out attention regularly throughout the day.

In particular, Jonah has been given attention for jumping up onto the owner’s computer desk. His presence on the desk was not considered a problem behavior prior to his maturity. However, when he reached his present weight of 16 pounds, it became troublesome, as he would obstruct the owner’s view of the computer monitor and prevent her from using the keyboard or the mouse. This has continued to be a problem despite a complete change of office location on two occasions.

The owner admits to intermittently reinforcing this behavior. Sometimes she would give the cat attention when he jumped up on to the desk, while at other times she would immediately push her chair back and roll away. On other occasions, when interruptions were not tolerable, she would pick him up, remove him from the office, and close the office door. o formal attempt has been made to address the problem behavior.

This subject has been compared to conspecifics in terms of his ability or motivation to learn. Jonah is somewhat overweight, is largely sedentary, and shows little interest in play, running, and climbing, compared to other six-year-old cats. Unlike resident cat Tabitha, he has been unable to learn to pass through a pet flap door and to respond to hand signals and clicker cues (after the cues were repeatedly paired with food). He was slower to learn to recognize the rattling sound of his cat carrier, and to open doors or cabinets that are slightly ajar.

Jonah was diagnosed with a kidney stone at the age of 14 months. According to subsequent imaging, the stone appears to be constant in size and location. At ages three and four, he suffered two systemic viruses, one of which required hospitalization. At the age of five, a small mast cell tumor was discovered in his left scapular area. Upon further investigation, a kidney infection was discovered, and treatment for this

Figure 1. The research setting is this home office. Here, Jonah is shown performing the target behavior of blocking the owner’s view of the monitor and access to the mouse and keyboard.

Extinction of a Disruptive Behavior in a Learning Challenged Cat: A Case Study

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seemed to shrink the tumor. Jonah currently appears to be in fine health.

Setting

The setting was a 9-foot by 16-foot home office with a hardwood floor (see Figure 1). There are two double-hung windows at one end of the office above the computer desk. Not shown in Figure 1 is a papasan chair that Jonah occasionally occupies while the owner is in the office. Also not shown is a soft perch for another cat on top of a four-drawer file cabinet that is next to the desk to the right of the computer desk. Tabitha regularly spends time on that file cabinet.

During the baseline phase of the study, the office was furnished as it had been for two years. During treatment, a perch location was added for Jonah and the computer monitor was moved to the left (see Figure 2). Placed on top of the end table was a soft perch that Jonah has used in a different location in the house for many years. It is therefore thought to be of acceptable comfort, and also contains Jonah’s scent. The window shades were all closed for baseline measurements, but the left-most shutter was open for treatment, to encourage the cat to choose the desired location.

Materials

A clipboard with custom data sheets was kept on the computer desk at all times. The data sheets have columns for date, start time, and end time for each computer use session, and Jonah’s behavior during each session. In all cases (baseline and treatment), there was a count column, to count problem behavior occurrences.

For the baseline phases, the final column on the recording sheet (after the “count” column) was used to record reinforcement of the problem behavior.

For treatment phases, the column after the “count” column was used to record whether the cat performed the incompatible behavior. In addition, for treatment phases, codes were used to indicate whether the “count” was an actual problem behavior (sit down or lie down on front of the computer), or simply a “walk-by” (defined below), in which case the mark is circled. For the DRI column, the mark was followed by a superscript “p” if the incompatible behavior required prompting, or by a superscript negative sign if prompting was not needed. The need for prompts was expected to fade as the new behavior was learned.

The final column on the data recording sheet was used to record the schedule for differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior. Initially, it was continuous, but it was hoped that eventually the new behavior could be maintained with intermittent reinforcement.

Procedure

During an interview with the cat’s owner, it was revealed that this behavior was being intermittently reinforced with attention from the owner. Attention as a reinforcer was defined

Figure 2. An end table is added to the left of the computer desk to provide a location for differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (DRI).


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as petting, hugging, breathing warm air on the cat’s forehead, and speaking to him in an upbeat, chipper tone of voice. Another likely reinforcer (although this was not proven) was the opportunity for the cat to smell the owner and deposit his scent onto her. Other typical reinforcers for cats, such as access to a view of the outdoors, food, toy play, and catnip, were ruled out, as none of these were present in this office. In addition, the cat had never been seen on the computer desk when the owner was not sitting in the chair.

An instance of the target behavior was recorded with a mark any time the cat jumped up onto the computer desk, sat, or lay down, and (a) caused the owner to move her upper body to the left or right in order to view the monitor, (b) prevented the owner from operating the keyboard with both hands, (c) prevented the owner from using the mouse, or (d) prevented the owner from viewing papers on the desk just to the right of the keyboard. These were counted as target behaviors, except when the cat simply passed across the computer desk on his way to or from the end table. This was termed a “walk-by.”

The owner uses the computer at different times of day and for varying durations. However, the cat’s daily schedule is fairly rigid. A typical day includes breakfast at 7 a.m., post-feeding grooming and nap, another meal at 5 p.m., followed by grooming and nap time, early evening activity, and a final meal between 9 and 10 p.m. Therefore, the exact times of day were recorded so that results could be examined relative to the cat’s typical activities.

During a 17-day baseline study, continuous reinforcement was given for all target behavior occurrences. During this phase, the owner recorded the time of day when she initiated computer use and when the computer session ended. Each occurrence of the target behavior was recorded on the record sheet as a “count,” and immediate attention reinforcement was given.

During treatment, three behavioral techniques (extinction, DRI, and NCR) were implemented. The owner continued to record the start and end times for all computer use sessions.

For the extinction procedure, no reinforcement was provided for target behaviors. When the cat jumped up onto the computer desk, the owner withheld eye contact, remained quiet, and abruptly pushed the rolling chair back a few feet from desk. She then sat and waited for the cat to leave the desk.

If the cat did not leave for a period of 10 seconds, prompting to the end table was provided by the owner. Prompting consisted of wheeling the desk chair closer to the end table and staring at it, and/or patting the top of the end table.

Differential reinforcement for an incompatible behavior (DRI) also began during treatment. The incompatible behavior was defined as the cat placing all four feet on the end table. Here, the cat could be near the owner, see out the window, and the owner could reach over and pet the cat without interference with computer use. The same reinforcer (attention in the forms described above) was given when the cat was on the end table.

Finally, noncontingent reinforcement was used in addition to extinction and DRI. During extinction phases, the owner provided attention when the cat was receptive in rooms other than the office. Non-contingent reinforcement was not recorded, due to inconvenience. The owner estimated an average of two additional sessions of attention per day in different areas of the house over the treatment period.

Results

Baseline data was collected in 44 sessions over 17 days. Session start times and durations were erratic, as is the owner’s typical computer use. Session durations ranged from 1 to 208


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minutes, with a mean of 40 minutes.

Treatment was conducted in 77 sessions over 26 days. Again, session start times and durations reflected the owner’s actual computer use, rather than a pre-planned timing. Session durations ranged from 2 to 178 minutes, with a mean of 40 minutes (coincidentally matching that of baseline sessions).

A summary of baseline and treatment parameters and count (target behavior) statistics is given in Table 1. Note that whether we consider the behavior rate in counts per hour of computer use, or counts per computer use session, we find a 62% decrease in target behaviors. These figures would not necessarily be equal, so they confirm that whether the behavior is based on the amount of time the owner is at the computer, or by the number of times she initiates a session, the treatment successfully reduced the problem behavior by a significant percentage.

Figure 3 illustrates the cumulative number of target behaviors performed during the 44 baseline sessions, superimposed against the cumulative number of target behaviors performed

during the 79 treatment sessions. Note that around treatment sessions 25 and 45, the rate of target behaviors declines rapidly. Also, in this course of treatment, an extinction burst (an increase in target behaviors often seen initially when reinforcement is withdrawn) did not occur. This is clear upon examination of Figure 3, as the cumulative record for treatment always remains well below that of the baseline.

Because the sessions varied by time of day, but the cat’s daily schedule (meals, naps, and activity) is quite rigid, the data was considered in an additional format. Each day was divided into five time blocks, each lasting for three hours, beginning at 7 a.m. and ending at 10 p.m.. The total number of counts per hour is shown as a function of time block in Figure 4. Here, when the hourly rate of problem behavior in the treatment phase is compared to that in the baseline phase, we see that behavior has decreased in all time blocks except for time block 3 (1 p.m. to 4 p.m.). For time blocks 1, 2, 4, and 5, the decreases in problem behavior are 51%, 92%, 27%, and 61%, respectively. In time block 3, there is a 7% increase in problem behavior.

In Figure 5, we see a cumulative account of prompted versus unprompted instances of the new and incompatible behavior (four feet on the end table). This can also be used as a measure of extinction success, or learning. Prompting was faded according to the subject’s performance

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Figure 3: Cumulative instances of target behavior during baseline and treatment sessions.

Table 1. Summary data for baseline and treatment phases.

Parameter Baseline Treatment % decrease

Number of days 17 26 --

Number of sessions 44 79 --

Number of hours 29.5 hours 52.4 hours --

Total number of counts* 65 44 --

Overall counts/hour 2.2 counts/hr 0.84 counts/hr 62%

Mean counts/session 1.48 0.56 62%

* counts are instances of the target behavior


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(rather than on a predetermined schedule). The results in Figure 5 show that there was little difference in the rates of prompted and unprompted desired behavior until approximately treatment session 19, when the two curves diverge significantly. After treatment session 57, prompting was no longer needed for the cat to perform the desired behavior.

The “walk-by” behavior was still occurring at the end of the treatment, but this was acceptable to the owner, as this is an easy way for the cat to reach the end table and is only a brief interruption. The DRI schedule was still at a constant level when data taking was completed.

Shown in Figure 6 is a photograph of Jonah performing the incompatible behavior. Since this treatment, he has spent time at this location, including times when the owner is not in the office.

Discussion

In this study, the cat’s undesirable behavior was successfully extinguished and the acquisition of a new, incompatible behavior was completed. It is hoped that these results will encourage the simultaneous use of several techniques for resolving undesired cat behavior, particularly for cats who have demonstrated below average learning ability. In addition, extended treatment time may be warranted for slow learners. For example, approximately 25 training sessions were required before the rate of behaviors significantly decreased (relative to baseline rates), as shown in Figure 3.

However, due to the great number of variables in this case, it is difficult to determine which, if any, of the techniques may have been unnecessary. For example, the fact that the end table and the view of the outdoors were not available during the baseline phase leads to an uncertainty as to whether providing this new location alone would have caused changes in behavior. However, it is believed that the abrupt environmental change could have served as a cue and thus facilitated learning.

Similarly, it is possible that the withdrawal of reinforcement (extinction procedure) made much more of an impact than the provision of non-contingent reinforcement. It is difficult to conclude whether the DRI made more of an impact than the NCR, and which was responsible for the absence of an extinction burst. Again, due to past experience with this subject, it was believed that many techniques would be needed simultaneously to effect change within any

Figure 5: The reduction in the need for prompting to perform DRI behavior (going to end table) as treatment progressed is illustrated by the “Prompted DRI” slope reaching zero while the “Un-prompted” cases continue to accumulate.

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Figure 4: Comparison of instances of target behavior as a function of time of day, for baseline, and after treatment.

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reasonable period of time.

In addressing the 7% average increase in target behavior for time block 3, we examined the cat’s daily schedule. It was concluded that due to the fact that the cat’s main meal is served at approximately 4 p.m., and is usually served by the owner, the cat’s increase in target behaviors was not driven by attention-seeking behavior, but by a motivation-establishing operation: food deprivation. We therefore recommend that the owner modify the environment by simply closing her office door during time block 3.

An interesting variable that was not considered is the amount of attention reinforcement. The reinforcement given in this study was, on average, about the same intensity in the baseline and treatment phases. It is favorable (least resistant to extinction) if the reinforcement doses are small during the continuous reinforcement used in the baseline phase (Valles, Rocha, & Nation, 2006). On the other hand, large doses of reinforcement would be preferable for maintenance of the incompatible behavior.

Figure 6. Jonah shown performing incompatible (preferred) behavior.


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ReferencesAmerican Pet Products Manufacturers Association, 2005/2006 National Pet Owners Survey. Retrieved

March 23, 2007, from http://www.aapma. org/press_industrytrends.asp.

Fisher, W. W., Deleon, I. G., Rodriguez-Catter, V., & Keeney, K. M. (2004). Enhancing the effects of extinction on attention-maintained behavior through noncontingent delivery of attention or stimuli identified via a competing stimulus assessment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 171-184.

Hagopian, L.P., Fisher, W.W., & Legacy, S.M. (1994). Schedule effects of noncontingent reinforcement on attention-maintained destructive behavior in identical quadruplets. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 317-325.

Hanley, G. P., Piazza, C.C., & Fisher, W.W. (1997). Noncontingent presentation of attention and alternative stimuli in the treatment of attention-maintained destructive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 229-237.

LeBaron, J.A., & Pryor, R. (2005). The effect of knowledge of behavioral therapy resources for cats on future shelter relinquishment rates. Introduction to Psychology project. SUNY Brockport.

Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Miller, D.D., Staats, S.R., Partlo, Cl, Rada, K. (1996). Factors associated with the decision to surrender a pet. Journal of the American Veterinary Medicine Association, 209, 738-742.

Rescolra, R. A. (2006). Deepened extinction from compound stimulus presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 135-144.

Taylor, J.C., Sisson, L.A., McKelvey, J.L., Trefelner, M.F. (1993). Situation specificity in attention-seeking problem behavior: A case study. Behavior Modification, 17, 474-497.

Valles, R., Rocha, A., & Nation, J.R. (2006). The effects of acquisition training schedule on extinction and reinstatement of cocaine self-administration in male rats. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14, 245-253.


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Case Study: Cat Meets Dog - Bringing Magic Home

Amy D. Shojai, CABC

The following is a summary of a retrospective case presented as a tutorial by the author on the IAABC Cats-Tutorial list-serve. The case featured the author’s own animals during their initial six-week introduction, as well as an update of the outcome after six months.

Pet Introductions 101

While turning a new pet loose into an existing pet household may result in “love at first sight,” it can as easily become World War III. First meetings matter because a bad initial experience--or a good one--leaves a lasting impression. For instance, cats highly aroused to the point of attack can “remember” the offending animal during future encounters and react with aggression without further provocation.

Carefully planned introductions ensure both the physical safety and emotional well-being of the animals involved, as well as the owners. Proper introductions can prevent or reduce the potential for behavioral problems. Fear-based or territorial aggression often arises as a result of haphazard management, and in the worst cases, injury or death. Owners unable to cope may feel forced to relinquish one of the pets.

Planning can be particularly important when introducing different species. Cats and dogs have different social, physical and emotional needs.

Although there are exceptions, most cats rely greatly on routine and bond closely with place. House cats seek to own/control their particular piece of the home, which may be one room, one chair, or the entire house. This ownership may be fluid and change with the presence of other cats of higher/lower status. Existing cat social groups do not welcome unfamiliar animals into the family group, and instead typically seek to drive off interlopers, or at least keep them at bay. A new cat introduced to this dynamic is more interested in exploring unfamiliar territory than meeting any resident animal.

Because dogs evolved as social animals who hunt, live, and rear young together, they more readily welcome strangers into the group. Resident dogs are protective of territory but show interest in meeting newcomer animals particularly in neutral areas (away from the home territory). When properly socialized and trained, the resident dog also may follow a savvy owner’s direction. The new dog in unfamiliar territory would seek to meet and greet another animal before exploring the yard or house.

Therefore, introducing cats to dogs poses special challenges. In addition to their different meet-and-greet styles, each communicates with body language that may be misinterpreted by each other. For instance, a wagging tail may signal “come closer” to the dog, but signals “keep your distance” to the cat. The dog’s raised paw may signal deference but the cat sees a signal of caution and readiness to flee.

Cat-to-cat introductions typically take place in the resident cat’s household, while initially restricting the new feline’s territory to a single room. However, it’s helpful for initial dog-to-dog

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introductions to take place in “neutral” territory away from the resident animal’s home.

Timeline varies greatly depending on the age of animals involved, their personalities and/or breed tendencies, health, and socialization/training status. When dealing with healthy, socialized adult dogs, introduction-to-acceptance might be expected to take one to three weeks. Healthy, socialized adult cats might reasonably be expected to accept each other as early as three weeks but more commonly after five to six months. It’s even more difficult to accurately predict timeline with cat-to-dog introductions.

Family Background

The owners consist of a husband who works outside the home and a self-employed wife. The husband’s first pet experiences occurred after their marriage; the wife grew up around many dogs and cats, worked as a veterinary technician and is now a journalist specializing in pet topics. They live in a large, two-story open floor plan house located on thirteen acres consisting mostly of open fields with some wooded brushy areas, all suitable for dog exercise and training. The cat remains primarily inside, unless on leash for brief walks.

The husband developed a special relationship with the cat that includes long, drawn-out “conversations” they share each morning and evening. The cat spends most of her time with the wife in the upstairs home office, and up to three hours alone in the house each day. Both owners feed the cat, and play interactive games in the evening that include fishing pole lure games, catnip treats, and/or hide-and-seek games.

The owners previously had a male German Shepherd from age five months to thirteen years. This dog suffered multiple health problems, and the wife was the primary caretaker and trainer. The lion’s share of training and care, and much of the introduction protocol, will again fall to the wife, although the husband has agreed to be involved as much as possible.

Cat Background

Owners adopted Seren, a domestic shorthair seal-point (Siamese look-alike) at approximately three months of age and had her spayed at four months. She learned bite inhibition and to allow claws to be trimmed each week. Reward training (feather lures, cream cheese, other cat treats) and clicker training taught Seren to willingly walk on a halter/leash, to sit, sit up and wave and come on command.

The cat’s personality changed at about two years of age following a pet sitter’s stay, which also coincided with typical feline social maturity timing. Thereafter she became territorially aggressive toward strangers (hisses, growls, “airplane” ears turned sideways and piloerection) especially in important pathways such as the stairs and doorways. The warnings never escalated to yowls, clawing, or biting. While she does not back down from strangers, once they back away she calms down (fluffed fur smoothes, ears return to face-forward position) and leaves the area, and her arousal generally diminishes within minutes. The behavior also appears to be mostly posturing, since the owner can easily remove Seren without any bites/clawing injury. For convenience and safety, owners routinely confine Seren before visitors arrive in the home to avoid arousal. Veterinary exams prompt growls and offers to bite. The one time Seren has bitten the owner was during removal from the veterinarian’s office.

Seren remained an “only” pet in the household for nine years and developed into a confident, healthy, outgoing seven-pound cat intrigued by everything. She remains biddable and loving to both owners, and showed great interest (meowing, digging at glass, seeking nose-to-nose

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interaction through window) toward other cats, skunks, rabbitsa and a raccoon who visited the patio. However, sight of dogs and coyotes prompted hissing, and retreating from the window to a lookout perch eight feet away.

Puppy Background

Magic von Fernheim, a black and tan male, born July 2006, joined the owners in September at age eight weeks and eleven pounds. The pup had no cat experience, although the breeder socializes all her puppies. Management of the environment for both the pup and cat’s safety will be a priority. Continued puppy socialization and training (especially impulse control) will be vital as well, since very soon the dog will outweigh the seven-pound cat and normal canine play/predatory aggression will pose a risk.

Assessment

Cat-to-dog aggression typically arises from fear when the animals have not been properly socialized and/or introduced to each other. Aggression may escalate especially when the target “acts” like a victim.

Seren missed the prime kitten socialization period (age two to seven weeks) to friendly dogs that would have helped smooth this transition. Ideal puppy socialization occurs up to 14-16 weeks, and vigorous socialization has been planned for Magic using some of the checklists provided in Premier’s Puppy Toolkit®.

Management is goal one. A program of desensitization and counter-conditioning is necessary to diffuse Seren’s potential defensive and offensive behavior. Training and continued socialization of the pup also is vital. Based on these concerns, a three-part program consisting of preparation, initial introduction, and continued management was taken.

Preparation

In an effort to transition Seren as gradually as possible, several environmental enrichments and management changes were made before the puppy came home. Owners set up a crate in the pup’s “home base” (one end of kitchen) in January 2006 and sprayed with Feliway®, an analogue of a feline cheek pheromone that signals a “safe” environment. Favorite toys tossed into the open door of the crate encouraged Seren to explore at leisure. Within four days, the cat had cheek-rubbed (territorially marked) the front corners, played inside and around the outside of the crate, and had lost interest in exploring the crate after two weeks.

To create a segregated pup-only area, owners installed two 41-inch-high pet gates (including a smaller cat door in the bottom) in each doorway of the walk-through kitchen. A collapsible exercise pen helped further partition one end of the kitchen, leaving the other for the cat’s free-access into the laundry room, containing a feeding station and litter box. A second litter box available in the owner’s second story office will be off-limits to the pup.

The gates left open for two weeks allowed the cat to become comfortable with the notion. Then the gate nearest the pup’s domain was completely shut while the owners opened the cat door of the gate nearest the laundry room. Within five days, Seren used the cat door without incident.

An existing three-tiered cat tree situated next to floor-to-ceiling windows in the living room adjacent to the patio offered Seren a safe, high retreat. Owners purchased a second cat tree and

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located it at the opposite end of the living area. After rearranging the furniture and establishing a second feeding station on the new cat tree, safe cat retreats nearly quadrupled. A dog bed placed in the living room area offered the pup a “go to” area away from the cat’s domain. Seren sniffed then ignored the dog bed.

Magic was born July 24. The owner visited the litter on three occasions, taking a cat-scented sock (petted Seren with the cloth) along for the litter to smell. This may or may not have had an impact. Owner also rubbed the sock over the puppies, returned home, and left it for Seren to find, and she spent a great deal of time sniffing essence of puppy—with no untoward vocalizations or overt body language objections. Later, the owner took dog toys for the litter to play and scent, for Seren to then sniff, and ultimately left the dog toys in the crate to help habituate the cat to the dog’s scent.

The breeder sent individual puppy temperament testing results to help the owner choose the best match. She used the Volhard Puppy Aptitude Test, which scores ten attributes on a 1-6 scale. Magic tested middle of the road (3) on seven of these; a 2 on “stability,” indicating a bit of caution; and a 1 on sight sensitivity, indicating high prey drive. In a separate test he scored “excellent” for Schutzhund aptitude, a sport that tests for working drive, trainability, and protection skills, among other things. Extra caution and training would be needed around the cat.

A week before the pup’s homecoming, Seren received a veterinary exam and a clean bill of health. Rescue Remedy® (a flower essence therapy) was added to her water fountain, located in the upstairs office, as well as cups of water next to four bathroom sinks, and at her laundry room feeding station. Flower essences are herbal remedies are made from plants, trees, and bushes, and are said to carry the vibration imprint of the plant’s energy which wakes up the patient’s system so it can heal itself. In some cases, flower essence therapies work extraordinarily well. The most common products are Bach Flower Essenses, which consist of 38 individual remedies, each benefiting a different emotional state. Combination essences such as Rescue Remedy can be helpful for terror or extreme stress. Most health food stores carry Bach Flower remedies. They’re safe to use alongside other medical treatments, and choosing the “wrong” essence won’t cause harm.

A Tutorial participant noted that because essences are energetic only, blood absorption is not a factor. The treatment does not need to be ingested, and only requires contact with the animal’s “energy field” to work, such as the head/crown, ears, and paws. This helps enormously with treating cats, who often cannot easily be given oral medication. The Rescue Remedy continued in the cat’s water for the duration of introductions, and was added to the pup’s water when he arrived.

Two days before the puppy’s homecoming, a Comfort Zone® DAP diffuser was plugged into the wall socket nearest the crate. This is an analogue of pheromones that nursing bitches produce that signals “no fear” to puppies (adult dogs also recognize this). In addition, a Feliway diffuser was plugged into the wall socket nearest the puppy gate entrance into the living room. The pheromone therapy continued for thirty days, until the diffusers were empty.

Introduction

Magic arrived September 15. He already outweighed Seren by four pounds and had already learned to “kennel up” for his meal, and “take a break” to eliminate on command. Owners immediately confined Magic to his portion of the kitchen. He settled in happily, crying only the first night and not at all thereafter.

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Limiting the cat’s sensory input during introductions helps prevent emotional overload. Any quick or unexpected motion (as of a rambunctious puppy) proves arousing to a cat. While it’s impossible to eliminate scent or sound, reducing visual stimulation can be controlled. Simply closing a solid door to the “safe room” works, but in this instance the owner covered the gates with blankets.

Also, during preliminary agonistic encounters cats tend to avoid looking at each other, because direct eye contact may be interpreted as a threat signal. The puppy’s curiosity and interest, characterized by direct and constant eye contact, as well as a low-wagging tail, likely would be misinterpreted as threatening by Seren.

Initially intrigued by the blanketed gates, Seren slowly stalked forward with neck extended to sniff, but immediately retreated with hisses in response to normal pup noises on the other side. She lived on the second floor of the house for the first ten days, but often watched from the landing. Another food station was situated in the office bathroom next to her water fountain. After the third day, Seren ventured downstairs for up to two hours at a time in the evenings, but only when the puppy slept and remained silent.

Owner began clicker-training the pup on the third day to teach basic obedience (sit, down, come, leash walking). Most importantly, owner planned for Magic to automatically sit when cued by the sight of the cat, to prevent chasing games, which can be difficult to un-teach.

By the second week, Seren spent a total of five hours a day downstairs, but in short increments, broken by retreats up the stairs following barks. When Magic was quiet, she approached the blanketed gate three or four times a day, using a crouched, stalking-type posture and stretched her neck out to sniff the edges of the blanket. At this point, she only hissed if startled by an unexpected puppy noise.

Practicing something fun (food, a game) in close proximity to the new animal helps teach the resident pet that there’s a benefit to being in the other’s presence. Therefore, owner attempted playing with a fishing-pole style lure toy (Da Bird) with Seren near the gate. However, the pup could see both the owner and the flying feather toy over the blanket, barked in excitement, and the noise prompted Seren to retreat. Thereafter, the owner relocated Seren’s play sessions to another room, and also provided catnip. During this period, Seren’s appetite and elimination remained normal; however, there was a slight increase in regurgitation attributed to stress.

By the third week, the blankets came off the gates when Magic repeatedly removed them himself. Seren had already peeked under or around the blanket three or four times while he slept, but Magic-in-motion made her fur literally stand on end. Owner attempted feeding their meals at the same time on opposite sides of the gate. But both animals stared at, barked/wagged, or hissed/growled

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at each other. Sight of the cat provoked barking, wagging, and prancing by Magic, who has begun bringing toys to the gate, perhaps to invite Seren to play.

Instead of meal-feeding at the gate, high-value treats (bits of cream cheese, ice cream, yogurt) were offered to Seren two or three times a day, initially from a distance of six feet from the gate. If she accepted the treat, the next session the saucer was moved a few inches closer to the gate. Seren continued to growl while eating, but after a week was licking up yogurt within inches of the pup while he practiced sits and downs for liver puppy treats. She would approach this close only if paid with a treat. Tutorial participants suggested using the clicker to cue Seren when close to the gate (or Magic) that something good—food—was coming.

By the fourth week, when Magic reached 12 weeks of age, Seren continued defensive hissing mostly when the pup barked. When he quieted, she perched on a chair back or sat on the floor about eight feet (her “safe distance”) from the gate with her tail wrapped around her feet (defensive posture) and stared silently with ears forward, eyes wide (offensive). If the pup made eye contact, she growled. When either owner spoke to her, she chirped, mewed, and demonstrated “elevator butt” posture, inviting petting.

Management

Toward the end of the fourth week, Seren began to listen and take advantage of Magic’s outings to more thoroughly sniff the puppy gate. For the first time, she stood her ground when he returned, greeting his nose pokes with hisses, growls, and paw-slaps through the gate. He responded with barks, wags, and play-bows. This became a new pattern, and the owner routinely interrupted the session with a verbal “chill!” or a tossed soft towel across the cat’s line of sight. Seren usually retreated to her safe distance to groom herself (displacement behavior and feline stress reliever) and resume watch.

Magic learned to sit to request the gate (or outside door) be opened, and when on leash was allowed into the living area for an hour each evening with both owners. Seren watched pup cautiouslywhen he was out in the living area, but daily decreased her distance from eight feet to about six feet by the end of the fourth week.

By the fifth week, Seren had decreased her safe distance to four feet and routinely demonstrated calm walking (rather than defensive stalking) when approaching Magic’s gate. She ran to the windows to watch him play outside, and ran into his private area to explore while he was out. For the first time, the pair touched noses (through the glass) with no reciprocal hiss. But meanwhile, the indoor hissing escalated to growls. Owners began leaving Magic for short (under an hour) periods of time but crated him whenever they wree out of the house and kept the gate closed to prevent Seren from teasing him.

After six weeks, Seren’s safe distance decreased even further and several times a day she approached the puppy within two feet (through gate), then exhibited offensive behaviors with hisses/growls/paw-slaps (making contact with the gate only) until she was interrupted. Despite Magic’s extreme interest (wagging, play bows) with this new proximity, he willingly sat on command. The second story of the house, including the owner’s office, will remain the exclusive domain of the cat until/unless the situation improves. The “cat door” in the gates can’t yet be used, since Magic still tries to wriggle through and may get stuck.

Outcome Of The Case

Over the six-week period covered by the tutorial, Magic learned to sit, lie down, and wait on

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command, which helped him practice impulse control. Since Seren never backed down, Magic was never rewarded for attempting to chase her.

Seren’s initial defensiveness (hiding, stalking to approach, crouching 10 feet away to observe) changed to more confident behavior. She stopped hiding, approached the puppy gate with eyes and ears facing forward, and routinely chose observation posts as close as a foot from the gate opening. Tutorial suggestions came after the initial six-week program.

Several months later, with Magic at eight months of age (and nearly 80 pounds), Seren has returned to her pre-Magic routine. She solicits attention from owners, has remained loyal to the litter box, and once again travels to “her” laundry room via the cat door even when the dog is within four feet of the opening. She also tolerates sharing the living room with him each evening, watching usually from a three- or four-foot distance (the new safe distance when the gate isn’t between them).

Seren also teases Magic. She frequently enters the kitchen unobserved by Magic, meows loudly for him to notice her, and then disciplines the dog with hisses, growls, and paw-swipes when he approaches with wags and a toy. She is now about the size of Magic’s head. The owner interrupts these interactions by calling the dog to come.

The gates keep Magic in the kitchen while allowing Seren access to the area, as well as the entire house. The dog recently completed a basic obedience class to further socialize him to other animals and better practice impulse control and reliability. He’s allowed off leash in designated areas of the home, but only under supervision and with a high-value reward (treat bone or toy), and is still crated when owners leave the house.

Seren’s hiss/growl quotient has been reduced from literally dozens of times a day to perhaps three to six instances daily. These mostly coincide with mealtimes, when one or both owners are in the kitchen near the pup and Seren chooses to join the family.

Both still have a long way to go. Neither are ready to be together unsupervised—and they may never be friends. But the owners are encouraged that they have learned to tolerate, if not totally accept each other.

Resources:Johnson-Bennett, P. (2004). Cat vs. Cat. New York: Penguin Books.

Landsberg, G, Hunthausen, W., Ackerman, L. (2003). Handbook of behavior problems of the dog and cat. New York: Saunders.

Shojai, A, et al (1999). New choices in natural healing for dogs and cats. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.

Shojai, A. (2005). PETIQuette: Solving behavior problems in your multipet household. New York: M. Evans Publishing.

Thorne, C. (1992). The Waltham book of dog and cat behaviour. New York: Pergamon Press.

Turner, D. & Bateson, P. (2000). The domestic cat; The biology of its behaviour. Cambridge: Press Syndicate, University of Cambridge.

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Protocol for Relaxation in Equines Connie Dwyer, MS, CABC, CPDT and Debbie Strother, MS, BCBA, CABC

Equines are naturally a species that runs first and thinks later. Each equine (from here forward also referred to as a horse) is different and some can be quite “spooky” and unsafe. This protocol will help your horse to become focused on you when he is faced with something that worries him. It teaches your horse how to relax under various situations that could cause him to spook and bolt from you, the handler/rider. It is the basis for all other equine behavior analysis programs.

The system described in this article assumes you have started with a protocol for deference before proceeding. A Protocol for Deference in Equines, which covers the foundation behaviors, as well as how to use food rewards successfully with horses, will be published in a future issue of the Journal.

Taking food and the chewing that goes along with eating are behaviors horses do when they are relaxed. The physical position taken by a horse while eating is a lowered head. We will use this lowered, relaxed head position as the main behavior in this protocol. The training will enable you to access it in times of stress to act as a calming signal to your horse. You will do this by putting the lowered head position on cue so that you can signal your horse to calm down and help him to dissipate his stress.

Things to Keep in Mind

The following are the key points to remember from the Deference Protocol:

• Be sure to keep your horse successful.

• He should be relaxed and attentive to you.

• If you see that he is showing signs of being agitated or upset, take a few minutes break and rethink your plan.

• Try using less pressure or break down the tasks so your horse can understand what you are asking.

• It is difficult for any animal to learn if he is stressed.

• Always be sure to end your sessions so that you are able to positively reinforce a satisfactory response from your horse.

You are striving to have your horse will look forward to the next time.

Patience and consistency are keys to the horse’s success. It is also important to focus on your own body language, because animals such as horses are very keen to it. Try to remain relaxed yourself, breathe deeply and slowly, and remain intent on what you are asking. Your focus will help promote focus and calmness in your horse.

The Protocol

In this protocol, you will be teaching your horse to lower his head on cue and keep it there willingly and in a relaxed manner under various situations. We will start with the quietest

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environment and then slowly add distractions to counter-condition and desensitize your horse to them.

Steps for the Protocol—Day 1

With your horse in a lead and halter, use pressure to ask for a lower head position. This can be done by putting downward pressure on the lead by placing your hand on the lead rope snap and applying slight downward pressure, just to the point of contact on the noseband of the halter. Maintain that contact until you feel your horse’s nose move lower in the slightest bit. Release your hold and say “yes,” followed by a food treat. Continue in this fashion until you have your horse’s nose in contact with the ground. This may take a few days to achieve, so be patient. Be sure to work in small increments and look for continuous movement lower and lower until your horse’s nose is all the way down.

You may also teach this using a pressure cue by placing your hand on your horse’s poll and waiting for movement down and away from your hand. Another common position is to put upward pressure on the lead, taking the slack out the of lead while placing it against your horse’s neck, just next to his jaw bone. This, in turn, will put the pressure on the horse’s noseband. You should maintain this contact until your horse makes an effort to release the pressure by lowering his head. This is the response you are looking for and the point that you should release your contact position, as well. If this is a riding horse, this cue will be the best to translate to a calming cue from the saddle. The contact you are applying with the halter and lead is the same position that you take when you are in the saddle and pick up the rein to ask for a lower head position.

Whichever way you teach it, work through the behavior until the horse is giving a 100% response rate to the pressure cue before adding the cue word “down.” Also, switch to a variable reinforcement schedule for the food rewards at this point, offering food treats randomly during the training process. You may also reinforce the behavior with verbal praise, such as “good boy.”


Ask the horse to lower his head to the ground and keep it there for 1 second

Ask the horse to lower his head to the ground and keep it there for 2 seconds


It helps to count out loud for this exercise. If your horse raises his head before you get to the next count, ask him again to lower his head to the ground. For instance, begin counting out loud again, 1 . . . 2 . . .; if he remains in this position, say “yes” and offer a food reward. As he improves by each addition of time (duration) in each step, you will say “yes” and offer a food reward. Ask for a 3-second head down position for three total requests. In other words, ask the horse to lower his head and hold it there to the count of 3 before you say “yes” and offer a food reward. Do this sequence three times with the horse successfully completing the sequence, and then end there on a good note.




Protocol for Relaxation in Equines

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You will mark with a “yes” and reward as your horse adds duration up to a count of 5. Take a 10-minute break from this and then resume by asking your horse to drop his head and keep in down for a count of 3. If he pops up at 1 second, just ask again and begin counting out loud, 1 . . . 2. . . 3. If he can get to 3, that is when you say “yes” and offer a food treat. Now try to ask for the head down to a count of 4. Then do same for a count of 5. End on this duration if the horse is successful. If he becomes stressed out, back up to a count where he was successful and end there, with him accomplishing that task, so that you can mark and reward it and end on a positive note.

Steps for the Protocol—Days 4 to 10

Follow the steps above, adding duration by seconds and counting out loud as you go along, up to the count of 20. Once you get to 20, you will ask for the lower head position but will not count out loud; instead, you will count quietly to yourself. Your goal is to get to a count of 100 with your horse’s head in the lowered position without you counting out loud. You will need to shape this in progressively longer increments, while still making sure that horse is able to perform calmly. You will tell your horse that he has been successful by the “yes” and the food reward. This keeps him in a relaxed position and focused on you for the release of the “yes” and the food reward.


Here we will begin adding distractions to the exercise. You can adjust this as necessary to deal with what your horse is spooky about. For instance, if your horse is worried about sounds behind him, you could add that to the head lowering.

Get the help of a friend and have her stand back to the side of your horse while you are at the horse’s shoulder holding the lead. Cue your horse to lower his head. Have your friend hold a plastic bag and make a very slight noise with it. If your horse can stay in head down position with this distraction, say “yes” and reward him. Now have your friend make a louder noise, and if your horse can keep his head down, say “yes” and reward. Keep on doing this until you can make lots of noise behind your horse and he does not appear concerned. If he pops his head up or moves his feet at any time, he is telling you that the distraction is too much for him. Stop what you are doing and ask him to lower his head again without the distraction and mark and reward once he complies, so you end on a positive note. You should now move along in smaller increments of distraction so that he can remain calm and successful. You should never force your horse or rush this process, as it will only work against you and sensitize him to the distraction—causing the opposite effect from what you are working toward.

Steps for the Protocol—Days 12 to 30

Work each day with a different object, sound, or degree of difficulty. There is a list of exercises to do below, but you can adjust them as you see fit for your horse. The more distractions you expose your horse to, the better adjusted he will become to distractions in general. You can never cover all possible distractions, but by following this protocol you will be


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counter-conditioning your horse, teaching him that distractions are something to look forward to and not to fear.

Your horse should remain in a calm head-down position for the following. Be sure to teach this using the shaping process, advancing in small steps until you can achieve the goal behavior. Be sure to mark and reward for increased performance and do not get stuck in one spot for too long.

Waving a plastic bag at a distance of 3 feet from in front of the horse.

Waving a plastic bag at a distance of 1 foot from in front of the horse.

Waving a plastic bag at a distance of 3 feet from behind the horse.*

Waving a plastic bag at a distance of 1 foot from behind the horse.*

Waving a plastic bag at a distance of 1 foot from the side of the horse.

Rubbing a plastic bag on the horse’s back.

Rubbing a plastic bag on the horse’s neck.

Rubbing a plastic bag on the horse’s face.

Running in front of the horse at a distance of 3 feet.

Running around the horse at a safe distance.

Banging a pan softly at a distance of 3 feet in front of the horse.

Banging a pan a little louder at a distance of 3 feet in front of the horse.

Banging a pan a little louder at a distance of 2 feet in front of the horse.

Banging a pan softly at a distance of 5 feet behind the horse.

Banging a pan a little louder at a distance of 5 feet behind the horse.

Rolling a ball in front of a horse at a distance of 3 feet.

*CAUTION: Be sure to put the bag on a stick and stand off to the side while waving the bag in back of the horse. DO NOT stand behind the horse, in case he kicks out. Keep a safe distance at all times.

Be sure to get professional help from an experienced trainer or consultant if you are unsure how to safely use any of the exercises in this protocol.


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Book Review Help for Your Fearful Dog: A Step-by-Step Guide to Helping Your Dog Conquer His Fears

by Nicole Wilde, CPDT (Phantom Publishing, 2006)

Reviewed by Valerie Pollard, CDBC

Nicole Wilde is a Certified Pet Dog Trainer (CPDT) who has worked for years with all types of canine behavior problems, as well as specializing in wolves/wolfdogs. She has written six books, and presents seminars both here in the United States as well as internationally. Nicole has a special interest and special place in her heart for dogs with fear issues, and with making their lives better. Help for Your Fearful Dog is her sixth book, and definitely the most ambitious and complex yet. The book is attractively presented, with an eye-catching cover photograph of a Papillon hiding behind his owner’s legs that definitely grabs your attention and also conveys the tone of the book: playful yet to the point.

Wilde begins the book with a Foreword that describes her personal experiences with her own fearful dogs, and sets up the book’s basic point of view: “Above all, be patient with your dog. Changing the underlying emotions associated with fearful behavior takes time. Although not all dogs will be able to conquer their fears completely, be assured that regardless of the cause, you will be able to make a difference and help your dog to feel more confident and relaxed.…”

The book begins by describing varying causes of fearful behaviors, including genetics, lack of socialization, abuse, traumatic experience, learned or associative fears, and pain or illness. Each topic is discussed individually, and bullet points at the end of each chapter summarize what was discussed in simple sentences which further clarifies the subject matter. For example, on the back cover of the book, bullet points clearly describe what topics are covered in the book, such as: “How to read your dog’s stress signals,” “How your attitude can affect your dog’s behavior,” “How to set up a Firm Foundation program at home,” “Four essential skills to teach your dog,” etc. There are many photographs, drawings, and changes of font that make the text not only more attractive, but also enhance the learning experience by clearly demonstrating body postures, handling techniques, appropriate body language, etc. There are particularly good photos of canine body language, including close-ups of facial expressions.

The book follows a continuum of related topics, easily flowing from one to the next—beginning with establishing a foundation program, that, in the author’s words, will “set the stage for learning and confidence-building by providing a supportive home environment.” The foundation program consists of management, physical well-being, and leadership and training. It then moves through discussions of nutrition, physical exercise, and mental stimulation; each of these topics is discussed at length and in great detail.

Wilde then goes on to discuss various types of fearful associations, including sound and touch sensitivities, fear of objects, fear of stairs, fear of the crate, fear of the car, fear of brushing and nail clipping, separation distress—and these are not all of the topics discussed! Protocols for working on these issues are provided, again with photographs and in detail, making for a really invaluable reference.

Next, Wilde discusses various types of non-behavioral therapies, including herbs, homeopathy, flower essences, massage, acupuncture, and pharmacologic intervention.

Help for Your Fearful Dog is a complete and well-written book that collects all that is cutting-

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Book Review

edge at this time regarding working with fear-related issues in dogs. I especially like that it is written from the point of view of a practicing dog behavior counselor who has worked through these issues not only with clients’ dogs but in her own work with wolves and her own dogs at home. The back cover states, “Nicole … has a special place in her heart for fearful dogs.” It certainly shows in the loving care and careful detail with which this book is written.

This book is a must not only for owners of fearful dogs and new trainers who are learning, but also as a resource for experienced behavior counselors as well.

animal behavior consulting: theory and practice: spring 2007

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