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    INTEIO

    b

    G. M ASCMB

    D D

    HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

    Cambridge, Massachusts

    London England

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    Copyrigh b G E. M AncombeAl gh reerved

    Ped n the Ued Sae f Amea

    Ogna pubshe n Engan n by Ba Blakwel

    F Hrvd nver Pre papeba edn 2000

    Calogng-n'IJon aa avaabe (m he Lary o ogre

    SBN

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    CNTT page Th subjct intoducd undr thre hads: expressio

    of intnion for th futur, intentiona action nttion i ctg.

    Intuitive undrstndig of th drece e

    prdicion' nd exprssion of intnio reetes a foundio for a philosophicl ccout of eprs sios of itntio Prdictio de so s to com

    pis ordrs and xprssions of intntio as wel sstits of th futur Th falsity of epressios ofintntion in the sipl futur tns () as ying (as flsity bcause th inttio is not arrid ou

    Usfunss of considring the vrb exprssio ofintntion for th futur in ordr to avoid various nds. slssness of an introspctiv xplnatio ofintntion Exprssions of intentons dstinguishedfrom sats of th futur by he jusition givn for h J

    4 Are thr ny statets of the for 'A itds hich b d ith fr cetainty? Descriptiosof ns ctons oftn dscriptions truly substutablefor n A tnds Rsons hy suppose n th sole uthoity on his on ntntos

    5 Intntionl actions dnd s ose to hi9 a certaisns o th qustion Why? is given applitio

    Diculty of ding h rlvnt snse and dangr ofovng in crcl in our explanations of rso forcting nd cton knockd th u o the blecus s strld givs an ansr to a ustion aout sotng don 9

    6. Th qustion Why ? is rfusd appcation y hens dd not no I s dong hat Thsa cion have ny dscriptions, in soe ofhch th agnt knos it and in soe not J J

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    page The question aso refused appcation when te acion

    was involuntary; but this notion cannot be introducedithout treating as solved the very kind of problemwe ae dscussng Dicultes of the noton ' in-voluntary

    'Nonobseational knowledge introduced as egte knolede one as o some o ones own movements ere is also nonobservational knolede of

    the ausation of a movement, as when I say why gavea start We can dee one class of involuntary movements without begging any questions, as the cass ofmovements kon ithout obseration, but herethere is no room or nonobservaonal knoledge ocausaty: eg the muscular spasm one sometmes has droppg o to sleep 13

    9. one sense o' Wy? the anser menons evideceut an anser to a ueston ' Why? aout an actonc does not mention evidence does not thereorenecessarily give a reason for actng he cases hereit was dcult to distinguish a cause from a reasonurn out to e ones where there is nonoseational

    koledge o the causation I5

    his knd o causation labeed ' mental causayMental causes shoud be distngushed from motiveso actions and objects of eelings 16

    1 And also from intentions ith hich a person acts, eventhough these may be expressed in the form' wanted Menta causaiy is not important in itse, ut it

    is important t make tese dstnctions 172 otives have een shar dstnused ro nten

    tions posopers, and descried as causesPopularly move and intention are ot so dstinct ut

    'motive is a wder noton than' intention motiveis not a cause at all 8

    13 Among motives that are not intentions for the uturewe disinguish beween bakwardlooking motivesike revenge (I kiled him because he killed my roter)

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    CS V

    pageand motive-igeneral (He di it out of riendsi).Moengeneal can also be caed ' ntepettvemotve 20

    14 t dsngshes bckwdlookng moe ommenal causes? Te notons o good and am aeivolved i tem

    In some cases he distinction between a mental cause

    and a eason is not sarpEg I put t down becausee told me to 3

    6 Summary o results raced so a

    7. e quesion Wy is not reused alcaone te aser is egFor no aricular reason orI dont o wy I did it Consideration o telater anser

    18 e act hatFor no articuar reason is a ossibleaser to te questiony about an acion doesnot se tat tis anse alays maes sense Buten we sea o it as not mang sense, we meantat e cannot understand e man o sas t, rather

    an at a orm o words is excluded rom telanguage e question y idented as oneexpectng an nswe in e ange we ave descbed,wc ange we use to dene te class o ntentoaacions 26

    19 We do not menion any exta eaure acing to a

    action at te time it s done by cang t ntentionalProo o is by suosing tere is suc a eture 8

    2 Discusson whethe ntentonal acons could sl havete chactestc o beng ntenon althoug theewee no suc ng as expesson o ntenon o euure, o urer intention wit c one acts Therewould be no suc tng as ou quesion ' Why orntenional cton i te only answe were: o noarticula reson 30

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    pe Crtsm th Arstt prf f e r

    mas s t, w w s tht sm hs

    rass r tg mst hr s sh his tt t t 33

    22 Disussi iteti ith hh, w s e tis sti uture I rder fr it t be pssibet a tat at ds P i rdr tat Q, h sttrt kwet f But i P, Q wtpp s iptibe wit is vi tt iteii ti. 34

    23 Is ter y sripti wi is th desripti ittia ti w itti ti urs ? exmp is ivtd whih t exmie e questi: m w vs hs r i pupi wter t repeish se wtrsuppy t pis the ibitts

    s s ig thr thgs wth te pp he t esme ime. Ay tr esriptis f wt he is diwih stisy ur ritri, r esripis f itei ts. Ar ther s y tis s yints s ere re su desptis ? 37

    24 Duies I e is pisni ibitts is ef ese esrpis, whe des he his ? Hw is

    mg h s rm up w t f psi henhats 4

    Sppsg h m t kw he wtr w ps hehtts, bt t sy I t r bt tht, wsy dig my b f pupig is sw ds tf wth te rg f swrs t y by wiw hv e ti ti e detrmie

    s tts ust by wht e sys y re Theintrst f ms teis prt rm wht etuy i 41

    6. Aswr t the uss 3 The AD ree. the rr sripts f t s tis tt h ter f te series be sid t be itti i ti s dsribd by e previus

    trm e st trm tti e i sesre y he rst r y itre ter 4

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    COS

    page27

    Is ere ever any pace fo an iteior act o itention,wch ealy detemes what s o s not gong onuder the ttle ' such-andsuch a kd o acton 7

    28 Futhe enquy to onobseatoal knowledeKnowlede o ones own ntentoal acto casay what am do wthout look to ee 49

    29 But must tee not be two objects o kowledewhat am don e my teton ad what s actualytak place, whch can oly be gve by obseao?Phlosophcal vews o wl and nteton whch havearse om ths poblem 51

    3 An exaple to pove that t won to t ad puste eal teton o act o wl back to sometng

    tag the movements that the take place 5331 Attempt at soluton by compag te acts wch may

    alsy a satemet o tetoal ato to the actswch may make a ode al to te goud adequacy o ths soluton 5

    32 Eample o man wth a shoppng lst: the elaon os st to what he buys d o what he buys to a stmade by a detective oowg m The caacteof a dscepacy between the lst nd what is boughtin the wo cases s tee such a h as pactcaknowlede n the sense of cent and medevaposophy 5

    33 Ths noton ca oy be udetood by st ude

    standg wat istotle caled pactical reasogTe pacca syogism is ot a om of demostaono what ought to do. t s a deent kd o easonng om that o e poo syogism but ts has beenmsudestood n mode tmes

    3 Pactal syogsms ae ot coed to oes tatlook paallel to poo sylosms e statg pot

    o a piece o pactica easog s sometg watednd he st pemise metons sometg wanted 2

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    3 Occuence of evaluave tems in the st pemse of

    pacical sylogisms given by Aistotle. Not eeysaeent of a eason fo acting shews pacticareasoning. 'I an does no ighly occu in thepeses, bu the s peise mus mention some-

    page

    hng waned 6

    36 In he elevant sense of'antng X in wnts

    X does no ange ove a descibable objects osaes of aairs Voition and sensenowedge cannotbe descibed independenly of one anohe Pobemof waning wife and genealy of wantng what theagent does no even suppose to exist yet 67

    7 If a man wans somehing he can aways be asked what

    fo o in ha aspec i is desiabe; uni he gives adesiabiychaaceisaion 70

    8 The queson What fo? cannot signicany beasked in a coninuation of he seies of such questonsonce a desirabiiychaaceisaion has been eachedThe poi iusaed by an example: t bes a zio spend s ast hou exemnaing Jews Ths

    does no mean tha the pacical easonng cannot beassailed so long as it is not faacious 2

    9 The fact ha a desiabiiychaaceisaion is eueddoes no shew tha any is compulsive in elaion owaning Bom t mtx. 74

    0 Compaison of the pobem of the eaton of nt

    ing

    to'good wih hat of he eation of judgngoue 76

    The ar o pacca easoning is hat e hngwaed is a a sance fom he paicua acion 78

    42 The' absudiy of seng pacical easonings ou inful The poin is o descibe not wht (psychoogicay) goes on but an ode the same ode as descibed in discussng whahe inenional aconwas 79

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    ES ix

    page43 Contrast btwn' th stov is burng and th man

    is payng hs gas bl: normous aarn com-lxity of ' dong in th lattr cas 80

    44 onsdraon of If I do hs, ths wll han, fha, hat folowd by action cass in whch ths isad n whch t s not actcal rasnn . 8

    45 Practical knowld considrd as h knowldg ofwha is don in h man who rcts a rojct wthoutseing it Problm how is hs knowldg f hs ordrs

    do no g carrid ot? 8z

    46 The dscripon of somhng as eg. blding a hoso wg on h blackboard mloys the conct ofhman acion, whch w hav sn o b dnd bymns of ou qustion Why? 83

    47 h rm nnonal las to a or o doof vns nnon in nmals 8

    48. Many dscrtons of vnts ctd b humans arfomally dscriptions of xcud ntnons Elucidaon of h noion of pactical knowldg 8

    49 Accon of volntary acon 8950. Re o xrssion of intnion fo he f Wha

    has ben sad abo innion in rsnt acon alsoaplies o fuu innion. A rdicon is an exrssion of intnton when our quston' hy also i. 9

    onsidraon of I js wan o, has all in gado an epession o intnon o he e 9

    z I am no gong o as expssion of intenonand am gong to as an xssion of blfases wh hey migh occ ogehe. 91

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    NTDUCTNThe greater part o what appears here was devered a

    course o lectres at xord n the Har erm o 9 Erptwth sal odications coprising the discussion o the derence beween otive, intention and mental cause ormedan Aristotean Societ paper delivered on June 3rd, 97 Ia indebted to the Societ or persson or a substantalreprint o that matter his book assembles the results, so aras concerns this partcular topic o research begun drng m

    tenure o the Mar Soerville Research Fellowshp at SoervlleCollege. I wsh thereore to express gratitude to the Donors.More recentl I have been supported b the Roceeller Foundation to whch an acnowledgent s thereore also due.

    Not o h Sod mprio

    have ade a ew alteratons the onl ones o an sinicance are on pp. 29, 58 59 and 61

    Not o od Edito

    or ths edton have made some sal ateraons n 2, , 1 7, 33 and 34

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    NTENON

    Vey oten, when a man says I a going t do suchnd-sc " we should say tha this was an expession o inenti.We als smetimes speak o a action as intetonal and we may lso ask with wha tenion the thing was dne each casewe employ a cocep oienion; now i we se out to descbehs concept ad ok only one o tese hee knds o statemeas cang ou whole topic we migh vey lkely say hingsabo what ntention means which would be alse to say e o he ohe cases F exame we might sayneioalways concers te utue But an acton can be intenionalwio beng ccened wh the tue i any way Reasnghs gh lead S say hat hee ae vaios seses ne

    nd peaps ha s hooghly misleading ha he wod eoal shld be coeced wth the wod tenno a aco ca be tetinal withou havng any ntetio nt O lteavely we may be tempted o tk ha nly acosde w ce ue tentions ugh be called e Ad we ay be nclned t say that etio has afe sese when we speak o a mas tents mr

    e. w he eds dand s iteo dog psng somethgha he aims a n u n ac splasble say ha the w s equvocal as ccs eseee cases

    Wee we e temped o speak iee senses a wch s clealy eqvcal we ay e a we ae ac pey mch in the dak ab te chaace e ccep h t epeses Thee is hweve ohg wong whakg pc pecemeal shall teee begi my enquby csdeig expessions o ntenon

    he distncon between a expessio nenton anda pedicon s geneally appealed to as somethng ntutvelyclea. gong o be sck s usally a pedcto I am going ke a walk suay a expessio o ention The dsco ntended ntitvely clea in the ollowing sense:

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    INNON

    I say am gong to fal n ths exam. ' and someone says Surely

    you arent as bad at the ubject as that, may make my meanngclear by explanng that was expressg an ntenton, not gvngan estmate of my chances

    f, however, we ask n phlosophy what the derence isbetween eg am gong to be sck as t would most usually besad, and am going to take a walk " as would most usuallybe sad, t s nt umnang to be told that one s a predcto

    nd the other te expresson of an ntenton For we are reallyasng what each of tese s Suppose t s said A predicton s statement about te future Ts suggests tat an expresson ofintenton s not t s perhaps the descrpton-or epression-ofa present state of mnd, a state whch has the propertes thatcaracterse t as an ntenon. Presumay what these are hasyet to be dscovered. But en t becomes dcult to see why

    ey should be essentally connected wt the future, as entenon seems t e No one s lely to eleve that t s anccdent, a mere fact of psycoy, at se states f dwc are ntenns aways have t do w e future, teway tat t s a fact of raca psychooy, as one ght say, thatost o te earest storcal radons cncern herc guresd you ty to ake beg conceed with the fut ure ito deg property of intentons, you can be asked what sevest dstnguish ths conce w te future from the predctveconce.

    Let us ten try to gve some account of predcton Thefollowng seems promsng: a man says some wth oneiecon of te verb s sentence; ater at same tng, onywt a changed necton of te ver, can be called tue (or false) face of what has happened later

    ow by ts crteron, commands and expressons of nentonwll also be predcons. n vew of the dcultes descrbedaove, s may not consute an oecton dopng a ntfrom WenstenPhoophia Itatio 930 we mghtthen rst dene predcton n general n some such fashon, andthen, among predcons, dsngush between comands,expressons of ntenton, esmates, pure propheces, etc. The

    inuvely clear dstncton we spoke of turns out to be astcon between expressons of ntenton ad estimates But

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    a single utternce my functon as more thn one of these knds

    of pediction. .g when docto sys to ptent in the pesenceof nse' Nse wil tke yo to the ope thee " hisay fncon both s an expression of hs intenton (f it is init tht his decision s to wht sh hppen gets epessed) nds an ode, as wel s being omtion to the pient; nd it isis ltter in spite of bein n no sense n esmate of the futureondd on evidence, n et ges o pophecy no does the

    ptient nomay r the inomtion fom he fct tht thedoctor sid t he would sy tat the doctor to him Thisempe shews tht the indce descriptie, nfomatory)chaacter is not the distnctie mk of predictions a oppoto epessions o inenon as we might at st sight hae beentempted to hnk.

    An impee wi be a despion of some fture action

    ddessed to the prospectie gen, and cst

    a form whosepoint in te ane is to mke the peson do ht is descbed sy tht this is its poit in he ne the tn tht it ise ppose of e spek pty becse the speke miht fcorse gie n orde with some pupose qite oter tan tit should be eecuted e.g so ht it shod ot be eecut,whout detriment to its beng an oder

    Eetion-conditons for commnds corespond to tuthcondions for ropositions Wht ae he resons othe tha dispensble usage o not cling commands true and fseccoding as they e obeyed or dsobeyed?

    An orde wil usally be gien with some intenton or oerbut is not as su e eression of a oition it is simply descripon of n acion cst in a special fom; this fom omemes a speal ection nd sometmes a future tene

    wich hs other uses s wellOrders re usully critcised for being sound or unsound

    rther tan or being led or not fulled; bt tis does notere to distngs orders rom estimates o te ure since eame may od or esmates o e futue, where ese arecienc Unscienc esmates are o course rsed or beulled rater han for being weounded, as no one nowwat a good oudation is for an unscientc esmateeg. olicl one. But here is a dieence beween he ypes o

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    ground on whch we ca an order, and an estimate of the utue,

    oud. The easos justfyi an orde are not one ueti what is pobable, o lkely to happen, but e. ones suestin what it would be ood to make happen with a view to anobjective, o with a view to a sond objective. In thi ead,ommands and expessions of intention ae simila.

    It is natual to eel an obetion bot t allin ommands,and to caln epessions o intention, pedictions I the ase of

    ommands, the eason lies in te supecia ammar, and ustbecause o ths is moe easil dsposed of In the ase of intentions, special aa wod athe incine us to accept tedanoss snce a common om o epession of intentio is asmle e tense and indeed, this se o the te tense mstla a donant pat in an child's leanin o it But ouobections ae deepe ooted

    I I do not do what said I wold, I am not supposed to havemade a mistake o even necessail to have ied; so it seems thathe tth o a statement o ntention is not a matter of my doin

    what I said But why shoud we not say: tis ony shows thatthee ae othe ways o sayin what is not tre, besides yin andein staken?

    A e, however, is possible hee; ad i I ie, what I ay is aie because o somethn pesent, not futue. I miht even be

    in in sain I was oin to do somethn, ouh I aterwarddid it he answe to tis is that a e is an utteane ontrarto ones mind, and oe id may be eiher an opio, or amind to make somethin the ase That a ie i a uteraneonta to ones mnd does not mea that it is fase epor ofe ontents of ones mind, as whe one ies i respose to equery A penn fo o thouhts .

    One ht not have a mind to do somethin, distiuishabe om uttein the wods And ten, as Qie one put it(at a phlosophca meetn), one miht do the tn to mak anhonest popositon o what one had aid. For if I dot dowhat said, what I said was not te thouh tee ht not be aquestion of my truthfu i sayi it. But the reaso whyQuines emak is a joke is at ts falsehood doe ot neesarily impun what I a In ome ases e fats are, o topeak, impned for not bein in accodane with e wods

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    INON

    rather han v vra This is sometimes so when I chane m

    mn; bu anohe case o i occurs wen e we other than hnk am writin: as Theophrastus says MagMoraa 189b u) he msake here is one of performance, noof ument There are other cases oo: for exaple, S Peeri no ag md about enyin Christ; a ye it woulnot be correc to say he mae a lyig proise of faihfulness

    ad is esseniall a sn (r sol), wheeas an

    itenion can exist without a symbol; hence we speak of com mds, no of the expression of comani but of the proof intention Ths is another reason for the very naural ieatha in orer o unersan the expression of inention, we ouhtto consider sometn inernal, ie what it is an expression ofThs consieraion isincnes us to call i a preiconLe aescription of somehin future Even thouh tha is us wha

    Ill o suchan-such actually looks lke, an even thouh Iinten to go for a walk bu shall no o fr a walk oes soun soe way contraictory

    Intention appears to be somehn tha we can express, buwhich brues (which eg o not give orers can houhlacng any disinc expression of itention For a ats movemens stalkin a bird are harly to be calle an expression o ineno

    ne might as well call a cars stan thepro

    of is beiabout to sop Inention is unlie emotion in this respec ttthe expression of it is purely conventional; we migh say ngtc if we will alow cerai boily movements wh a conenional meain o be inclued in lanuae Witenste seesto e to hae one wron in speakin o the natural expreiof an tenion oopa IvtaOl 647

    We nee a more fruful line of enuiry than that ofconsierin the ebal expression of inention, or of try toconsier what it is an expression of For if we consier jus everbal expression o inention, we arrive oy at its being aqueerspecies of precon; an i we ry o look for wha i expression of we are kely to n ourselves n one or oher of

    seeral ea ens, e psyholoical aron abou rives an Ang ha we a orel old h Theophas a h aho

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    6 IO ses edo o eo o eie o deie ie kid o

    emoio o iedbe io o e meig o

    ied Lookg e veb eeo o ieo is deed o seo vodg ee deded ey e eed oeee o evg e do bewee eimio oe e d eeo o eo someg j sivey obvo m m gog o wk d we eeo o eo o edo ow do we kow we sked m o dob e wod e b w doe e kow d ow Wgeei s sow emoby o weg s qeo by yg He eogzesme vg o s vg d eo o gog o wk o vg me e wod eeio o eio .I wee oe ee wod ve o be oom o e osii e mieogies. Fe we we emembe igme o do someig w emoy eve as ag goe oi o ooess is ew s iems mos w b omeas dd o s eio o i simp pomps o se e wod me o . wio eve e peo w we jdge e wod o be oe desioTe diso e o be e o be iiiey obviosexep wee i s sed o swe e qeso i w sese am me e om o wods m goig o o i

    oaso.We mig aemp o make e diiio o saig:

    an expesio o ieio is a desipo o someg ue wi e speae is some so o age w espo euses i e does i easos o ag, s easosw i wo e use o aae e espo ame ue,o edee a i is e B aig go so a seeowee ese o go og is ie, ad e opi emi emsig. oe sw some oes o a ee o Wigeseii wi e imgied soe ees ow ao b e wid adsaig Now go is wy . ow go w as ewid ew em. e aog is saisoy i appeyassignig o oe o ee pediios oe an a o aueessy aompnime o e moemes o e eaesBu i mig be epied w do you mea b a nneessaaompnime? f o mea oe n e see o wi e

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    NIO 34 oeets of te ees woud ve bee jst te se t

    aog s cet bd. But ow do ou ow wt the oveets of te eves woud ve bee f te d ot bee ccomped b those tougts? If ou e tt ou coud ccuatter ovemets ust by owg te speed d drecto of twds ad te wegt d oter propertes of te eves, are yosstg tt suc ccutos coud ot cude ccutosof te gs?ges w dscssg fe w we

    e produced ts og ow te obecto to t s ot tht tassgs a fase roe to our tetos but o tt t des otdescrbe ter roe at a ts owever, ws ot ts purposeTt purpose ws cer ome dea of fee w weter wte te wd as a sybo for te pysca forces tat aect usor for God or fte. ow t m be tt crrect descrpto ote roe of teto our actos w ot be reevt to th

    questo o free w ay case sspect tt ts ws gstes vew terefore gvg ts t-freew pcure e wasat berty spy to eve the roe of teto qute obscure

    ow our ccout of expressos of teto wereb teare dstgused from esttes of te fture eves oe ver uc te sme posto s does te pcture of e wbowg te eves Pope do fact gve ccouts of fuur

    evts whch te are some sort of agets tey do ot ustfyese accouts b producg resos wy te soud be beevbut, f at a, b a deret sort of reso ad tese accouts rvery ofte correct Ts sort of accout s caed exprsso ofteto. It just does occur u gug. If te coceptof teto ' s oe's qurr, ths equry as produced resutswc are deed ot fase but rater ystfyg. hat s eat

    b reaso ere s obvousy a frutfu e of qury but prefer to cosder ts rst coeo wth te oto oteto acto.

    4. I herefore tu to a ew e o equry how do wt somoes tetos or what kd of tu statemetsabout peope' teos c w certy make, ad how do wknow that the ar te That s to ay, s t possbe to d tpeso satet f te form A teds X ' whch w ca say hv

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    8 TO

    great deal of certainty? Well, if you want to say at least some true

    thngs about a man's ntentons, you will have a strong chance ouccess if you mention hat he actually did or s dong. Forwhateer else he may ntend, r hatever ma be his ntentons noing at he oes, the greater number o te thngs whchyou would say straight o a an did or as doing, wll e thngshe intens

    I m rg to th ot of thgs ou ould say n a la

    ourt is you were a wtness and were asked what a man was dongen you sa him That is to say, in a very large numer oases, your seection rom the immense varety o true statementsbout im hich you mght make oud coincide wth what heould say he was doing, perhaps even without reecton, certainlywithout advertng to observation I am sitting n a char wrtng,nd anyone gron to the age o reason in the same world wouldkno ths as soon as he saw me, and n general t would be hsrst account o what I was doing; ths were somethng herrived at wt diculty, and what he knew straight o wererecisely how I was aecting the acoustc propertes o the room(to me a very recondte pece o normaton), then communcatoneeen us would be rather severely mpared.

    In ths ay, th a vew to shewng roughly the range o

    things to be discovered here, I can take a short cut here, andiscuss nether how I am to select rom he large numer o truetatements I could make about a person, or what s nvolved nthe exstence of such a straght-o descrpton as She s sttngin a cair and writig Not hat this does not rase very nteresting questions See Poocl Inon p. 59 (b): I see apicture: it shos a man leaning on a stick and going up a steep

    path How coe? Couldn't it look lke that i he were sldingonhi i that position? Perhaps a Martian ould gve thatsciio' A I am here concerned to do s notehe act e can impy say Loo at a man and say what he sogie say hat ould iediatey come to your ind asa report to give someoe ho could not see him and who wantedto know hat was to be seen n that place In most cases whatyou ill say s that the man himse knos and agan n most,though ndeed in eer, cases you ill be reportng not merelyhat e is doing but n neon of hsamey, to do tat

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    NTNTON 5

    ing Wat s more, t is not an ntnton o is ts w

    he m abe cea ihu akn imN t an easily eem tat in genea th queton hat

    man's ntntons ae i ony atoitatvey setted b Oneeason fo ts s tat n gena w ae teeted nt jst n mns ntenton dong ha dos bt n s ntnton ong , and h can vey en n be een m eein ha hedo Anote s tat n enea t estion ete e ntends d ha he de jst dos not ase (base te answe ibiu l i t dos aise t s ate oten stted by askingim. And na a man an om an ntenton w e tendoes notng to ay ot ete cau e s pentd bece he chane h mnd: t t ntenton tse can becmee, atog t mans a uey inei tng ll hicne make u hnk ha e an n a man'nenn n he cnen h nd, and nly n heeha e mu enque and hence, ha e ih to undeandha nenn , e mu be nveiain mehn heence uey n he hee he mind and ha ahuhnenn ue n acn, and he ay h haen a eenneein quein, ha hyicay ak ace e haa man acuay de he ey la hin e need cnide enquy Wheras ih a ha i t Wt hiable go on to he sond ed o t dvsn tha I madn : nentional ct

    5 ding:h ai wc ae noa ote a o? T asw tat sl ue ate ae atn t t Jen te hy i g: an e ee s cue ha hh te pov, e a en [ tng Bu t not set statment bc t stn" h teeant snse o he uestn Wy? ' and Wat i mean b ean o atng

    , " ae ne and he ame

    o ee he dcue hee, cnide he ustn, hy ddo knck he cu he abe aneed by ' huh a a ae a he nd and t mad me jum N, a hae ny aatesed eason o atng by opposng t tedene o spposng t tng w ta pa-bt te an

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    0 TTO

    ere wa not evdence tat I was gong to knock te cp o

    te tale. or cn we say tat nce t menton ometnpevos to te acto ts w e a case rater tan a reason;o o ask o k m ' te aswer He kedm aer' s se a reaon rater tan a case, t wat tmeton s peos to te acton It s tre tat we don'trdnarly tnk of a case lke gng a dden tart wen wesek f a easn f ag. "Gg a sdde stt , smenemgt say, s not at

    n te sense ggested y te expeon

    reason or actng . ence tog ndeed we readly ay e.g Wat was te reson for yor startng so volently? ts totay uke Wat s yor reason for excldng oand-so fromyor w? or Wat s yor reason or endng for a tax?Bt wat i te derence? In neter case te nwer a pecef evdence Wy gvng a start or gasp not acton,

    wle endn r a tx or rosng te roa, one? e wercanot e Because te answer to te qeon y? maygve a o n te ater cases, or te nswer may ge areason n te ormer case too; nd e cannot say "A, t not areason or ai"; we sod e gong rond crcles. We needto nd te derence etween te two kns o reason wtttakng aoutactng' nd fe do, perap we all dcoer wat

    meant y actg we t sa wt t specal empat w ardl e engtenng to a te case o e suddetar te reason ' a a te topc o casaty s n a state too geat coso; a we know s tat ts s oe o e pacewere we do use te word case' Bt we aso now tat tss a rater strange case o casaty; te sject s ae to gve tecase o a ot or feeng o odly movement n te same kndo wa as e s ae to state te pace o s pa or te poston s lms.

    No ca we sa "\Ve te eason ' or a moemet s acase, and not a reaso n e sense of eason or actng we e movemet s nolntar; t s a reason, as opposed to acase, we te movement s oluntary and ntentona' T partly ecase n any case te oject o te wole enqury relly to deneate sc concept as e olntary and te ntenonl, n prtly ease one cn als ge a reason c ny a ce or wat s vontary and ntetona. Eg " Wy

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    IO 5-6

    ae ou walng up and down lie that ?" Its tha miitar

    and it exites me " O Wat made ou sin the dcumentat last? " The thouht t is my duty ' ept hameringawa in m mind unti I said to mysef I can do no other ,d so signed"

    It is ver usual to hear that suchandsuch are what we c eaons fo actng and that it is rational ' o what wecational to act for reasons bt tese rers ae sore than half moralistic in meanng and moralis as radeyemared, is bad for thinking) and for the rest they leae ouronceptual probems untouched whie preending to give aquc account In any case, this pretence is not een psiesince such remars contain no ht of wha i is to ac for reasons

    To clarif the proposed account, Intentional actiosae ones to whc a ertain sense of the question wh ' hsapplcaton", I will both explain ths sense and describe caseshewing the quesono to have application I will do the secondob two stages because what I sa n the rst stage of it wil beo use n helping to explan the eevant sense of the quesionwh

    Ts uestion is efused appication b the answe I wasot awae I was dog that uch an answer is, not indeed aproo snce it ma be a lie), but a claim, that the question Whid ou do it (ae ou dong it) ? in the euied sense has noapplcaon. It aot be plausibl given in ee ase forxape, if ou saw a man sawng a plank and askedWh areou sawing at plank and he replied I didn't know I wassawng a plank , ou woud have to cast about fo what he mightmean ossibl he dd not know the word plank ' before, andhses s wa of expessing tat But this question as to whathe mght mean need not arise at alg if ou as someone whhe is standng on a hose-pipe and he says didn't now I was '

    Since a sngle action can hae many derent descripions,eg sawing a plank ', sawing oa sawing one of Smithspans, makng a squeak noise with he saw ', mang aeat dea o sawdust and so on and so on, it is important tooce at a man ma know that he is doing a thng under onedesipton, and not under another Not eery case of this is a

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    ase o hs knon that he s don one pat o what he s don

    ad not anothe e he kos he s sawn t not a he akn a sqeaky nose wth the saw) He may know that he sawn a plankt not that he s sawn an oak plank o Smtplank t san an oak plank o Sths plank s not sometnelse that he s don besdes st san the plank tat he ssan o ths eason the stateent that a an knows he dn des nt y the stateent thatonenn anythn

    hh s also hs don X he knos that he s don that t to say that a an knos he s don X s to ve a despono hat he s donuder whch he knos t hs when a mansays as not aae that as don and so lams that theeston Why has no applaton he annot alway e onted by the at that he was attentve to those o hs own poeedns n whh don X onssted

    7 t s also lea that one s esn applaon to heeston Why n the elevant sense) one say t wanvolntay even thoh the aton was somehn o wonewas aae Bt annot se ths as t stands sne te notono the nvolntay petty obvosly oves notons o eatythe type hat a phlosopha eny nto ntenon ot to beeldatn

    ee dessn o a oent shold lke to eet ashonable ve o te tes volntay and nvoluntay wh says they ae appoately sed only when a peson hadone somethn ntoad anyone s tepted y h vewheshold onsde that hysolosts ae nteested n voluntayaton and that they ae not vn a speal tehna sense tohewod yo ask them hat the teon s they say that they ae dealn th a on hman they ask h and wth an anal they take oveents n hh the aal s etyn to et at soethn say ood hat s the movement y

    whh a do oked ts ea at a sdden sond wold not be sedas an exale

    hs does not ean that evey despton o aton nwhh ts volntaness an be onsdeed s o nteest to physolosts. O ose they ae only nteested n odly movements

    We an also easly et onsed by the at thatnvolntay

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    E 7

    nethe eans sipl nonvolunta nor has an unprobleatc

    sense of ts own In fact this pai o concepts s altoether veronfusin onsdr the our olown apes o th nolunta:

    The peristaltic oeent o he ut() The odd sot o jerk o jup that one's whole bod

    soeties gves when one s falling asleep() He withdrw hs hand in a oeent o noluntar

    ecol() The nvolunta benet I did hi b a stroke I eant toa h.

    Faced with exaples ke ) and ) how can I intoduce Itwas nvolutar ' as a fo o ejectng the question Wh ? inhe specal sense which I want to elucidatewhen the wholepupose of the elucidation s to e an account o the concpt ntentonal ' Obviousl cannot. Thr s howr a cassof the thns that fall under th concp nountar ', whcht s possble to ntroduce whout bn any qustons orassuing that we udesand notions o the ver tpe I apofessing to nvestgate. Exaple b belongs to ths classwhh s a class o bodil oveents in a purel phsical descipon Ote exaples ae tics, reex kcks o the knee thelft of he a fo one's sde ater one has leaned heavl wtht up against a wall.

    8 What is equd is to dscrbe ths cass without usnan notions like ntended ' or wild ' or ountary ' and inoluntar ' This can be done as folows we rst point out palar class o things whch ae true o a an nael thelass of hngs which he kow wthout obeao. Eg. a

    suall knows the postion of his libs wthout obseation. Its wout obseaton because nothin hew h the positionof hs libs t s not as if he were going b a tingle in hs kneewhch s he sgn that t s bent and not staght Whre we canspeak o sepaatel descibable sensations haing which s nsoe sese o cteon o saing soething then we canspea o obseng that thing but that s not geneall so whenwe ow the posion of ou libs Yet wthout proping we s t sa howeve that we ow t and not erl ca

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    O

    t beause tere s a possbty of beg rgt or wrog ere

    i pot i peakig of kowedge oy wre a cor ebetwee e w' ad e (erely) thik e kows'. Tuaoug tere s a sarty betwee gg te posto of oe'ms ad gg te pae o oes pa I soud wis to saytat oe ordary kw te posto o oes imb wtoutoerato but ot tat beg abe to say were oe feels pas a ase o sometg o s s ot beause te pae of

    pa (te eeng ot te daage) as to be aepted y someoe1 t t to or we a mage rustaes wi it s otaed s eg you say tat your oot ot your ad ery sore ut t s our ad ou urse ad you ae o earo or obeto to a osderate adng of your foot adyet you pot to your oot as te sore art and so o. But erewe soud say tat t was ut to guess wat ou oul meaereas f soeoe sas tat s eg s bet we i is straigts ay be surrsg bt s ot partuarly obsure He iwrog i wat e says but ot unitegbe So I all is ortof beg abe to say kowedge ad ot mere beig able toay

    Now te as of tigs kow wtout obseratio is ofgeera terest to our equry beause te ass of itetioaatos s a sub-ass of it I ae alreay ai tat wa o

    aware I was dog tat' s a rejeto o te quetio W? 'wose sese we are tryg to get at ere I an furter ay kew was dog tat but oy becaue I obsere i' woulalso be a rejeto of t Eg if oe otie tat oe operate trac ligt rossig a road

    But te ass of tg kow witout obseraio is aso ofpeal terest i tis part of our equiry beaue it makes it

    possbe to desre te partular ass of iolutary atio 'w I ae so far iated just by gig a few examplesee are atios like te exaple ) aboe ad our a i tomar o is a wiout beggig te queio we are tryno aswer Boil moemet like e pertalc moee oe gut are iolutary but ese o ot itere u o a oe ot kow i body i maig em excep b obeaoiferece etc. Te iolutar at iteret u i ericeo te cas of ngs ow witout obseaio a ou woul

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    O 8-9

    know even wh your eyes shu tha you had kicked when he

    ocor apped your knee bu canno denfy a senaon bywhch you know f you speak of ' a senon whch oneha n reex kcng, when ones kne s apped " h no keeg. he senaon of gong down n a l For hough onemgh ay I hough had en a reex kck when I hadnmoed one would neer say eg Beng o arn newge one ha enaon : e senson no separable as esenaon lke gong down a lf s

    No among hngs own whou obsevaon mu becue he causes of some moemens Eg. Why d youjump back udeny lke ha? The eap an oud bar of hacrocoe mae me jump am no ayn I no oberee crocode barn; bu I no obsere ha makn mejump) Bu n examples ke ) he cause of moon owno

    hrough oberaonThs ca of nounary acon hen he c of moemen of he boy n a purey physca ecrpon whc arenon wou obeaon n where ere s no uc hn a on ou obseraon. (hu my jump bacar a he eap bar of he crocoe oes ot belon oh ubca of oury acon Th ubcs c be

    ecrbe whou our rs hang clared he concep nolary . To assn a moemen o wll be o reec e queton Why

    9 I rs n consderng expresons of nenon sad ahey were predcon jused a al by a reason for acna oppoe o a reaon for n hem rue So I hee aleady

    nhed a sene of Wy ? n whch he nswer meoedence There wll be n eclpse omorrow W Because and an answer s he reason for hinng so There wa n ance Brsh cp here Why ?and ananswer s he reason for hnng so. Bu as we hae alreaynoed n wer o he queson Why ? whch doe no gereaon for hnng he g ue oes no thror ge a reasonfor acn I may menon a cause and s far from wha wen. Howeer we noce ha here are cones n whchhere some dcly n decrbng he dsncton beween a

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    TTO 9

    use nd reson As e.g. when we give redy answer o te

    queston Why d you knock the cup o he able ? sawsuh-ndsuh nd ! jU! Now we n see tht the ses where this duty rises re

    ust those where the use itsef qa use (or erhs one shourther sy: the uson itself) s n the lss of hings knownwthout obseron.

    I wl ll the tye of use in question a ma cause '.Menl causes ae possible, no onl for acions e rtimusic excies me ha s why walk up and down') bu also forfeelings and even houghs In considering acons, it is mporantto disinguish beeen entl uses n otves n onsierinfeelngs suh s fer or nger, t is ortnt to stingusbetween entl uses and objets of feeing To see this on

    sider the folowng sesA hld sw bit of re stu on turn in sty d skewht it ws He oug his nurse tod i it ws it of Stnd felt dredful fer of it (No doubt she sid it ws bit ofstin.) Wht he ws frightened of ws the bit of stu the useof his fright ws his nurses rerk he obet of fear y bete use of fer but s Wittenstein1 rerks is o a

    the use of fer (A hideous fe ering t te wndow wouof ourse be both use nd obet, and hene the to are esiyonfused) Or gin you y be ngry a someone's acon,when wht ma you ngry is soe reinder of it, or soeonestelng you of t

    s sort of use of feeng or reion y be reortedb e erson sef s wel s reognsed by soeone elseeen when t s not e se s the obet Note tht this sort ofuslty or sense of uslty is so fr fro oodtingsef to Hues exntons tht eoe who beeve tht Hueretty wel det wth the to of uslty would entirely leve out of ther lultons if their ttention were drwn to t theyght nsst t the word use ws inrorite or wsute euivol Or oneivbly they ght try to give Huiount of the tter s fr s onerned the outside observersreognion of the use but hrdly for he tient's

    Phlosophl Isgao 476

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    TTO 1 7 . Now one mght thnk that when the queston ' Why?

    is answered b giving he intenton wth which a person act-for example b mentonng somethng fuurethis is also a caseof a menta case. For coudnt t be recast in the for : BecauseI wanted or ' Out of a desire that '? f a feeing fdesre to eat apples aects me and I get up and go to a cupboardwhere I thk tee are some, I mght anwer the quesion whatJed to ts cton by entnig e dee avg ae e

    etc Bt t s not n a cases that I dd so and so n order

    to can be backed up by I a desie that I may egsmpy hear a knock on he door and go downstairs to open itwithot experencing an sch desire Or sppose I fee anupsurge of spte aganst someone and desroy a message he hasreceved so tht he sha mss an appointment If I descrbets b sang wanted to ake h miss that apponten ths doe not necessary mea that I hd the thoght If I dts he w and that ected me wih a deire of brnggt abot, whch l up to y dong so This may hae happened,bt need not It cod be that a that happened was ths I readthe essage, had the thght ' That speakabe an wtfeeg of htred, tore e essage p, d ghed Te he eston Why dd yo do that? s pt by soee whoake t cear hat he wat e to eno he e eeg what went n y d nd sued n he actoI hodperhap ge t accot; bt noray he repy wd be noc tg Tt parcar ery n ery fte de rdo I wsh to a hat t way ha nwer n cases where tcan be made Oe ght shrg or ay I dont kw that therewas any dete history of the knd yo ean " or It ereyoccurred to me

    A ' menta cause of course, need not be a menta event e.a thought or feeg or mage; it mght be a knock on the dooBt if it s not a menta eent, it mst be somehing percevdb the perso aectedeg. the knock on the door ust be hedso f in ths sense anyone wshes to say t s ways a menaevent I have no objection A menta cuse s what someoneoud descrbe f he were asked the specc qeston watproduced hs action or thoght or feeing o yor pa what didyou see or hear or fee or what deas or images cropped p n

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    1 8 O

    your mind, and led up to it ? I have isolated hs notion of a

    mental cause because thee is such a thing as this question withthis sort of anse, and because I ant to distinguish it from theordinar senses o ' motive and intention , athe than becauseit is i itsel o vey great imotance; o believe that it is oe little. But it is imotant to have a clea idea o it, atlybecause a ery natural conceion o motive is that it is hatmov (he very od suggess ha)-gossed as hat a a

    mans actons etc And ' hat causes them is erhas thenthought f as an event hat bings the eect aboutthough hoit doesie hether it should be thought o as a kind of ushingin anoher medium, or in some oher ayis of course completelyobscue

    In phiosophy a dsncon has someimes een dran

    eteen our motves and ou inenons in acing as if they erete dieent hings mans intenton is what he aims a orchooses his moie is hat detrmines the aim o choice and Isupose that ' determines must here e another ord or causes .

    Popuarly move nd inenon are not treated as so distnctin meaning Eg e hear of the motve of gain some hlosohers have anted to say that such an exression must eellitical gain must be the itto, and dr of gai the moiesked for a moive, a man mgh say ' I anted to . " hichoud pease such phiosophers or ' I did it in orde to . hich ould not and yet he meanng of he o phrases is heeidenical When a mans moives are caed good, ths may ein no ay disnct from caing his inenions goodeg heony anted to mae peace among his eaions

    Neverheess here is even pouay a distinc eteen themeanig of ' moive and he meanig of ' inenon g if aman s someone, he may e said to have done i out of love andiy, o o have done it out o haed these mgh indeed e castin the foms to reease hm fom ths afu suring , or toet rid of the se u though hese are forms of expessionsuggesng objectives, they are erhaps expressive of the spirit hich the man ied rather than descrpve of the end tohich the kling as a means-a future state of aairs o e

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    TTO 2

    produced by the killing. And this shows us art of the dis

    tinction that there is between the oular senses of motve anintention We shoud say : oulay motive for an acon hasa rather ider and more diverse acaton an ' intention witwhch he action as done

    When a man says what is motive was speaking poulary,and in a sense in which moive is not interchangeabe with intenton he s not giin a mntal cae n the sene hatI have given to that phrase.-The fact that the mental causes weresuchandsuch may indeed help to make his claim inteligiblend further though he may sa that hs motive was this or thatone straight o and wihout ingie without saying what heows or even haf kows to be untrueyet a consideraton ofvarious things which may include te menta causes ghtpossiby ead bot hm and other peope to judge that is decaraion of his own motive was false But it apears to me at thementa causes are sedom more than a very trivia tem among eings at it woud be reasonabe to consider s for eimportance of considering the motives o an action as opposedo considerg the intention am very glad not to be writingeither ethics or terary criticism to which tis question belong

    Motves may exlain actions to us; but that is not to say thathey detere " in the sense of causng acions e do say

    His love of tut caused him to and simlar things ad nodoubt such exressions hep us to think at a motive must behat roduces or brings about a choice But this means rater

    He did this in that he loved te truth it interrets is actonSomeone who sees the cousions involved in radical

    distinguishing between motives and intenions and in deningmotives so isict as the determnants of choice ay easil

    be inclined to deny both that there is an such thng as mentacausalit and that motive eans anythng but intenion Butboth of these inclinations are mistaken e sha create confusionf we do not notice () that phenomena deserving the name ofmental causality eist for we can make the queston hy ? nto a request for the sort of answer that considered under thaead () that menta causaty is not restricted to choics orvountary or intentional acons but is of wider acation t isestricted to e ider eld of things the agent knows about o

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    EIO Z

    as n obsr, so tt it incuds som inountry actions

    c) tt moiv r not n cus nd ( tt tr s napiction or mo otr tn t ppictions of thntntion it ic mn cts

    1 . Rng nd grtiud r otis; if kil a mn s anact o rvng my sy do it in ordr to b rvngd or thatrng is ot t rng is not so r tingobtind by kling hm it is rtr tt king h is rvngAskd hy kill him, rpy Bcus kild y brotr .W might compr tis nsr, wich dscribs a concrt pastvnt, to h nsr dscribing a concrt utur stat of airswch sotis gt in sttmnts of obctivs t is ths ih grtitu, nd rors n ity for somthng scic motivs dr rom sy, lov or curiosity or dspir injust ts way somthing tht as appeedor is at rsnt apn ing) is givn s t ground of an action or abstnton that is goodor bad for t prson (it may b onslf as with rors twhom it s id And if wantd to pa g rvng, whold say t was harming somon bcaus h had don on sohr; w should not nd to add to ths dscription of thfngs promting h acion or of h thoght that ad gonwt it Whrs sayig that somon dos somhing ot of, say

    frindship caot b plid n ay sch way I wll callrvng and grtud ad rmors and ity bckwardlooknotvs, and contrast thm wt otvngnral

    Motvingnrl is a vry dcult topc whch I do notwant to dscss at any ngth Consdr th statmnt hat onotv for my sgng a pton was adraton for ts rootrX Asd Why did you sign t ? I igt w say W, for

    o tng X o s promoting t, dd nd dscrb wat hdid in an adiring wy might add Of cours, I kow thts not a ground for signng it, but I am sur it was on of ththngs tht ost nuncd m which nd ot an : Iougt xplicitly of ths bfor siging say Consdr ts rally with a vw to sayng lt us not consdr t hr t stoo compctd

    Th accont of motv popularsd by Profssor Ryl dos notappr stsactory H rcommnds construing h boastd

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    TT 1 3-14

    from vaniy as sayig , he boased . ad his doig so saisesthe law-lke poposon that wheeve he ds a chace oseurg he admiraio ad evy o ohers he does whaeverhe hiks wl produe his admiraio ad evy ' Ths passages raher urious ad roudabou i expressio; i seems o sayad I a' udersad i uess i impies ha a ma oud obe said o have boased rom vaiy uess he aays behvedai r at eat very very en o Bt ts es nt seeo e e

    To give a move (o he sor I have aeed moiveigeera as opposed o bakwardookg moives ad ieios)is o say somehg ike See he aio i hs ligh To expaioe's o aios by a aou idiag a moive is o puhem i a erai igh This sor o expaaio is oe eiedy he quesio Why ?' The quesio wheher he igh i whih

    oe so pus oes ao is a rue igh is a ooriousy diuoeThe moives admrao uriosiy spie riedship ear

    ove of ruh despar ad a hos o ohers are eiher o eremey ompaed kd or are orardoog or mixed.I a a moive orardookg i i is a eio For exampeo say ha someoe did someg or ear o oe omes ohe same as sayig he did so es or i order ha shoudo happe

    14. Leavig he e opi o moiveigeera or ierpreave move e us rer o baadooig movesWhy is i ha i revege ad graiude piy a remorse hepas eve (or prese siaio is a easo or ag o jus amea ause

    Now he mos sriig hig abou ese our is e ay ihih good ad evi are ivoved i em Eg i I am graeuo someoe i is eause he as doe me some good or a easI ik he has ad ao sho graie by soe haI ied o harm him I remorse hae some good higs ormyse I oud o express remorse by geg myse pey oeoymes or or somehig ha dd o d bad I I do

    somehig ou o revege hih is i a advageous raher Concept f Mid, . 89'

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    TEO 14q

    as man a cear dierence beween a bacwardoo moiv

    and a mena cause When he ueon Why ? ' abou a pesenacon s answeed by a descriion o a fuure sae of aarshis s aready disnuished from a mena cause us b benfuure Hence hee does no so fa seem o be any need o sayha n

    enion as such is inenion of ood or of ham

    ow owever e us consider his cas :

    Why did you do Because he od me o

    s his a cause o a eason appears o depend very much owha he acion was or wha he circumsances wer nd wshoud ofen efus o mae any disncon a all beween somhn's ben a eason and s ben a cause of h nd n ques

    on fo ha was planed as wha one s af if one ass haen wha ld up o and ssued n an acon Bu hs ben va eason o ac and accpn mh be such a hin nd howould one dsinush beween cause and eason such a casas havn hun ones ha on a pe because one's hos sa Hanup you ha on ha pe ? Nor, I hn, woud be coec osay ha hs s a eason and no a menal cause because of h

    undesandin of he wods ha wen no accepn h sueson He on wold b aempin a conras bewen hcase and say, nn ound a hearin someone say Boo Buhs case would no n fac b decsvly on one sde o he oheforced o choose beween ain he nose as a eason and asa cause, on would probably decde by how sudden on'seacion was Furher hee s no quesion of undersandin asnence n he foown case Why dd you wae your woforeners by your empes ? ' Because he was don ' us s no paica deen from hann one's ha up becauseone's hos sad Han you u ' ouhly eanf onewee forced o o on wh he dsinconh more he acion sdescibed as a mere esponse he mor ncned one woud bo he wod cause ' he he more s described as a responso somehn as havi a icace ha s dwe on by he aen his accoun, o as a response surrouded wih ouhs andquesons, he mor ncined one would be o use h word

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    NTTON 1 -1 , reason ' . But i very many cases the distiction would have no

    poitThs however does ot mean that it ever has a poitThe cases on which we rst grouded the distictio migtbe called ful-blow : that is to say the cae of eg revege othe one hand ad of the thng that made oe jump ad kock acup o a tale o the other Roughly seakng it estabishessoi reon one ginst it; not whenone says Noies shoud ot make you jump ike that adtou better see a doctor? but i suc a wa a to ik it p motives ad itetio You dd it becae e tod o to ut hy do what he ays ? Aswers ike e has doe a ot forme " he is my father it oud have bee the worse for eif I hadt give he origa aswer a pace amog reasos reasons here of course conform to our geera expaatiohus the fubow caes are te right oes to coider i orderto ee he dstictio bewee reaso d cae ut t i ototcig tt at i o coo aid at reao d e arverere arp stict otios i ot

    1 6 t i be usefu at ths stage to surize cousioreached so far tetioa actio are a ubcas of te evet

    a ma hstory ic are kow to ot jt becae observes tem ts ider ca i uded oe type ovolutary actios ic i marked o b fact at etacausat is excuded from it ad eta cauait s itsecharacteried by beg ow without observato ut itetional actions are ot marked o just by beig subject to metacaualit sice there are ivoluntary actios fro whch eta

    cauality is not excluded tentioa actions then are te oeto whch the quetio Why is gve alicatio in a seciasense whch is so ar elained as olows the questio as ottat sense i the answer is evidence or states a cause clung amental ause ositively the answer may () simply metioast itory give an inerretation of the actio or menion somehing future n cases and c the answer ialready caraterised as a reason for acting ie as an aswer toe question Why in te requisite sense and i case () it isan nwer to ht queston i te idas o good or har are

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    NTENTON 6-7

    involved in is maig as an answer; or agai if furher equiy

    licits hat t is conneced with ' nterpreative oive onenion w w

    17 I ca now complee y accout of wh our queion Why ? s shewnnoto apply We saw hat it was eused appcaion f e aens answer was I was no awae I was on tha and aso if he aswer iplied I oered hat I was doing that Thee was a thi circustance as wel n wch he quesionwoud have no appcaton: namely tha in which he acon issohow chaaceised as one in whch here is no oo fo whaI cae ena causaiy This wou coe ou f fo exphe only way n whch a queston as o cause was eal wh waso specuae abou o o give easons why such an sucho be ade as he cause Eg if one said Wha adyou jp k ha? wen soeone had jus jeke wh hpa wc one soees es as on s oppn o o ep wou bu ase h ueson o say I was nvoay kow wy on oes oees up ke now aa o econ o a pacua ueson W ayou s one says h ke I on kow nyone kows caus o Isn soehn o o wth eecca scaes ?

    n h hs s he ony sense ha one gives o cause heeNow of course a possible answe to the quesion Why? isone like I ust hough I woul o It was an impulse o Fono pacula eason o I was an idle actonI was jusoodn I o no cl an answe o his so a eecton of hueson The queston s no use applcation becuse hnsw o says ta he s o eason ny oe han he queso

    ow uch oney I have n y pocke s efused appcaon byhe answe None An nswe o ahe pecuar inees is I on kow why I

    Th can have a sense in wch i oes no en hapehps hee is a causal explnation ha one does no know Ioes wh I ound yse oin i I heard yse say "bu s appopiae o acions n whch soe special eason seeso be eane n one has none I suggests surprise a onesown acons bu ha is no a sucien conditio fo sayng isince one can be a bi suprised wihou wang to use such an

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    6 7

    epreo- one has ttered witicism o sort h is no

    one's usua

    e, or e

    e I don't know wh I did it perhaps is rather oten said

    peope aght in tria rimes where howeer i tends to gowth was an impse ' dsregard ths e o t, s i hsbeome too mch o set orm and it does no n c seemstrange o be attrated to commit tra crmes whou an ned tere athg trage, t on not beng deterred boious considerations, no in thinking o doing such ing)Someties one ma sa: Now wh did I do ? when onhas discoered ha eg one hs us u soehing i reodd pace u I don kow wh I did i e said someone who does no dor th he did i; he is quie wre she does it ; he coes o with this eressio s i o s Iis the sor o acion in whic reson sees requisite s i

    here were reson, i on he knew i ; u o course h is ohe cse in the reen sense ; ee i schonsis ersuadesim o cept soeing s s eson, or he nds reson i diine or dioic n or insprion, or a csa entionn his haing een preious hnoised

    I mse hae neer ished to use ese words in his w, th does no make e spose em o e senseess The

    re crios intermedar case : the qesion Wh? hs nd ehas not ppon; i has appcation i the sense that i isdmtted s n approprat qeston; i acks t n the sense hhe anwer is hat there is nswer I sha aer e discssingthe dierence etween the intention and the ontar; andone that distintion s made we sh be be to a: an actiono hs sort s ota, rather an ntentoa nd we shsee (2 5 ) tat there are oher more ordar ases where he

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    TO R 2 7jokng and mycao They ould be uielgble notbecaue one dd not knon hat h mea bu becaue oe

    could not make out ha the man mea by ayng them hereThee derent or of unnellgbly re or delng obrey

    Wgenen ad ha hen e call omehng enele t not a t ere ene hat enele bu a form of ord bg ecluded from e lguge Eg Perha cgyblind people hae ual mage . ut he argument for eclud

    ng th form of ord from he laguge ' aarely argume h ene eele The argume goe omng lke h : Wha doe men Th hey he ha haehen I hae a ual mage. nd whahae 1 ?Sometng lkeHere Wgenen ould go on o argue agan praeoene denion. The net moe o ee h he languagegame played h hang a ual mage ' or eeng n one'mnd eye ' n't jt ayng thee thignor can t beeplaned a ayng thm th the rght reference hi ha beenhen by the argument agait prate oene denon. Theoncluon that the languagegame h eeg ' necearpart of the languagegame th eeng n he mnd' eye ' orrather that a languagegame can oly be dented a that laerone f he former languagegame oo played h he ordued. The reul of he argumen f ucceful hate no longer ant to ay erhap blnd men . ec. HenceWtgenten' talk of therape '. The ecluon from thelanguage ' done not by leglaon bt by peruaon. The ene that enele ' the p of ene hat our epreougge; the uggeion are from a fale amilaon ofgame '

    ut our preen cae enrely deren f e ay doeno make ene for h man o ay he dd h for no arcurreaon e are no ecludng a form of ord fro he language ;e are ayng e caot undernd uch a man . Wgenen eem to hae moed from an neret n the rt ort of not makng ene ' to the econd a Phoopha Ivetatodeeloped

    miarly I a no aare ha I a dog o omemeteligble omeme range and n ome cae ould beunnellgble

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    2 8 189

    It w tae cserable sl t se lagage wth reqetellgbly f ths srt t wl be as ct as t traeself the smth prct f g rehearse wrsalas

    he aswers t the qest h? whch ge t a appcat are the mre etesve rage tha the aswers whchgve reass fr actg hs qest h ? ca w beee as he qe epeg aswer ts rage

    wth ths we have rghl tle the area f teta acts

    9 e t a athg attachg t the act at thtme t s e b escrbg t as teta cal t teta s t assg t t the cass f teta acts a s tcate that we shl cser the qest h ? reatt t the sese that I have escrbe Fr the mmet I wl

    t ask ths qest hy ? sh be applcab t smets a t t thershat a act s t cale teta vrte f ay

    tra feate whch ests whe t s perfrme s cear rm theflwg Let s sppse that there s sch a featr a et scal t I Nw the teta character f th act cat beassee wtt gvg t escrpt er wch t s tta sce the same act ca be teta er e escrpt a teta er ather It s hweer smethactay e that s teta f there s teta actat a ma bt ctracts certa msces pckg p ahmer bt t w geerall b fase t ca hs ctract msces the tetal act that he perfrme hs es tmea that hs ctract f msces was tetia Let scall t preteta r we t sa that whch s sppset be the featre rte f whch what he es s a tetaact s smehg whch accmpaes a preteta actir mvemet f hs by ? If s the the preteta mmet + I garatees that a teta act s perrme bthch e? Cleary r smb I mst be terprete as aescrpi r as hag a tera reat t a scrpt f act Bt thg abt the ma csere b hmse th mmet f ctractg hs mscles a thg thctrct f the mscles ca pssby eterme the ctet

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    NTNTN 1 9

    of that descripton; which therefre may be a one, if we are

    merely considerng wha can be determined about the man byhimself in he momen. Then it is a mere happy accident that an reeant to the wider conext ad further consequences eveaccompanies the preinentional moements in whi a maperforms a ien intentiona acton What makes it t that temans moement is one by which he performs such and such anaion will ve absoluely no bearing on he I at ccur

    ess e suppose a mecanism by wic a appropriate to thesiuation is abe to occur because of te mans kowlede of esituatone uesses eg that his muscuar contrations wilresut in is rasping the ammer and so te riht occurs. Butthat cannot ery wel be, since a ma may ery ikely not be somuch as aware of his preinentiona acs. Beside, we sureywant to hae some eect on hat happens Does he then

    otice that I is foowed ofen enough by is descriptions comintrue, and so summon up Bu that turns te summong upof into an intentiona action itself, for whc e sha ae toook for a second Thus the assumpton that some feature ofe moment of acti cnstiutes acions as intentiona eads snto inextricable confusions, and e must ive it up

    And in descbng intentiona actions as such, i wil be

    mistake to ook for th fundamenta description of hat occurssuch as the movements of musces or molecuesand then thinkof intention as somethng, perhaps ery omplicated, hicqualies this The ony events to consider are intentiona actionsthemseves, and to cal an action inteniona is to say it is intentional under se decripion that we give (or could give) of it.

    The queson does no noray arise heher a mans

    proeeds are inentional ; hene it is ofen odd o cal hemso Eg. 1 I saw a man, who was walkng alng the pavee,un owrds he roadway oo up ad dow, and hen wao he road we i was safe for him o do so it would no beusua for me to say that e crossed the road inenionay But itwoud be wrong to infer from this that we ough not o gie sucan acion as a typical example of inentiona acton It ouldowever be equay a msae o say: since this mans crossingthe road is an example of an inenonal acion, et us considertis acion by isef, and le us try to nd in the action, or in the

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    TTO

    man himse at the momen of actng th characrc wc

    mak th action ntniona Woud ntntona acton av caracr

    , ntntona " f thr wer no uc n a xpron ofntenton for h futur or a furtr nnon n acng ? . ntenona a characrc of acton ha av wc fy dndn of to thr occurrnc of t concpof ntnon ? To I w a wo ralr urouuppoton : () Suppo a non on occurrd a occur n ntnona acon and b) uppo a onanwer o th quton W ar ou Xng ? rand a quton no rfud appcaton wr ju a a a

    ) h upoton w mg a carr a uggonha nnona acon an a wr nnou acon .a o a a an acon g nnona rar faca xpron ng ad I woud no of cor wouconunc ; appc of uon wourman Bu of cour ano of o xprona conqunc oo an a ar faon r ouad aou ? a a and ma rcv r a povnwr or anwr Non wc urn a aon ad u no aou an or a on no aInnon on h rpraon of our uppoon acom a -characrtc of orva ua pronw w aocad quon owvr qu conrar o oncp of ntnon cau vr uman procedng ma quon ndr rpon X ar ou Xn? and ndr crpon Y W ar ou Yn ? an r quon ad appcaon w cond rfud o ha vr a procdng ar ntntona undr on crpon and unnnonaundr anothr I cear ta a concp for wc h do noo no a conct of ntnton If w r o a ranh chractertc uggtng tha procnnavndcrpon ar wa ar th amp of nnton w a avo upo ha a an who havng n n car a W ar ou Xng ? can nvr prof unawarn wa Xng cep on pan of g a ar f n fac wa X

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    ENTON 0 Jn s sstn wl nvlve sh l hnes tht t

    bees ssbe t sy whether we d tll ee e frthe net f intentn t ll r dne the qestn Why s hvn n t the se ense qestn Why Weshld eely hve a qestn t whh ssble nswes wee It ws thts ll " I wsnt " entin f seth n thest like e klled y fthe sententl htestnf the tn F f se swes vn fthe tentn e

    elded x ypohi, sne f they wee inlded the ssblebsttn f X n A intends X wld inlde e thhe stin lws

    We n hee ty t ve dieent nteettin tstn a Intentin ti ly s in esent tinTht there s t n h n he fter itenin withwhh de ht he des; d n h thi s intentin

    f he fte Intentn ever s nt style ht rks tn tn-n-desrtn; f t s be fr n thk he dn ne hi en he nt dn ht hin btthe Th he sy tt he dd nt k e s disethi when sked hy he dd t We st nt heer bet een i eldn intentin wih whih n deht he de; fr e t esby llw the frthe ntentn

    th wh he s dn X sy Y ln s t s esnble tsy tht he s dn Y n n t the se te s X e. n n be s t hld lss t hs ls wth (t est thententn f dkn f he i dinkn when he hds t t s lsWht eded f he stin rther ntentn Yh tht e ou bet tht he s nt et di Y bt ydn X th ve t din Y hen n tkes hs

    dwn wth vew t shtin bbtsn ths se ntentnl tins l be ked t the fhh n hs nnbevtnl knwlede nd f hhhee qestn whse nswes fll i the ne a , I st dd ( bkw lkn tve nd sentetl htertina f n nteest s qetn t be s moiv en tnttte ntentnl tn se knd One rent tese tse n f hvin te n h tvet et del f the nt f n s w be nef e ne the exessn f ntenn f the fte t e

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    TTO 0

    absent, as it is on our hypothesis That is why o this hypothesis

    givig a intepetative motive us ito setimetal chaacteisato It seems reasobe to say that if the oy occurece ofintento were s the intentio of doin whatever oe is doighe noto of itetiona actio itsef would be a ver thi oe;it is not cea why it shoud be maked o as a special clssamo a those of a mns actios and movemets which aekow to hi ihout oeao a moe th we mak o

    movements that are expressios of emotio as a disict adimportat class of happeisb) B the secod supposiio, though itetio is suppos

    to occu bo i peset itetioal actio ad expessiosof iteo fo the futue the ol aswe to e queso' Wh ? is just am (Natal fuhe iteo hch a ma acts is excuded b is hpohesisfo it is expessed

    i a te of aswe to he queso Wh ? hich is excuded)f his ee so the ere would be o speial sese of theuesio ' Wh ? and o disict cocept of teioal actioat all That is to sa it would o longe be possile to deetate with the class of acs ko wihout obsevatio Foa uestio whose oly aswe is a statemet hat oe s doi hetg caot be ideted wih ou uestio Wh eve if the

    ord fo it is oe used i equests fo evidece ad equiiesinto causait Thus o the peset hyoesis ee old e odstincio etwee such thins as stats ad asps ad quitegenera un actios

    It is atura to thik that the dierece is oe that we casee i the thns themseves To be sure, al thee thins w beake as rerds the wy we now tht tey re tki paceut isnt tere an introsectey discerbe dierece etwee aivolutary sp d vountary intake of breath?We oema be more sudde tha the other S, I ca voutariy doit uite uicky so tat is ot the diereceShould we sathe vountary knd c be oeee, predicted ?But the ivoutary kd miht be predictedBut he bsis of he predictoot e the same To be sure but he dece betweeases of pedictio is ust the dierece betwee evidece ada easo fo actn Thouh I ust did thats al is a asweto the uesto Why did you do it ? it does not ive a easo

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    NTNON

    and the prlel nwer fr the future ' I jut ging t, that

    a e nt gie a bai he preictin it erel epat itLet u try nther ethd f derentatin A luntaactn cn be cnded If ene y ' Teble and trebe I nt bn hieven f I trebe becue he aiit in terrbe vice T py t a bedence wud be a d phticted e (chrctertc f the Mrx Brter) wich b ald plan lanaas won Nw we cnuppe tht un ctn wch re nt dtnguhe b hwy ther gent nw the are r are nt ubect t cnd they are ubject t cnd the cn be dtnguhed epre cl; but the dtncn ee t be n ide ne, uae fr it wn e Dnt y ' But the ditntin elate ta biuly uu eture f certain actn, ly that n get a pern t perfr the b cdig hi uefulne i nt a cncept we cn uppe etaie i we ane away with ' purpe

    Sti, e actin re ubject t cnd, h nt thuetn ' Why ? a place ? ' Wy did yu it ? Becau utld e t That i a anwer, and if e ctin wee ubjet cand, the peple cnceed ght he the ueinwhether ething w ne in bedience t a cn ntut the uetin ' Why ? here ipl be rendere b

    Ced r nt cane ? Thi wil be fr tleant uetin ' Wh ? i it i pen t the peae t a Yu canded it a di it, but nt cande idnt d it becaue u tl e t ut wht wuld b hpint f thi, ten by itelf-ie in iltin fr a pernrean nd ai ? Fr thee re excluded the uetin ' Wh ? i nt upped t hve n uch pplctn in the ce we aignng The epren ight be ny fr f rudene

    Thu the ccurrence f ther nwer t the uetn ' Why bede ne e ' I jut did , i eentl t the etence f hecncept f an intentin r vluntary ctin

    Ancient nd edievl philpher-r e f heat ny rte-regrded it a evident, dentrble, tht hunbeng ut alwy ct with e end n ew, nd even withe ne end in vew Te ut fr th tre u rthe

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    O ZZ

    stra Cat a ma just do what h dos a rat da of th

    tim ? H may or may ot hav a raso or a uos ad f hhas a raso or puros t ur may just b what h hapsto wat why dmad a raso or uros for i? ad whymust w at ast arriv at som on puos that has a trisicaity about t ? Th od arumts wr dsd to show tatth cha coud ot o o for vr; thy ass us by bcaus wa o to hik i mtv i ad t ca sury stop

    whr t stos o d for t to sto at a uros at oositriscay a o ad th sam for a actos fact thrappars to b a icit trasto Arsto from ' a chasmust sto somwhr to ' thr is somwhr whr a chasmust stop

    But ow w ca s why som cha must at ay rat bAs w hav s this dos ot ma that a acto caot b

    cad voutary or ittoa uss th at has a d iviw it mas that th cocpt of voutary or ttoaactio woud ot xist f th usto Why ? " with aswrsthat iv rasos for acti did ot Gv that t dos istth cass whr th aswr s For o articuar raso tcca occur; but thir itrst s siht a t must ot b uosdthat bcaus thy ca occur tht aswr woud vrywhr bitib or that it coud b th oy aswr vr iv

    . a this discussio, wh hav spok of th aswrto h ustio Why as mtioi a innon, th ttioi usto has b of cours th ttio wi w a ma doswhat h dos W must ow tr to th cos! xamiato ofhs So far hav mry said f th aswr to th usto Why? is a simp mto of somth futur th itxprsss th ttio " ad th usto of caus sus rasowhch has aud us ratio to aswrs mto th pastsimpy dos ot ars hr do ot of cours ma to say thatvry aswr whch ts you with what tto a ma s dowhatvr it is h s doi s a dscrito of som futur stat ofaairs but if a dscrpto of som futur stat of aairs masss just by tsf as a aswr to th ustio th t s xrsso of ttio But thr ar othr xprssos of thio with which a ma s doi somthi : for xamp a

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    dr dsrpion o wa h i s dong For xap somon

    oms ito a room ss m yig o a b an aks ' Wat ar yooing ? Th answr ' yig o a bd wo b riv wihust irriaton; a answr ik ' Rstig or ' Doing oga wih wod b a sripon o wha am dong n ying on mybd woud b an xprsson o intnon

    For th momnt owvr m onnra on h smpr answr I ha sd an aswr dsrbng smhng

    uur s by is is a xprsson o th nnion wih a prson as That qaiaion is nssary an b sin th oowing nstan ' Why ar you sing up a amra onths pavmnt ? ' as Mariyn Monro is going to pass by Tat is ust a samn o somthig tr bt by no masxprsss at am sttng p a amra wi t nnon atMaryn Monro sa pass by n h otr an yo say' Why ar you rossng th road and rpy am gong toook n hat shop wndow ths xprsss h ntnon wthwhih 1 ross th road Now wa is th drn ?

    Cosir tis as ' Wy ar yo rossing th road ? Bas tr wi b an ips in Jy is answr as hingsar nds ng n d no kind o ng n tha we shaapt wthou obio wou giv ha answr ro o astamt o itntio 1 man g somng i ' For sixmonhs bor th ps tat shop wndow is aving a ot oxpanaory agrams and mods on dspay B som savagmight w do somtng in ordr to pror a ps; and Isupos answr ' Eps in Jy o prhaps av burstoo as an xprssion o intnton by t Dubn rowwho on assb o wa an ips a prs wnDa Swit snt own is btr w a mssag o say tat by tDans orrs t ips was o

    That is to say th utr stat o aairs mnion mst bsh tat w an rsan th agnts thking i w or may bbrought abot by h aion abot whi h is bing qsto

    But os tis man tat pop must hav oos o asad t i orr to hav itions i ating ? onsr tqusto ' Wy ar you going upsars answrd by To gtmy amra . My gong upsars s no a as rom whh anyonou du th tha gt my amra nd yt sn a

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    36 O

    re sae o aairs whh o b brough abou b og upsairs Bu who sa ha i is goig o be broughabou ? O I se i his ase I is o ha goig upsairsusua proues he ehig o aeras eve i here is a aeraupsairsuess iee he oex iues a orer give ee Feh our aera or o saee I a goig o gem aera

    O e oer ha i soeoe sas Bu our aera is ie ear " a I sa I ow bu I a si goig upsairs oge i saig so beoes serious ; a eas here is a gapo u Perhaps we hi o a i whih I a wor ro heop o he house o brig he aera up ro he boo Bu iI sa: No I quie agree here is o wa or a erso a e opo he house o e he aera; bu s I a goig usairs oe i I bei o be uieiibe I orer o ae sese oe I o P a vie o Q e us see ho he ure sae oairs Q is suose o be a ossbe aer sage i roeeigso wih e ao P is a earer sage I is rue ha o he oeha ses o siei oege a o he oher ha aseso agia res or o a vague iea o grea poer a auhorie Dea Swis a oe uer is er vague a geeraorua A a I hae sai i ee is I is o he ase a esripio o a uure sae o aairs a be a ser o isquesio abou a rese aio A s ieio ag iso so privae a erior a g a he has absoue auori sai ha i isas he has absoue auhori i saig ha herea I wha a a sas he reae oes o ae sesea oes ea ha his saig he reae i oes o aesese)

    I sha o r o eaborae vague a eera oruaa e us have a iea ho a sae o aairs is a sage iroeeigs i hih he ao P is earier sage i e are be abe o sa ha we o P so ha For o ourse i is oeessar o exerise hese geera oios i orer o sa , I oP so ha A ha i is eessar o uersa is ha o sa oe or or aoher Bu wo happe eve i ou oP " or bu i wi hape wheher ou o P or o is i soewa o orai he ieio

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    TT Z3 37

    z3 Let us ask : is there any descrpion which is h descrip

    tion of an intentiona action given that an intentional actiooccurs ? And et us consider a concrete situation. A man ispumping water into the cistern which suppies the drinkinwater of a house. Someone has ound a way of systematicaycontaminating the source with a deady cumuaive poison whoseeects are unnoticeabe un they can no onger be cured. Teouse is rgar inaied y a sma gr o pa ces,

    with ter immeate aes who are contro o a greastate; they are engaged in externating e Jews nd perapspan a word war-The man who contaminated the source hascacuated that i these peope are destroyed some good men wiet into power who wi govern we or even insute theKingdom of Heaven on earth and secure a good fe for a thepeope and he as reveaed the cacuation together wit te

    act about e poison to te man wo is pumping Te deat othe inabitants o e house w o course have a sors o oereects eg that a number of peope unkown t ese men wireceive egacies about whic hey know nohing.

    hs man's arm is going up and down up nd down. Cerainmusces with an names wich doctors know are contractinnd reaxng. ertain substances are geting generaed in some

    neve bres-substances whose generation n te course ovountary movement interests psioogss Te moving armis castng a sadow on a rocery were at one pace and romone position it produces a curious eect as i a ace were ooingout of te rocery Furer e pump maes a series o cickingnoises wic are in act beating out a noticeabe rthm.

    Now we ask Wat is this man doing Wha is h descriptono hs acton?

    First of course descripion o what is going on with imas subject which is in act tue. Eg he is earing wages he issupporing a faiy he is wearin away s shoesoes he ismaking a disurbance of he air He is sweating he is generainthose substances in his neve bres. If in act good governmentor he Kngdom of Heaven on eah and a good ie for everyonecomes about by the abours of e good men who get into powerbecause e pay chies die hen e wi have been heping toroduce s sate o airs However our enquires into te

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    Z 9supy ' ; uness indeed he is not. his wi appar a tautogou

    ponouncemen; but there mor t it. Fo f afte his saying To repenish the watersuppy ' we can ay He is renishingthe water-supy ' then this woud in ordinary circumstances oitsef be enough to characterise as an intentiona ction. (hequaication is necessary because an intended eect just occasionay comes about by accident). Now that is to say as wehae arady determnd a te same etn h wi

    hae apication to this acton in its turn Ths i not an emtyoncusion i t means that someone who haing so answered Trepenish the watersupy ' is ased Why are you repenishinthe water-supy ? " must nt say eg Oh didn't now wadoing that ', or refuse an but a causa sense of the questionOr rather that if he does, this mae nonsense of his answers.

    A man can b in something which he neertheess doe

    not , if it is some process or enterprise which it taes time tomete and of wch therefore, f it is cut short at any timewe may say that he s din it but i n d t This pointhoweer, s n no way ecuar to ntentona action; for we cansay that something was fang oer but did not fa since somethng stopped it. Therefore we do not appea to the presence ofintention to ustify the descrption He is Y-ing '; thugh in some

    ases s own statement that he is Ying my at a certain stageof the proceedngs be needed for anybody ese to be abe to sayhe is Y-ng since not enough has gone on fr that to be eident;as when we see a man doing things wth an array of wires andugs and so on

    Smtimes j oingy we are peased to say of a man He i sdoing suchandsch ' when he maney i s not Eg. H e is

    repenishing the watersuppy ', when this is not hapeningbecause, as we an see but he cannt the water is pouring outof a he in a pipe on the way to the istern And in the sameway we may spea of some rather doubtfu or remte objecteeg He s roing ermat's ast theorem ' or again one mightsay of a madman He s eading s ictorious armies ' t ieasy, howeer to excude these cases from consideration andot out the brea between cases where we can say He iY-ng " when he has mentioned Y in answer to the question Why are you Xing " and ones where we say rther He i

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    0 O 3

    ng t . I nt tnk i s a ute sha beak. Eg s

    thee much t chse beteen ' She s making tea and ' She isutng n the kette n e t make tea .e. ' She s ging tmae tea ? busy nt nd hence the cmmn use the esent t descbe a utue actin hich s by n meansust a ate stage n actty hch has a name as a snge he.g. ' I am seeng my dentst ' He s emnstatng in Taagaqre ' he ig b si e mene s at the mmentg taeng n a tan) But the ess nma it u be t taethe acheement the becte as a matte cuse the methe becte gets expessed by n de t .g . ' I amgng t Lndn n de t make my unce change hs nt ' I am makng my unce change is

    a cetan etent the thee sns the subject maden 1 ae smy euaent hat s t say hee the anses I am gng t etch my camea ' I am etchng my camea an ' n e t etch my camea ae ntechangeabe as ansest the uestn ' Why? asked hen I g upstas.

    N a ths hds hat ae e t say abu a thesemany desciptins an intentna actin ? e e t say thatthee ae as many distnct actns as e can geneae dsinescptns th as u satng pin? mean We say Why ae yu -ng ? and get the anse T Y " ' mY-ng Y beng such that e can say ' hes Y-ng ; and then ecan ask Why ae yu Y -ng? and ehas get the anse< T Z " and can st say ' Hes Zng . .. ' Why ae yumng yu am up and n ? ' T eate the um n he s eatng te pum. Why ae yu umng ? ' Teensh the ate-suy an he s eenshng the ate

    uy ' Why ae yu eenshng te ate-suy ? ' Tsn the nhabtants an he s snng the nhabtants hey ae gettng sne n hee cmes the beak thughn the case e hae scbe thee s baby a ute ansethe than just n a the same ths uthe desctne.g. t sae the Jes t ut n the gd men t get the Kngdm Heaen n eath) s nt such that e can n say he s sangthe es he s ettn the ngm Heaen he s uttng nthe g nes S et us st hee an say ae thee u actnshee because e ha un stnct esctns satsyng

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    NTENON ZZ 4 1ou condtons namel mon s am up and down opeatn

    he pump epleshn the wate supl and poson thenhabtants

    Z4. Beoe tn to answe th howee we must asesome dcutes Fo someone mht ase the objecton hapumpn can hadl be an act o posonn It s o couse athe awes woud a an act o an oson and one mht tto ep b san the man posons the nhabtants he aposon and te et posoned But ate all we sad t was cumuate poson ts means that no sne act o an theposon s b tse an act o posonn besdes ddnt the otheman a the poson Suppose we ask hen dd ou manposon tem One mht answe a te tme the ot posonedBut n that case one mht sa Hs posonn them was not an

    acton o he was pehaps don notn eeant at an o themes the wee dnkn the poson Is te queston heexact dd e poson them, to be answeed b specn ae nmeos tmes when he ad the poson But none oem b tse coud caed posonn them so how can weca the mans pesent pumpn n ntentona act o posonn O must we daw the concuson hat he at no tme posone

    tem snce he was not enaed n posonn at the tmes atwhch the wee ben posond e cannot sa that snce atsome tme he posoned them thee u be actons whch we canabe poson them and n whch we can nd what t was tposon them Fo n the acts of pmpn posoned wate nothnn patcua s necessal on on that ht not equa wehae been on on the acts had been acs o pumpn nonposonous wate Een ou mane that pctues o henhabtants n dead occu n the mans head and please hmsuch pctues could aso occu n the head o a man who was oposonn them and d not occu n ths man The deenceappeas to be one o ccumstances not o anthn that s onon

    Z 5. A uthe dcut owee ases om the act hatth mans ntenton mht not be to poson them but on tean hs pa That s to sa he s ben mpobab condenta

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    nd s akd h dd plnsh h he waesppl

    h pnd wa ? " h pl n T plh hem b I ddn a ab ha I waned m pa and js dd msal j0b n ha cas alhgh he knws cnceng annnal ac f h naml plnhng he hse waeppl nnnal b caha an ac fplhng h h wappl wh pnd wae wld b n a ha h ac f plhng he he ppl wh psnd wa wa nennalAnd I d n db he cecne f he cncln sems hw ha ca ae ah gd On he h hand weall d sm b a b f a dcl nd h nnnalc f psnn hse ppl sppsng ha h s wha hsnennal ac I al n a all b nded a ha s man pepl ha hgh f nnn as a spcal n

    mmn hn h hng ha makd hs mans pcdngsas innin pnng f h pple wld js be ha hsne mmn cced n hm (qe apa fm hebjcns hs da whch we hae alad cnsded hnn f he ne memn nd hae he m nfnal absd cnsqnc F af all we can frm nenns nw f nnn s an n mmn wld appea

    ha we can che ha a cean nnn and n anhejs b eg sang whn sles ha I mn b dng sanng m lng and n pnng h hhld ' haI mn be dg s hlpng he gd mn n pw Iwhdaw m nnn fm h ac f pnng h hehldwhch I pf hnk g n wh m nnn bngn h da ha n ca dn ns b mangch a ll ph nl b bh Nhl hgnn cae I ddn ca ppnc wa h h fh fac ha smn had pd h wa I wad an m pa wh bl b dng m al bI g whh h and dn ma m whs n desppa make dcl nd anhng cp a manhghand hs a l n dngh h nnnal pnng fm pnng knwngl whn h waeehlss n h man nnn

    ell ne ma a n m ppsd cn n a wa

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    EO 43

    cieion houghs I he answe o he quesion h dd

    ou epleish he house suppl wh posoned ae s opolsh he o ' o an answe whin e ange ie I jushough I wou ' hen b cieion e acion unde hadescipon s chaacese as neniona ohese no. Buoes is no sppose a e anse is o wo be na an can sue ae up e answe a e pees I So a appea a have sppe soeg s ie e neo

    oveen whic a an can ae wha he ies (pehapsou o an aachen o veicaionis ') peee an exealanswe (acua o hpohecal) which a an can equal aewha he les-a eas wn he ange o oeae pausleaswes O couse I us ean ha e r answe s owould e one o e oe u wa so o cono o uhuness can e esashed hee

    e aswe o is has o be ee can be a cean aoun ocono o he uuess o he anse. Fo exape n hecase o e an ho n' cae uppence pa o e accounwe iagne i as givng was a he js wen on oing hsusua job I s eeoe necessa a so be is usua job is aswe s o be accepabe an e us no o aingou o e usua cose o is job a assss e poisog an

    o wc e cao gve an accepabe accon. g supposee isacs he aenon o one o e abans o soehng aou he wae souce a gh sugges he uh hequeson Wh ou ca h o ove hee ' us havea ceie answe ohe han o peven hi o seeng' anda uipicaion o suc poins neeing expanaon wo casdou on is cai no o have one anhng ih a vew oaciaing he posoing-nd e hee we igh encounee oowng expanaion he no wan e enous oubeha wou esu o a cean peson's noicing hope hasince he poison was ai i wou al go o sae. l aong heine he caculaed wha looed e anng h pesona nleas oe a he econe a pevening aning oeg suspeced ou o ha. Tha s que possbe

    Up o a pon hen hee s a chec on his uhuess n heaccoun we ae hnng he woul pehaps give u sil hees an aea n whch hee s none The ieence eween h

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    4 ETN 2 5css n whch he doesn cre wheher he eole are ctually

    osod or no nd n whch he is ery gld on realising ahy ll be osoned f he cooeres by gog on doing hisordry job is no one h necessarly crries ih i anydrnce n wh he oerly does or how he loos. The dierencein hs hough on he subec m only be the dierence beteenh mngs of he gru h he gs whn he grss h hewr s oson. h s o sy hen sed y dd you

    rnsh he house suly wh osoned wer ? he mighehr rly I couldn cre uence or say ' I s gld ohel o olsh hem o " and f cable of saying h adcully occurrd n hm he me s he ehicle of eiher ofhs houghs he mgh hae o sy only h he gruned Thiss he nd of ruh hre is n he saemen Only yo nof you hd suhndsuch n nenon or no There is a oina whch only wh he mn hmself sys s sign and here tereis room for much dsue and ne dagnosis of hs geneness

    On te ohr hnd f sy s as no s ormal ob bhe s hrd by he osoner o um he waer oing asosoned he cse is deren He cn say he doesn care ence nd h he only ans he money bu e comssionby he ccnce nd erforance of which he ges the moneyshower mlci hs s loed o beo um oisoneder Threfore unless he es ses o che hs irer emigh eg. u wh he msely hough s n antidoe iohe wer s no n cceble ccoun f he says ' I asnndng o um osoned waer only o um er and ge myhre so h he forms he dos for refusing o anser hequeson hy dd you um oisoned aer wh an anser our deed rage.g. i he anser o ge e ay are uncceble So tha le e can nd cases ere oy emn hmself cn say wheer he hd a ceran nenon o nohy re furhr lmed by hs he canno rofess no o haehad he nenon of dong he hng th as a mens o an endof his

    All hs I hn seres o exlan ha tgensei says a6 of Ppa nvan :

    " I no shamed of wh I dd hen bu of ennon whch I hd nd ddn e nenon resde

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    NNTON Z 5-z6

    in what did ? What jsties the shae ? The whoe

    histoy of the incidentAn against the backgound of the aicati