answered him, “i tell you the truth, today you will be …...then he said, “jesus, remember me...

“When they came to the place that is called The Skull, there they crucified him, along with the criminals—oneon his right, the other on his left. . .One of the criminals who hung there hurled insults at him: “Are you notthe Christ? Save yourself and us!” But the other criminal rebuked him. “Do you not fear God,” he said, “sinceyou are under the same sentence? We are punished justly, for we are getting what our deeds deserve. But thisman has done nothing wrong.” Then he said, “Jesus, remember me when you come into your kingdom.” Jesusanswered him, “I tell you the truth, today you will be with me in paradise.”

Luke 23: 33-43 (NIV)

This image was taken in Quebec near PercéRock on the Gaspé Peninsula. When JacquesCartier landed in North America in 1534, heerected a cross in this area to claim theland for France. There has been a strongCatholic presence in this region sincethe time of the earlyFrench settlers wholater followedCartier.

260

7ChristianityChapter Seven

Study the photograph, and read the accompanying passage fromthe Bible. Consider the following questions:

1. Describe the setting of the photograph. What mood does the photo-graph create?

2. What is the significance of the cross shown in the picture? Whatdoes it represent?

3. What impressions do you get about Jesus Christ from the quotation? 4. How is the Crucifixion commemorated by Christians?

Introduction

Approximately one-third of the world’s people consider themselves Christians, andthey live on every habitable continent of the earth. Christianity, which originated inpresent-day Israel approximately 2000 years ago, exists in a variety of forms,including Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism. Worldwide,Christians continue to grow in numbers, despite constant division and reform.What accounts for the enduring power of this world religion?

Christianity offers both a satisfying way of life on earth, and the hope of eternallife in heaven. Christians believe that these promises were made possible byJesus Christ, from whom the religion derives its name. Followers of Jesus believethat he is the incarnate son of God and saviour of the world. During his ministryon earth, Jesus taught people that they must love one another and practise com-passion and forgiveness. This principle of love, which Jesus called “a new com-mandment,” is central to the Christian religion. Christians also believe that Jesusdied on the cross to atone for human sin, that is to “save” them. This salvationoffers the possibility of everlasting life with God in heaven.

Christianity is still the religion of the majority of Canadians and is closely con-nected to Canadian history. Much of the settlement and early exploration ofCanada was carried out by Christian missionaries, particularly in the establish-ment of New France. Some early political struggles in Canadian history werefought between Protestant and Catholic Christians. Today, while Canada is clearlya nation of many cultures and faiths, Christianity is still a central part of manyCanadians’ lives.

261

Learning Goals

•4 BCE (approximately)

Birth of Jesus

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• identify the origins of Christian beliefs regarding creation, death, God, and the afterlife• identify influences in the development of Christianity• identify important figures in the growth of Christianity, and explain their contributions • evaluate the importance of such concepts as revelation, resurrection, and salvation• understand the development of Christian institutions that govern the religious lives

of Christians• understand differences in beliefs, symbols, and practices among different Christian sects• identify the origins, characteristics, and significant passages of the Bible’s New Testament • analyze the changing role of women in Christian institutions, practices, and sacred writings • identify the origin and significance of Christian practices, rituals, symbols, and festivals• understand the meanings of symbols in Christianity and their connection to practices• identify ways in which Christian symbols are incorporated into civil practices• identify that Canada is a diverse society with a high degree of religious pluralism• describe how individuals have been influenced by the beliefs of Christianity to challenge

the status quo of their day• identify important rites of passage in the life of a Christian person, and understand the

symbols, art, and literature associated with each• conduct an in-depth interview using an appropriate interview format

•50–67 CE (approximately) Paul car-

ries Christianity into Asia

Minor and Rome and

writes many of the Epistles

of the New Testament

•30 CE (approximately)

Crucifixion of Jesus by

Roman soldiers

•70–100 CE(approximately) Mark,

Matthew, Luke, and John

write the four gospels of

the New Testament

•1054 CE Schism

divides the Eastern Orthodox

and Roman Churches

•325 CE Council of

Nicaea codifies Christian

beliefs in the Nicene Creed

262

•1517 CE Martin

Luther leads the Protestant

Reformation (Lutheran

Church begins) •1534 CE King Henry VIII

and Parliament establish the

Church of England (called

Anglican Church in Canada)•1095 CE First of sev-

eral Crusades begins

•1870 CE First Vatican

Council declares pope

infallible in matters of faith

and morals

•1962–1965 CESecond Vatican Council

reforms practices of the

Roman Catholic Church

•1925 CE Methodists,

Congregationalists, and

many Presbyterians merge

to form United Church of

Canada

•1984 CE Pope John

Paul II tours Canada

•2001 CE Organizers

plan for World Youth Day

when up to 750 000

young people will visit

Toronto in July 2002

Timeline

263

264 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

ORIGINS

Christianity must be examined in thecontext of its Jewish heritage. As dis-cussed in the previous chapter,Judaism is a monotheistic religion,whose principles are based on thebelief that there is only one God.According to the Judaic tradition, Godcreated the universe and everythingin it, including human beings.Through many different prophets,God promised to send a Messiah, orsaviour. According to Christians, theMessiah was Jesus Christ, who theybelieve to be the son of God.

Information about Jesus Christcomes mainly from Christian follow-ers, as well as Roman and Jewish his-torians and officials, and was circulat-ed in the oral tradition until it wasrecorded in writing from one to threegenerations after his death. Thesource that provides the most detailedinformation on the life of Jesus is the New Testament of the Bible,specifically the first four books,known as the Gospels, or “goodnews” of Matthew, Mark, Luke, andJohn.

Christianity Figure 7.1

Christianity originated in present-day

Israel approximately2000 years ago.

How is Christianitylinked to Judaism?

Jord

a n

EGYPT

ISRAEL

JORDAN

LEBANON

SYRIAMediterranean

Sea

Gulf of Aqaba

Dead Sea

SAUDI ARABIA

ISRAEL

EGYPT

JORDAN

SYRIA

LEBANON

Nazareth

Jerusalem

Bethlehem

Sinai

Mediterranean

Sea

Jord

a n

Gulf of Aqaba

Dead Sea

Disputed

Disputed

Disputed

CHRISTIANITY 265

In the reign of Caesar Augustus (31BCE–14 CE), the Roman Empire hadexpanded into the region of present-day Israel (Figure 7.1), then known asPalestine. Most biblical scholarsbelieve that Jesus was born around 4 BCE in Bethlehem. According toChristian scriptures, Jesus was con-ceived by the power of the Holy Spiritin the womb of a virgin named Mary,who was betrothed to Joseph. At thetime of Jesus’ birth, Caesar Augustushad ordered a census of the Romanempire, requiring that people travel tothe town in which they were born tobe recorded in the totals. Mary andJoseph came to Bethlehem, Joseph’sbirthplace, to register for the census.Because they could not find a place tostay, they took shelter in a stable.Mary gave birth to Jesus in the stableand placed him in a manger (Figure7.2). Nearby, an angel appeared toshepherds who were tending theirsheep, and announced the birth ofJesus:

And there were shepherds living outin the fields nearby, keeping watchover their flocks at night. An angelof the Lord appeared to them, andthe glory of the Lord shone aroundthem, and they were terrified. Butthe angel said to them, “Do not beafraid. I bring you good news ofgreat joy that will be for all the peo-ple. Today in the town of David aSaviour has been born to you; he isChrist the Lord.”

Luke 2: 8-11 (NIV)

The shepherds spread the news ofJesus’ birth and went to worship him.These details on the birth of Jesusappear in the gospel of Luke (2:1-20).Other details on the birth of Jesusappear in the gospel of Matthew.According to Matthew’s gospel, threeMagi, or wise men, from the East fol-lowed a star that led them to the sitewhere Jesus was born:

When they saw the star, they wereoverjoyed. On coming to the house,they saw the child with his motherMary, and they bowed down andworshipped him. Then they openedtheir treasures and presented himwith gifts of gold and of incense andof myrrh.

Matthew 2: 10-11 (NIV)

Little is known about Jesus’ earlylife. His family settled in Nazareth, atown in Galilee, located in the north-ern part of present-day Israel. Jesus ofNazareth was a carpenter’s son, andprobably lacked any formal education.

Figure 7.2This painting bySandro Botticelli,entitled MysticNativity, showsthe birth ofJesus. What qualities of this birth arehighlighted by the artist?


According to Christian scriptures, aprophet named John the Baptistwas to prepare the way for Jesus.John immersed his followers in ariver in ritual baptism, to washaway their sins. When Jesus came tothe Jordan River to be baptized,John realized who he was and toldhim that Jesus should be baptizinghim. After John baptized Jesus, theHoly Spirit, which is considered byChristians to be the life-giving pres-ence of God, came to Jesus:

As soon as Jesus was baptized, hewent up out of the water. At thatmoment heaven was opened, and hesaw the Spirit of God descendinglike a dove and lighting on him. Anda voice from heaven said, “This ismy Son, whom I love; with him I amwell pleased.”

Matthew 3:16-17 (NIV)

Jesus retreated to the desert for fortydays, where he fasted and was tempt-ed by the devil. He was approximatelythirty years old when he returned tothe region of Galilee and beganpreaching in the synagogues. AlthoughJesus preached from a Jewish perspec-tive, his message challenged acceptedviews, and was not popular in all reli-gious circles.

Jesus gathered around him a groupof disciples, or spiritual apprentices,and taught in smaller communities,and in large outdoor gatherings. Jesusmoved comfortably among the com-mon people and the outcasts of socie-ty. He urged people to love their neigh-

bours and their enemies alike, and toforgive wrongs of others. He coun-selled and forgave even the most sin-ful and despised members of society.In the gospel of John, he saves awoman accused of adultery fromdeath by stoning.

The gospels describe spectacularworks, called miracles, by Jesus dur-ing his ministry. For example, Jesuschanged water into wine at the wed-ding feast of Cana and multiplied fishand loaves of bread by the Sea ofGalilee. His touch healed the faithful,including people with leprosy, theblind, and those with other afflictions.Often, Jesus spoke in parables, orvivid moral stories drawn from situa-tions in life (see page 292). He usedparables to emphasize values andteach lessons.

As Jesus’ following grew in number, sodid his religious and political enemies.He strongly criticized the Pharisees—a Jewish sect who followed strict rulesof dietary and ritual purity. TheJewish Sanhedrin, the governingcouncil under Roman rule, worriedthat Jesus might be dangerous tothem. They feared that their Romanmasters might accuse the council ofnot maintaining a tight social order inconquered Israel. Jesus was seen asthe son of God, which was consideredblasphemous by religious authorities.

During Passover, in the third yearof his public life, Jesus enteredJerusalem and was welcomed by thecrowds who rushed to meet him withpalm branches. However, religiousauthorities were planning his arrest.Soon after his entry into Jerusalem,

CHRISTIANITY 267

Figure 7.3This stained-glass windowrepresentation of theCrucifixion adorns LeighDelamere Church in Wiltshire,England. What is the significance of the Crucifixionto Christians?

Jesus shared his last meal, thePassover meal, with his twelve apos-tles, who were his closest disciples.This event is known as the LastSupper. After the meal, while Jesuswas praying in an olive grove, severalofficials consisting of religious author-ities and soldiers, made their waytowards him. They were led by Judas,one of Jesus’ apostles, who hadbetrayed him.

Jesus was arrested and charged bythe Sanhedrin with blasphemy, theshowing of contempt for God byattributing God-like qualities to thatwhich is not God. The council foundJesus guilty because he would notdeny that he was the Messiah, or thathe was God’s son. They turned himover to the Roman governor, PontiusPilate, for sentencing, but Pilate couldfind no fault with the prisoner.However, he bowed to the demands ofthe crowd, and ordered that Jesus becrucified, or nailed to a wooden cross,a method of execution that theRomans favoured to provoke fearamong conquered nations.

The gospels report that soldiers ledJesus to the Place of the Skull, wherehe was to be crucified. They made himcarry the heavy cross, while many ofhis female disciples followed himmourning and wailing. The soldiersnailed Jesus to the wooden cross andhung a sign on it that read: This Is theKing of the Jews. Jesus died on thecross that afternoon in the presence ofhis mother Mary and many of hisfemale disciples, including Mary

Magdalene. This event is called theCrucifixion, which Christians believebrought about the forgiveness of sinsand the promise of eternal life (Figure 7.3).

According to Christian scriptures,Jesus’ body was placed in a tomb cutout of rock. Three days after his death,Mary Magdalene, accompanied byother female disciples, went to thetomb to anoint Jesus’ body with spices.When they arrived, Jesus’ body wasgone. An angel appeared and told themthat Jesus had risen from the dead.Jesus appeared to the women and sev-eral of his followers during the daysthat followed. Christians call his returnfrom the dead the Resurrection.

As the resurrected Jesus visited withhis apostles, he commissioned them tobaptize all nations, and spread histeachings:

Then Jesus came to them and said,“All authority in heaven and onearth has been given to me.Therefore go and make disciples ofall nations, baptizing them in thename of the Father and of the Sonand of the Holy Spirit, and teachingthem to obey everything I have com-manded you. And surely I am withyou always, to the very end of theage.”

Matthew 28:18-20 (NIV)

Christians believe that forty daysafter the Resurrection, Jesus ascend-ed bodily to heaven. This event,termed the Ascension, ended his timeon earth, and initiated two millenniaof Christianity.

Before the Crucifixion, Jesus hadpromised the apostles assistance inspreading the “good news” of his min-istry: “And I will pray the Father, andhe shall give you another comforter,that he may abide with you forever.”(John 14:16) Christians believe thatthe comforter, the Holy Spirit, cameon the feast that Christians callPentecost, fifty days after Easter. It isbelieved that during this event, theHoly Spirit empowered the apostleswith various spiritual gifts and abili-ties, including the ability to speak dif-ferent languages. This enabled themto go into Jerusalem and proclaimtheir faith enthusiastically. Pentecostis often referred to as the birthday ofthe Church.

Some of the earliest converts to theapostles’ message were Greeks, whotook the name Christians, derivedfrom Christos, which is Greek for “theMessiah.” Within a generation ofJesus’ death, an early missionarynamed Paul was actively carryingChristianity across the eastern cornerof the Roman Empire. Paul spreadChristianity to Cyprus, Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Greece. Paul, latercalled St. Paul, was so important tothe development of Christianity thathe is sometimes referred to as an apos-tle even though he was not one of thetwelve original apostles of Jesus.

Both tolerance and peace encour-aged the spread of Christianity. TheRoman Empire was an economicarrangement supported by militarypower. As long as trade flowed easilyalong the vast road network focusedon Rome, the emperor usually accept-ed cultural and religious differences.Rome’s power resulted in relativelypeaceful times, called the PaxRomana, during which Christianitymultiplied rapidly. However, emperorswho opposed the new religion, orsought someone to blame for the prob-lems of their reign, sometimes perse-cuted Christians. Two centuries later,as Christianity flourished and theRoman Empire declined, theEmperors Decius, Valerian, andDiocletian ordered the destruction ofchurches, holy articles, and books.Christian martyrs, “witnesses” whodied for their faith, were dragged tothe Roman Colosseum, where they


were mauled by wild animals beforecheering crowds. During this period,Christians in Rome were forced tohold secret worship underground inthe catacombs, or chambers wherethey buried their dead (Figure 7.4).

One of Diocletian’s commanders,Constantine, became emperor himself,and moved the capital east toByzantium, in modern-day Turkey.He legalized Christianity and was thefirst of many Christian rulers of theRoman Empire.

BELIEFS

Within a few generations of JesusChrist’s crucifixion, Christian com-munities had developed from theMiddle East to Greece and Rome. In 325 CE, Emperor Constantine pre-sided over a very important council of 300 Christian Church leaders at Nicaea, in modern-day Turkey, to

settle several significant principles ofthe faith. This meeting produced theNicene Creed, a statement of beliefsuniversally accepted by Christianitytoday. Although the Nicene Creed out-lines the basic beliefs shared by mostChristians, many differences of opin-ion exist among the various Christiandenominations regarding some ofthese beliefs. These differences are

CHRISTIANITY 269

Figure 7.4The Catacomb of Priscilla, inRome, Italy, was the site ofworship services by earlyChristians in the late secondcentury. How were Christianspersecuted?

1. Explain the part played by each of

the following in the life of Jesus:

a) Caesar Augustus

b) the Sanhedrin

c) Pontius Pilate

2. Outline factors that might help

explain why the life of a good man

ended in a cruel execution.

3. How did conditions during the

Roman Empire both help and hinder

the spread of early Christianity?

4. If it were possible to interview

Jesus Christ today, what questions

would you ask him? Why?

Check Your Understanding

discussed in the Groups and Insti-tutions section of this chapter (page296). The following statements ofChristian belief appear as the originalNicene Creed, established in 325 CE:

We believe in one God, the Father, theAlmighty, maker of heaven andearth, of all things visible and invis-ible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ,the only begotten Son of God, begottenof the Father before all worlds, God ofGod, light of light, very God of veryGod, begotten not made, being of onesubstance with the Father, by whomall things were made, who for us menand for our salvation came downfrom heaven, and was made flesh bythe Holy Spirit of the Virgin Mary,and was made man, and was cruci-fied for us under Pontius Pilate. Hesuffered and was buried, and thethird day he rose again according tothe Scriptures, and ascended intoheaven, and sits on the right hand ofthe Father; and he shall come againwith glory to judge both the livingand the dead; whose kingdom shallhave no end. And we believe in theHoly Spirit, the Lord and giver ofLife, who proceeds from the Father,who with the Father and the Sontogether is worshipped and glorified,who spoke by the prophets. And webelieve in one holy catholic and apos-tolic church. We acknowledge onebaptism for the forgiveness of sins.And we look for the Resurrection ofthe dead and the life of the world tocome.

The opening of the Nicene Creedexplains the basic Christian beliefthat the whole universe is God’s cre-ation. It does not say that one mustbelieve that God created these thingsstep-by-step during one week, as isdescribed in Genesis, the first book ofthe Bible’s Old Testament.

Christian belief in God is deriveddirectly from Judaism. Both religionsagree that there is one God, who is anall-good Creator, responsible for theuniverse and all that fills it. In bothfaiths, God is viewed not only as aSupreme Being who rules all creation,but also as a personal God, approach-able by individuals through prayer.This God is merciful, forgiving, andchooses to be a friend to people.However, God does command authori-ty over all creation, including forces ofevil. Overall, Christianity today focus-es upon God’s love for humanity, alove evidenced by Jesus Christ’s suf-fering and death for the forgiveness ofhuman sin.

One of the issues that early Churchleaders grappled with was the ques-tion of the Holy Trinity. While theremay seem to be three different Godsin Christianity—the Father, his sonJesus, and the Holy Spirit—they areall bound together as one God in theHoly Trinity. Christians must believethat God the Father and God the sonare one, and that Jesus Christ is God.There was a practical purpose to theNicaean Council, for if Jesus was not


God, the framework of Christian doc-trine would crumble, and the youngChurch would disintegrate. The Creedstates that Jesus came down fromheaven, one with God from the begin-ning of time. When he entered ourworld as a baby he became human;therefore, he was both fully humanand fully divine.

The Holy Spirit is believed to be thelife-giving presence of God that helpsChristians to live faithful lives andcontinue the work that Jesus began.Christians hold that the Holy Spiritenters into believers, dwelling thereand energizing them, just as the apos-tles experienced at Pentecost.

Christians believe that Jesus washuman, and that he suffered in hislast days in order to accomplish theforgiveness of sin and human salva-tion. Ever since sin had entered theworld, as described theologically bythe story of Adam and Eve in the OldTestament, people had fallen far fromharmony with God’s will. Thus, Jesus’mission on earth was to bridge the gapbetween humanity and God, to bringabout the forgiveness of sin, and toopen the way to eternal life. The mid-dle portion of the Nicene Creed out-lines Christian beliefs surroundingthe purpose of Christ’s time on earth.The son of God came to give humansthe opportunity to be “saved,” that is,to attain eternal life in heaven afterdeath (Figure 7.5).

Perhaps one of the most interestingstatements of the Nicene Creed is theChristian belief that Jesus will comeback to earth. At that time, Jesus’purpose will be to make a LastJudgement, that is, to determinewhich humans will join him, body andsoul, in heaven. This includes Christ-ians who have died, for they will berisen from the dead to live eternallywith God. In Christianity, a person iseither rewarded with perfection inheaven, or punished with eternal suf-fering in hell, depending uponwhether or not he or she has practisedwhat Jesus taught during his min-istry. This includes forgiveness, pro-viding the poor with the basic necessi-ties of life, and treating one another asyou would like to be treated in return.

CHRISTIANITY 271

Figure 7.5This painting by DenisMaurice, entitled Paradise,shows a representation ofheaven. How does it reflectChristian beliefs regardingthe afterlife?

Exploring Issues: Some peoplehave strangeideas about theissue of cloning.They may origi-nate from popu-lar science fic-tion and comedyfilms, such asMultiplicity, inwhich a busyman gets clo-nes made tohelp him with allof his responsi-bilities. People

wonder if a clone would have to be born a baby or ifhe or she could be created as an exact duplicate ofthem, identical in every way, including age. Others pic-ture a world populated with identical people, who areeerily perfect. A company called Clonaid promisesthat for $200 000 they can enable an individual toattain “eternal life.” They have already arranged toclone the dead infant of an American couple, as soonas it becomes technologically possible.

How Cloning WorksScientists begin with a fertilized egg of the species tobe cloned. The nucleus of the egg is carefully removed,

and is then replaced by a different cell nucleus takenfrom the clone donor. The donor could even be dead,provided that he or she has been cryogenically pre-served (quickly frozen) immediately after death. Thenew egg is grown into an embryo, which contains“stem cells” that grow into body parts, such as bones,organs and skin. Medical scientists are mostly inter-ested in cloning as a way to use stem cells to producenew organs and body parts as replacements for thedonor if and when he or she needs them.

In 1997, researchers successfully cloned Dolly thesheep (Figure 7.6), and since then have cloned mice,pigs, cows, and most recently, a monkey. However, sci-entists have found that animal clones tend to sufferfrom a variety of physical abnormalities and geneticdefects that might lead to psychological problems.Should researchers go any further with their experi-ments or are they playing God? And what about thepotential of abusing this new technology: Could terror-ists and dictators clone themselves? Would the richhave the ability to custom-design their children?Opinions on the issue vary widely.

Cloning human beings is an example of an ethical, ormoral issue posed by modern science and technology.The capability to artificially reproduce human life bycloning is just around the corner.

At Issue: Should the cloning of human beings bepermitted, or are we playing God?

Figure 7.6

The quotations that follow are excerpts from newspaper articles on the topic of human cloning.

“Cloning of the monkey has already been done.So the possibility of reproducing ourselves,humankind, within the next few years is reallynot a question of “whether” or “if you can,” buta question of “who does it?”

“We believe that attempts to clone humanbeings at a time when the scientific issues ofnuclear cloning have not been clarified are dan-gerous and irresponsible.”

Dr. Joseph Martin, Dean of Harvard University Medical School Rudolf Jaenisch, biologist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

272

Human Cloning “There is a push in the scientific world to gofurther in the field of biotechnology. But thechurch knows that there are deeper questionswhich must be asked about the impact of suchtechnologies…we must be aware of the differ-ence between arrogance and wisdom.”

“Who would be scandalized by the idea ofbringing back to life a 10-month-old child whodied accidentally? The technology allows it, theparents desire it, and I don’t see any ethicalproblems.”

Phyllis Creighton, a Diocese of Toronto representative at the 1998General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada

Brigitte Boiseelier, chief scientist for Clonaid

QUESTIONS1. a) Explain what Clonaid means when they state that “Cloning will enable

mankind to reach eternal life.”b) Why would Christians react in a negative way to this statement?

2. Use the Internet to research the viewpoint of Christian Churches on theissue of human cloning.

3. Should human cloning be done? Express your point of view, using a pam-phlet, a poster, or some other means of personal expression. f

WebQuestFor samples ofChurch opinion on the issue of human cloning, go to the following Church sites: Lutheran:http://www.elca.org/dcs/humancloning.html Orthodox:www.greece.org/ahepa/D5/05000eft.htmlCatholic:http://www.catholic.org/pft/magisterium/donumvitae.htm

273


The Bible supports equality betweenthe sexes. Jesus himself interactedfrequently with women in his publiclife, treating them with high regard.He protected a “sinful” woman fromdeath at the hands of self-righteouszealots, and did not scorn her forwrong-doing. Jesus took women intohis confidence, revealing his purposeon earth to them. Women, such as,Mary Magdalene, were some ofChrist’s most faithful disciples, follow-ing behind as he carried the cross tohis crucifixion and remaining thereuntil after he died. Jesus’ female dis-ciples were the first to learn of his

resurrection when they went to visithis tomb, and Mary Magdalene wasthe first person to whom the resur-rected Jesus appeared.

Paul’s letter to the Galatians madeclear the status of Christian women,and all other people baptized in Jesus’name:

. . . in Christ Jesus, all of you whowere baptized into Christ haveclothed yourselves with Christ.There is neither Jew nor Greek,slave nor free, male nor female, youare all one in Christ Jesus.

Galatians 3: 26-28 (NIV)

However, although Jesus brought amessage of equality among the faith-ful, the Church grew in societies thatwere largely dominated by men withmost women confined to domesticroles as obedient wives and mothers.

Modern Christianity is more open tothe equality of women. The SalvationArmy was the first Christian Churchto recognize full status for women inits ministry, possibly because it wasco-founded by a married couple,William and Catherine Booth (seepage 304). Today, there are ordainedfemale ministers in most ProtestantChurches (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7Elizabeth Hardy is an

Anglican minister at St.Michael the Archangel

Church in Scarborough,Ontario.

CHRISTIANITY 275

1. Identify five important beliefs of

Christianity that are formalized in the

Nicene Creed.

2. Christianity and other faiths

promise the opportunity for eter-

nal life. Write a paragraph outlin-

ing reasons why people find this

possibility so appealing.

3 . Do you believe in life after

death? How do you envision the

afterlife?

4. In your view, have women and

men shared an equal role in

Christianity? Explain.


PRACTICES, RITUALS,SYMBOLS, AND FESTIVALS

Rituals are defined as formal, estab-lished acts and ceremonies throughwhich believers worship their deity.They are time-honoured activitiesthat are an important part of belong-ing to the faith. Most, but not all,Christian denominations have devel-oped rituals of formal worship andprayer. Most of these rituals takeplace in a Christian house of worship,known as a church.

Some Christian denominations eng-age in simple rituals upon entering achurch. Eastern Orthodox Christianscross themselves, light a candle, andkiss the icons (see page 280) depictingJesus and other religious figures thatare displayed at the entrance. RomanCatholics dip two or three fingers inthe holy water font at the back of thechurch and bless themselves with thesign of the cross before walking to theirseat.

The main elements of the Christianworship ritual were already in place bythe second century and included thefollowing: prayers, scripture readings,the singing of psalms from the OldTestament, the consecration of breadand wine, communion, and the collec-tion of offerings for the poor.

Today, Christian worship takesplace on Sunday in most Churches,though a growing number ofProtestant Churches hold their wor-ship service on Saturday evening. Inmost Christian services, there is theliturgy of the word, which highlightsreadings and preaching. Often, thisportion of worship includes the recita-tion of core belief statements, like theNicene Creed. Readings from scrip-ture, particularly the gospels and epis-tles of the New Testament, whichdescribe the life and teachings ofJesus, are a vital part of the liturgy ofthe word, and usually provide thetheme for a homily, or sermon by theclergy.


The Book of Psalms, which rose outof the daily life of the Hebrews, is alsoimportant in Christian worship.Through the psalms, the Jewish peo-ple expressed their faith and trust inGod. Christians often draw hymns,readings, and prayers, from the Bookof Psalms for religious services and forprivate reflection.

Most Christian worship also features acommunion service in which the con-gregation is invited to share a ritualmeal, as Jesus did with the apostles atthe Last Supper. This is known as theliturgy of the Eucharist, and is signi-fied by a procession, led by the clergy,bearing the gifts to the altar. It is heldafter the liturgy of the word, and thereare two parts. First there is a sacredritual of consecration, conducted by thepriest or minister, to prepare the ele-ments of the meal. Then, the blessedbread and wine (or grape juice), sym-bolizing the body and blood of Christ, issolemnly shared by the congregation.Recipients may be offered a wafer ofunleavened bread, and a sip of wine, ora glass of grape juice, or they mayreceive a piece of bread within a spoon-ful of consecrated wine. They may fileto the front of the church to receivecommunion, or the clergy (or lay lead-ers) may bring it to their seats. The dif-ferent branches of Christianity inter-pret this portion of the worship ritualin very different ways, which is dis-cussed in the Milestones section of thischapter (page 285).

Christians pray individually and ingroups. The Lord’s Prayer, which is

the most widely used prayer in all ofChristianity, is recited by the congre-gation at Christian worship services.In the gospel of Matthew, Jesus teach-es this prayer to his followers:

Our Father, who art in heaven hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdomcome; thy will be done, on earth as itis in heaven. Give us this day ourdaily bread, and forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those whotrespass against us. And lead us notinto temptation, but deliver us fromevil.


Traditionally, Roman CatholicChristians have used this prayer aspart of “saying the rosary.” A rosary(Figure 7.8) is a small chain or stringthat holds a cross and beads that arearranged in five “decades,” or groupsof ten. In saying the rosary, the wor-shipper begins each decade by utter-ing the Lord’s Prayer, which is fol-lowed by the recital of additionalprayers.

Many Christians thoughtfully readand reflect upon the Bible. Since theearly days of the Church, membershave been encouraged to take initia-tives—through fasting, prayer, andmeditation—to have mystical reli-gious experiences that bring themcloser to the presence of God.

Fasting is abstinence from food, orcertain kinds of food, for a period oftime. It is often used as a way in whichpeople seek pardon for their misdeeds,

CHRISTIANITY 277

or to participate more fully in themeaning of their religious teachings.For example, Christian fasting may beused to symbolically share in the suf-fering of Jesus or the hungry, and as ameans to set aside the money saved asan offering to the poor. ManyChristians fast during Lent, beforeEaster, to commemorate the fortydays during which Jesus fasted in thewilderness.

Giving to others is a very importantChristian practice. Christians areexpected to contribute to their church financially and by service in specialduties, for example, as choir members.In some churches, members may beasked to tithe, or donate up to one-tenth of their income to the church.Christian service also extends beyondthe church into the local community.Members may join service clubs ororganizations such as Habitat forHumanity, a Christian volunteergroup that builds homes for needyfamilies within the community andelsewhere. Finally, Christian givingshould express itself in supporttoward the poor and those sufferingfrom famine and disaster beyond thelocal community.

By practising pilgrimage, Christiansmay want to deepen and broaden theirfaith, or they might be seeking somespecial favour from God. Pilgrims are

religious travellers bound for a holyplace, or special religious event. Forexample, in the summer of 2002, up to750 000 youths from around the worldare expected to converge on Torontoto hear the pope at World Youth Day.Each year, large numbers of Christ-ians of all denominations make pil-grimages to shrines where peoplehave experienced religious visions.They also go to the Holy Land to visitplaces connected to the life of Jesus.

Figure 7.8The rosary isused by someChristians duringprayer.

Holy PlacesPerhaps the holiest structure in all of Christianity is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.This place of worship is believed to be located on the hill of “The Skull,” identified in the gospelsas the site of Jesus’ crucifixion and burial. These important Biblical places were located very closetogether in an old stone quarry just outside the ancient city walls of Jerusalem. Early Christiansknew them, and archaeological research appears to support these claims.

The first Church of the Holy Sepulchre was constructed on the site by the Emperor Constantineafter the Council of Nicea in 325 CE. It replaced a city square and a temple that the Romans hadbuilt over the top of the hill about a century after the death of Christ. Persian and Arab forces par-tially destroyed Constantine’s church in 614 and again in 1009 CE, but it was rebuilt each time.The present Church of the Holy Sepulchre was constructed from much of the original material in1149 CE during the Christian Crusades to reclaim the Holy Land. This structure enclosed smallshrines that had been built to mark the location of the Crucifixion and the burial tomb. The Grottoof St. Helena beneath the Church of the Holy Sepulchre also holds special significance. Christiantradition claims that Helena, mother of Constantine, found the wood of the cross of Jesus herewhen she visited during the construction ofthe original church.

Today, several Christian denominationsshare the church, and millions of visitorsand pilgrims from around the world come tosee it each year. Pilgrims commemorateGood Friday (see page 282) at this site bychanting prayers and reading from thegospels as they retrace Jesus’ route to thesite of his crucifixion.

QUESTIONS

1. Find the meaning of the word “sepul-chre” in a dictionary. Why is this anappropriate name for Constantine’schurch in Jerusalem? Why do all typesof Christians come to this holy place?

2. Make a sequential list of the differentuses of the church site, starting withthe original stone quarry. How wouldthese changes have complicated thework of modern-day archaeologists?

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Figure 7.9

278

CHRISTIANITY 279sLike most world religions, Christianityis rich with symbols, especially thosefocused upon Jesus Christ. ChristianChurches vary widely in their use of

symbols, ranging from the ornate sym-bolism of Eastern Orthodoxy to thestark simplicity of some evangelicalProtestant faiths.

The CrossSymbols and Icons

QUESTIONS1. How do you feel about the use of the cross in national flags? Explain. 2. In Canada, how is the cross used in civil (public or state) ceremonies?

Oxford

7.11

ch

Jesus was sentenced to a slow, painful, and public death by hanging from across. The gospels describe how he was nailed to it through his hands andfeet. The cross reminds Christians that this cruel death was for human sal-vation. It symbolizes the Christian belief that God loved the people of theworld so much that he offered his son for the sake of humanity.

The early Church did not use the cross as a symbol because of the hor-ror and suffering associated with this form of execution. As time passed, itbecame acceptable to use the cross as a Christian symbol.

Crosses take different forms (Figure 7.10) and serve a variety of purpos-es. The Latin cross is used primarily by Protestants and Roman Catholics.The Greek cross is used mostly by Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Celticcross is predominant in Ireland and Scotland, and the cross with the flaredends has been associated with Malta. Orthodox and Roman CatholicChristians make the sign of the cross on their bodies by touching their fore-head, chest, and shoulders.

Religious crosses may be used in jewellery worn by believers, as gravemarkers in cemeteries, and on the spires and towers of Christian churches.Inside a church, the symbol of the cross might adorn the altar, the vesselsused at communion, and the vestments worn by the minister or priest.

The symbol of the cross also appears in the flags of several countriesthat have a Christian heritage: they include Greece, Switzerland, Norway,Sweden, and Finland. The Union Jack of Britain is actually three superim-posed crosses, one of them being the diagonal St. Andrew’s cross, whichsymbolizes Scotland.

Figure 7.10

Latin

Celtic

Greek

Maltese

St. Andrew’s


Another symbol representing Jesus isthe Chi Rho, which looks like a capitalletter “P” with an “X” superimposedover it (Figure 7.11). These are the firsttwo letters of the Greek word XPI∑TO∑,which means “Christ.” This symbol was used by the early Christians andmarks vestments and other religiousobjects in some Christian Churches.

The symbol of a fish, used in someChristian Churches, recalls Jesus’words to his first disciples: “Follow meand I will make you fishers ofmen,”(Mark 1:17). Thus, the fish sym-bol is linked to spreading the gospel ofJesus. The fish symbol is also associ-ated with the ancient Greek word forfish, IXOY∑, which is an acronym inGreek for “Jesus Christ Son of God,Saviour,” making the fish a symbol ofJesus himself (Figure 7.12). Accordingto tradition, the fish was used as asecret sign by Christians to identifythemselves to one another duringperiods of persecution.

Icons, or images, of Christian religiousfigures reflect the divisions betweenthe main branches of Christianity.Icons are stylized images rather thanrealistic portraits, and they areintended to show the heavenly glory ofJesus and other religious figures.Iconography, the art of making icons,was developed by the early Christians,and is done according to time-honoured rules within the EasternOrthodox Church and the Byzantinerite of the Roman Catholic Church.

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.13 Figure 7.14

Figure 7.11

CHRISTIANITY 281

Many icons (Figure 7.13) are foundwithin Orthodox churches for venera-tion by the faithful, especially on theiconostasis, an ornate screen that sep-arates the congregation from thesanctuary. More realistic-lookingimages of holy subjects are not per-mitted in Orthodox churches, but arecommon in the rest of Christianity.

Three-dimensional statues andhalf-relief images of religious scenesin plaster, wood, and stone are mosttypical in Roman Catholic churches(Figure 7.14). In many Protestantchurches, religious images depictingscenes from the life of Jesus appear instained-glass windows (Figure 7.3).Stained glass is a special form of artthat originated in the Middle Ages,when these colourful scenes were usedto teach the common people who couldnot read stories from the Bible.

The Christian cycle of holy days fol-lows the major events in the life ofChrist as presented in the gospels.

The Christmas season begins withAdvent, which starts four Sundaysbefore Christmas, and is a time whenChristians anticipate the birth ofJesus. Most Christians celebrate thebirth of Jesus on December 25th, how-ever many Eastern Orthodox andByzantine rite Catholic denomina-tions celebrate Christmas on January7. Often, churches feature a mangerscene, depicting the humble stable inwhich Jesus was born, and specialsong-filled worship services draw evenoccasional church-goers to attend.

Many of the most familiar Christmascarols were composed in the eigh-teenth and nineteenth centuries forChristmas Eve worship. For example,“Silent Night” was composed in 1818by an Austrian priest named JosephMohr.

The tradition of gift-giving atChristmas has two different origins.The gospel of Matthew tells the storyof the three Wise Men, or Magi, whofollowed a bright star that led themfrom distant lands to the infant Jesus.They brought precious gifts of gold,frankincense, and myrrh (two fra-grant tree resins used for perfume andincense). Gift-giving also originatesfrom the ancient Roman practice ofyear-end gifts to honour Saturn, thegod of the harvest, and Mithras, god oflight. The early Church adapted theseRoman practices for their own reli-gious purposes.

Twelve days after Christmas, onJanuary 6, most Christians celebratethe Epiphany, which commemoratesthe baptism of Jesus, as well as thevisit of the Magi. In some Christiancountries, gift-giving takes place onthis day, or is spread over the “twelvedays of Christmas.” The wordepiphany means “manifestation” inGreek, and is used to commemoratethe revelation of Jesus as God’s son,as reported in the gospels, at the timeof his baptism in the Jordan River.

The season of Lent begins approxi-mately two months after Christmasand lasts for forty days, ending with


Holy Week and the festival of Easter.Lent lasts for forty days, representingthe length of time Jesus spent on hismeditative journey into the desertbefore he began his public ministry.Traditionally, Lent is a time of fasting,prayer, and spiritual self-assessment.Public festivals, such as Mardi Gras in New Orleans (Figure 7.15), orCarnivale in Rio de Janeiro, are root-ed in this Christian tradition as socialevents before the sombre time of Lentbegins. On Ash Wednesday, the daywhich begins the Lenten season, someChristians are marked on the fore-head with ashes to remind them thatthey are mortals, and will return todust upon their death.

Holy Week, the holiest period of theChristian calendar, climaxes on EasterSunday. The Protestant and CatholicChurches celebrate Easter on the firstSunday after the first full moon after

the spring equinox. The EasternOrthodox Church usually celebratesEaster a week later, except when itcoincides with the Easter of theProtestant and Catholic Churches,every four years.

Holy Week begins on the Sundaybefore Easter, which is known as PalmSunday. On this day, Christians cele-brate the day Jesus enteredJerusalem, and was welcomed bycrowds holding palm branches, asdescribed in the gospels. To mark thisday, clergy bless and distribute palmbranches to worshippers.

Holy Thursday marks the day of theLast Supper, when Jesus shared hislast meal with his twelve apostles.According to the gospels, Jesus washedthe feet of his apostles during the LastSupper. In some Christian traditions, abishop or priest washes the feet of agroup of priests or parishioners toreenact this deed of humble service.

Good Friday is the most solemn ofChristian holy days since it commem-orates the trial, crucifixion, death, andburial of Jesus. The minister or priestreads passages from the Bible describ-ing Jesus’ final hours, and in someChristian traditions, worshippers kissa large cross and/or symbolic tomb dis-played at the front of the church.Some congregations reenact the finalevents of Jesus’ life and take a crossout on procession through the streets(Figure 7.16).

Easter Sunday, the most holy ofChristian celebrations, marks the res-urrection of Jesus and the events sur-rounding it, beginning with the femaledisciples’ discovery of Jesus’ emptytomb. In commemorating the resur-rection of Jesus, Easter celebrates tri-

Figure 7.15The Mardi Gras in New

Orleans is a festival that hasits origins in the Christian

tradition of spirited celebration preceding the

sombre period of Lent.

umph over sin and death. Worshipperscelebrate this joyous occasion with asong-filled liturgy. Many Christianscelebrate the eve of Easter with a vigilservice where a flame, symbolizingJesus—the light of the world—ispassed from candle to candle amongworshippers of the congregation.

These holy days are both connected toEaster and evolved at approximatelythe same time as Holy Week, in earlyChristianity. Ascension Day takesplace about forty days after Easterand celebrates Jesus’ return to heav-en, as witnessed by his followers.Pentecost falls ten days later. Itacknowledges that the Holy Spiritfilled the apostles with spiritual giftsof courage and understanding so thatthey could teach and spread theChristian faith.

The early Christians began to directprayer and reverence to saints, or holy

people, and martyrs, who had died fortheir faith. Saints are considered to bewith God in heaven and can thereforehear prayers. For many Christians,Mary holds a special place of honourbecause she gave birth to Jesus as partof God’s plan. As the mother of Jesus,Mary is considered by some Christiansto be the mother of God. Saints’ daysare recognized and celebrated withspecial parades and other rituals inmany parts of the world.

In Europe, saints’ days are hon-oured in the cultures of Greece, Italy,Spain, Portugal, and Ireland. Manynations have a patron saint that theyrecognize and celebrate, such as St.Patrick in Ireland, St. Andrew inScotland, and St. Cyril in Slovakia.

In Canada, only a few saints, suchas John the Baptist (a traditional holiday in Quebec), the Virgin Mary,and St. Joseph, our national patronsaint, are recognized. Locally, manyChristian churches acknowledge thesaint’s day of their particular name-sake.

CHRISTIANITY 283

Figure 7.16Christian congregationsacross Canada mark GoodFriday by taking a cross outon procession through thestreets.

MILESTONES

Religious events can mark importantstages in life. Christianity bestowssacraments upon individuals whenthey reach these stages, to identify anew beginning. Christians call thesespiritual benefits grace, or “favourfrom God,” and they represent highpoints in a person’s religious life.

There is great variety in the recog-nition of sacraments among Christ-ians, and there are some branches ofChristianity that do not include sacra-ments as a part of their religious prac-tices. The Eastern Orthodox andRoman Catholic Churches both cele-brate seven sacraments to mark thepassage of life; they include baptism,chrismation or confirmation, com-munion, confession, annointing thesick, ordination, and matrimony. MostProtestant Churches acknowledgetwo of these sacraments: baptism andcommunion.

Christians believe that the act of bap-tism cleanses their soul and signalsthe beginning of their Christian lives.According to the gospels, Jesus wasbaptized in the Jordan River. Later in his ministry, he instructed the apostles to go out and baptize allnations, “in the name of the Father,and of the Son, and of the HolySpirit,” (Matthew 28:19). These samewords are repeated in most Christian baptisms.

Early Christianity linked baptismto the Old Testament, by teachingthat the sacrament removes the stainof original sin. According to the scripture, Adam and Eve, the firstman and woman, were created by Godand lived in the Garden of Eden. Theywere commanded not to eat the fruitof the tree of knowledge of good andevil. Their defiance of God’s commandleft a spot on each person’s soul.Baptism reclaims the soul for God byentering the person into the salvationof Christ’s death and resurrection.


1. How does the liturgy of the word

differ from the communion service?

2. How does prayer differ from con-

templative meditation? How are they

similar?

3. Develop a list of Christian service

organizations in your community (or a

larger one in the region) that aim to

help other people.

4. Describe the appearance and the

meaning of the following Christian

symbols:

a) the cross

b) the fish

c) the Chi Rho

5. In your opinion, which is the

most important Christian religious

festival? Why? Create a simple

poster proclaiming this festival.


Today, most Christian denominationspractise infant baptism. How-ever,some Protestant Churches delay bap-tism until adolescence, or even adult-hood, as a sign of choice. In mostChristian Churches, baptismal ritualsinclude the anointing of the candidatewith blessed oils, and the pouring ofwater over the forehead. The EasternOrthodox Church follows the exampleof Christ’s own baptism by having thepriest immerse the infant in a font, areservoir for blessed water. Similarly,some Protestants, such as Baptists,baptize young adults by full immer-sion in a pool of water.

Sharing a meal is an important rite inmany world religions. Most ChristianChurches celebrate the Last Supper,the Passover meal that Jesus sharedwith his apostles the night before hewas crucified. According to Christianscriptures, during the meal, Jesuspassed some bread and wine to theapostles. Matthew’s gospel tells the

story in words that are common in thecommunion rituals of all Christianity:

While they were eating, Jesus tookbread, gave thanks, broke it, andgave it to his disciples, saying,“Take and eat; this is my body.”Then he took the cup, gave thanksand offered it to them, saying,“Drink from it, all of you. This ismy blood of the covenant, which ispoured out for many for the forgive-ness of sins.”


Early Christians met to celebrate thismeal as the most important part oftheir worship ritual. However, aschurches were built, the celebrationevolved in form, so that the suppertable was replaced by an altar, and themeal was replaced by a piece of breadand wine. The medieval Churchtaught that through the words spokenby the priest, the body and blood ofJesus Christ actually become present

CHRISTIANITY 285

Figure 7.18These girls are preparing toenter a Catholic church toreceive their first communion.

in the sacramental meal. This is the doctrine of transubstantiation,the belief that the bread and wineundergoes a change in substance,though not in physical appearance or chemical composition. The Ortho-dox and Catholic Churches believethat transubstantiation takes placethrough the priest’s words. Most Prot-estant Churches celebrate the LastSupper only in a symbolic way, as acommemorative and spiritual event.They emphasize the sense of sharingof the congregation, but do not acceptthat the bread and wine has under-gone any changes.

There is great variation in thissacrament among different Churches;the actual ritual is described on page276 of this chapter. It is known bymany different names including HolyCommunion, the Mass, the Eucharist,Communion, the Lord’s Supper, andthe Lord’s Table. It may be offereddaily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,annually, or not at all. In all Churches,it is an important rite of passage toreceive this sacrament for the firsttime (Figure 7.17).

The origin of Confession, also knownas Reconciliation comes from Jesus’instructions to the apostles:

“Receive the Holy Spirit. If you for-give the sins of any, they are forgiv-en them; if you retain the sins ofany, they are retained.”John 20: 22-23 (NIV)

Members of the Orthodox andCatholic Churches, as well as someProtestant denominations, periodical-

ly discuss their sins and struggleswith their priest or minister; this isknown as confession. This may bedone face-to-face, or with a screenbetween the two for anonymity. InEastern Orthodox Churches, confes-sion is not done until reconciliationhas been achieved with those whowere wronged.

Many Christian denominations ack-nowledge the importance of attainingfull participation in the Church, andconduct special rituals to recognizethis, usually with young adolescents.Some Christians believe that at thistime, spiritual gifts, such as wisdomand knowledge, are received from theHoly Spirit to help the individual togrow in his or her faith. In someChurches, sponsors, usually close rela-tives or family friends, assist the par-ents in preparing the person tobecome a young adult member of theChurch. On the day of the confirma-tion ceremony, it is the sponsors, notthe parents, who come forward withthe young person. The anointing withoil, accompanied by the laying on ofhands by a minister, bishop, or priest,are common characteristics of thisrite. In the Eastern Orthodox Church,Chrismation rites are performed oninfants at the time of baptism, andinclude anointing with blessed oils.

Most Christian Churches use exten-sive education and formation pro-grams at religious colleges and semi-naries to prepare candidates for a lifeas a cleric, though a few Christian


denominations see no need for a for-mal clergy. Christians believe thatthose called to do God’s work are filledwith the Holy Spirit, just as the apos-tles were at Pentecost. The Acts of theApostles in the New Testamentdescribes ordination of Church lead-ers, which include prayer and the lay-ing on of hands, rituals still performedtoday.

Christianity recognizes the sanctity ofmarriage because Jesus highlightedthat it is a lasting bond before God:“For this reason a man shall leave hisfather and mother and be joined to hiswife...So they are no longer two, butone flesh. Therefore what God hasjoined together, let no one separate,”(Matthew 19: 5-6).

In all Christian Churches, the min-ister or priest functions on two levels,religious and civil, combining Christ

and the law. Marriage is a sacred vowmade in front of witnesses by a couplewho promise to be faithful to oneanother, with the help of God. SomeChurches consider marriage a sacra-ment and, therefore, a bond that can-not be dissolved. These Churchesbelieve that the grace of the sacra-ment comes from God through oneperson in the couple to the other.Christianity usually puts the weddinginto a full worship liturgy, with hymnsand preaching, often including com-munion and a service. The EasternOrthodox ceremony is the most dis-tinctive in Christianity. The couple iscrowned by the priest before God, anddrink from a single cup to share inHoly Communion. This is followed bya triple procession around the altartable to symbolize that they havetaken their first steps together in thepresence of God (Figure 7.18).

CHRISTIANITY 287

Figure 7.18A bride and groom walkaround the altar threetimes at St. Nicholas GreekOrthodox Church inScarborough, Ontario. Whatdoes their walk symbolize?

QUESTIONS1. What impressions do you have of Mother Teresa

from this story? Explain.

2. Research the life of Mother Teresa, and thenimagine that you are a journalist. Write her obitu-ary (death notice), or prepare a headline and anewspaper article on her death.

Profile:Mother Teresa of CalcuttaMother Teresawas called “a liv-ing saint” by TimeMagazine. Duringher lifetime, shereceived numer-ous humanitarianawards, includingthe Nobel PeacePrize in 1979.Her message tothe world consist-

ed of three words: “God is love.” She lived this mes-sage by devoting a lifetime of work to the poor ofIndia.

Mother Teresa was born Agnes Bojaxhui inYugoslavia in 1910. While attending secondaryschool, Agnes learned about the work of missionar-ies in India and decided to pursue the calling. At theage of 18, she joined the Loreto nuns of Ireland andarrived in Calcutta a year later. In 1931, she tookvows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, as well asthe name Teresa. Fifteen years later, she had avision in which Jesus spoke the following words toher: “I want you to serve me among the poorest ofthe poor.” In 1949, she began her mission in theslums of Calcutta, India, and a year later establisheda new religious order—The Missionaries of Charity.Members of this religious order take a fourth vow of“wholehearted free service to the poorest of thepoor.”

The Missionaries of Charity expanded so quicklythat at the time of Mother Teresa’s death in 1997,

they operated more than 600 houses in 136 coun-tries. In fact, they recently opened a home to servethe poor in Winnipeg. The candid stories that MotherTeresa related about her work tell us a great dealabout her. She often spoke frankly, with somehumour, about the importance of giving dignity to thedying poor. This exerpt is taken from the book MyLife with the Poor.

We have picked up thousands of people from thestreets of Calcutta. One day I picked up a man froman open drain. Except for his face, his whole bodywas full of wounds.

I brought him to our house. And what did the mansay? ‘I have lived like an animal in the street, but nowI am going to die like an angel, loved and cared for.’

We just had time to give him a bath and clean himand put him in bed. After three hours, he died with abig smile in his face and with a ticket for Saint Peter[heaven]. We gave him a special blessing by whichhis sins were forgiven—whatever sins he had evercommitted—and he could see the face of God for alleternity. There was no complaint, there was no curs-ing, there was no fear.”

Figure 7.19

1910-1997

288

Throughout his ministry, Jesus healedthe sick through prayer and the lay-ing on of hands. Later, his followersdid so in his name (James 5: 13-15),and the practice continues today inmany Christian Churches. Today,Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and someProtestant Churches, anoint the sick.This ritual has certain common char-acteristics in different Churches. Theclergy holds the patient’s hand, at thesame time anointing the patient’sforehead with blessed oil. Prayers aresaid, and in some cases, communion isgiven to the sick or the dying. Ritualpreparation for death marks the lastmilestone in the journey through aChristian life.

The Christian funeral has two purpos-es: to commend the deceased to heav-en, and to console the family andfriends of the deceased. SomeChristian funeral traditions comefrom the Romans, including crema-tion, a practice that has never beenaccepted by the Eastern OrthodoxChurch. Christian funeral rites can beadapted for use in the church, funeralhome, cemetery chapel, or at the gravesite. The religious service usuallyincludes prayers, hymns, and othermusic.

CHRISTIANITY 289

fWebQuestFind informationand links for MotherTeresa and theMissionaries ofCharity at:http://www.categoryz.com/m/mother_teresa.htm

1. Identify the meaning of the follow-

ing terms: sacrament, original sin,

transubstantiation.

2. Which two rites of passage are

sacraments in most Christian

Churches? Why?

3. Which Christian milestones often

use the rituals indicated below?

a) cleansing with water

b) anointing with oils

c) laying on of hands

4. Prepare a scrapbook or a poster to

illustrate both the religious rites of

passage (if any), and secular, or non-

religious, milestones that have been

important events in your life.


SACRED WRITINGS

Christianity draws its sacred writingsfrom the two sections of the Bibleknown as the Old Testament and theNew Testament. The former is theJudaic tradition of the law and theprophets, while the latter is theChristian tradition of the apostles.Together, they form a long record ofrevelations, or promises of delivery orsalvation, made by God to his people.

The New Testament emerged asJesus’ apostles developed a new bodyof writings to tell the story of JesusChrist. The New Testament is com-prised of four main components. Thefirst component is the four gospels,the story of Jesus told by Matthew,Mark, Luke, and John. They are fol-lowed by a section called the Acts ofthe Apostles, which reports on thespread of Christianity after Jesus’death and resurrection. The third sec-tion contains the epistles (letters)written by early Christians. The lastcomponent is the book of Revelation,which contains what some believe tobe prophecies about future events.

Mark’s gospel is considered the oldestof the four, written sometime shortlybefore 70 CE. Some believe that Markwas an early Christian of Jewishdescent, who traveled with Paul on hisfirst missionary trip to the island ofCyprus. Mark is thought to have beenwith the apostle Peter in Rome, andtradition claims that this gospel con-tains Peter’s memories. It is the short-est of the four gospels, with just 661verses, but it forms the core of

Matthew and Luke’s, both writtenlater. In fact, 600 of Mark’s verses areused almost word-for-word inMatthew’s gospel and 350 in Luke’s.Scholars identify the gospels of Mark,Matthew, and Luke as synopticgospels, meaning that they have ashared perspective, because of the textthey share.

In the first half of Mark’s gospel,Christ moves quickly from place toplace, performing miraculous deedsand teaching in parables. The rest ofthe gospel focuses on the Crucifixionand Resurrection, showing the impor-tance that Mark placed on these twoevents.

Matthew’s gospel was probably writ-ten around 80 CE. One of the twelveapostles, he had been a Jewish tax col-lector, not a popular occupation withthe public. According to tradition,after Jesus’ death, Matthew preachedwidely in North Africa and the MiddleEast, recording this gospel in his lateryears. This is the longest of the fourgospels, and it has two distinct char-acteristics that set it apart from theothers.

Matthew makes a special effort toconnect Jesus with the Old Testament,using the first seventeen verses totrace Christ’s family line throughforty-two generations. The otherimportant feature of the gospel ofMatthew is the great detail that it pro-vides about the teachings of Jesus. Themost notable is the Sermon on theMount, more than a hundred verses oflessons covering a wide range of topics.It is a blueprint for Christian life.


Sacred TextThe Sermon on the MountWhen Jesus taught, he was often followed by large crowds of people. In Matthew’sgospel, Jesus retreated part way up a mountainside to escape this crush of followers.There, he gave important lessons about many things, like anger and forgiveness. Hissermon on the mountain began by outlining the qualities, known as the “Beatitudes,”needed to gain eternal life in heaven.

Now when he saw the crowds, he went up on a mountainside and sat down.His disciples came to him and he began to teach them, saying:“Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.“Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.“Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.“Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled.“Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy.“Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God.“Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God.“Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirsis the kingdom of heaven.“Blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you and falsely say allkinds of evil against you because of me. Rejoice and be glad, because greatis your reward in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophetswho were before you.”Matthew 5: 1-12 (NIV)

QUESTIONS1. Identify the meaning of the word beatitude. Which of the beatitudes in the verses

above do you think is most important today? Explain your choice.

2. Compare the Beatitudes to the Ten Commandments. How are they similar? How dothey differ?

291

Scholars believe that this gospel waswritten between 80 and 90 CE.Traditionally, both this gospel and theActs of the Apostles have been credit-ed to St. Luke, though some modernscholars dispute this. Luke was anearly Greek Christian, a well-educatedman, and identified by his friend St.Paul as a physician. Many verses usedin Luke’s gospel are the same as thosein Matthew’s. This has led Bible schol-ars to two conclusions: either Lukeborrowed from Matthew’s work, orelse both of them used another source,identified by scholars only as “Q,”which has never been discovered.

As a physician, Luke highlights themessage of healing by recountingparables about the poor and oppressedthat are not contained in the othergospels. Stories, such as “The GoodSamaritan,” about a man willing tohelp an injured traveller, are amongthe best-known lessons in the NewTestament. Christianity relies uponLuke’s gospel for most of the detailsregarding Christ’s early life, includingmuch of the Christmas story.

The fourth gospel of the NewTestament has been credited to John,one of the twelve apostles. It was writ-ten around 100 CE, at which timeJohn would have been very old. Thisgospel differs a great deal from thoseof Matthew, Mark, and Luke, andscholars believe it was more likelywritten by followers of John, ratherthan the apostle himself.

John’s gospel does not tell the story of Jesus biographically. Instead,

he presents it theologically. Johnrecounts Jesus’ lessons and actions inlong reflections that reveal his godli-ness. This gospel refers to Jesus as the“Word of God,” the “Bread of Life,”and the sacrificial “Lamb of God.”These metaphors are a very importantpart of the Christian sacrament ofHoly Communion. Another importantelement of this gospel is the “eleventhcommandment” of loving one another.The words spoken by Jesus to his dis-ciples represent a fundamental princi-ple of human relationships in his timeand in the present:

I give you a new command. Loveone another. As I have loved you, soyou must love one another...

John 13: 34-35 (NIV)

Christianity considers the four gospelsof paramount importance, but morethan half of the New Testament con-tains other books of history, instruc-tion, and warning. The Acts of theApostles, written by Luke, outlinesthe beginnings of the Church, anddescribes the work of the apostle Peterand the early missionary Paul inspreading the Christian faith. Lukehighlights the importance of the HolySpirit in guiding the early fathers ofthe new Church.

The Epistles mostly come fromPaul, or are attributed to him, thoughthere are three letters from John andother letters from early leaders of theChurch. Paul’s letters are the earliest


works of the New Testament, writtenfrom about 50 to 60 CE to the congre-gations that he established as hepreached across a wide area of theancient world. Paul wrote to encour-age early Christians during times ofpersecution, and to remind them ofJesus’ command that they love oneanother, just as they love God. TheEpistles are used as sacred readingsduring worship services in manyChristian Churches.

The last book of the New Testament isunlike any other and has created somecontroversy about its true meaning. Itwas written around 95 CE by a perse-cuted Christian in exile named John,possibly, but not likely the apostle.The book of Revelation is an example

of apocalyptic literature, describing,in symbolic and visionary terms, thedestruction of the enemies of a perse-cuted people. Some Christians inter-pret the book of Revelation very liter-ally to warn of a judgement day that isclose at hand.

Then I saw another angel flying inmid-air, and beheld the eternalgospel to proclaim to those who liveon the earth - to every nation, tribe,language and people. He said in aloud voice, “Fear God and give himglory, because the hour of his judge-ment has come. Worship him whomade the heavens, the earth, the sea,and the springs of water.”

Revelation 14: 6-7 (NIV)

CHRISTIANITY 293

1. What is the major difference

between the Old and New

Testaments of the Bible?

2. What is the difference

between the gospels and the

epistles? Compare the general

purposes of each type of text.

3. How are the three synoptic

gospels similar to one another?

How does John’s gospel differ

from them?

4. Read one section from the

New Testament, and write a per-

sonal response of at least a half

page to what you have read.

Be prepared to share your

comments.


Skill Path: In-depth Interview

An interview is a conversation between two ormore people. Researchers value this researchmethod because they can ask questions toobtain and clarify information on the spot. Forrespondents, the interview provides an often-welcome opportunity to express their views.

Structured Interview

Structured interviews are formal in nature andare designed to elicit specific answers fromrespondents. The researcher asks a number ofprepared questions in a specific sequence, towhich the respondents answer orally. Often, aresearcher uses this format when testing aspecific hypothesis or comparing information.For example, if a researcher is interested in dis-covering the religious practices of urbanchurches versus rural churches, he or shemight ask the same specific questions duringinterviews with urban and rural ministers andcompare the answers.

Informal Interview

Informal interviews are relaxed conversationswhere the researcher has not prepared partic-ular types of questions that must be asked in aspecific sequence. The main goal of this type ofinterview is to simply discover peoples’ viewson general topics. The informal interview canbe the most difficult to conduct. The researchermust display an ability to be “quick on his orher feet.” He or she must be able to decideinstantly if the interview has become too per-sonal; when to stop the interview; and how tomaintain calm and open communication for theentire length of the exchange.

A helpful hint: Always begin the interview withnon-threatening questions to establish a feelingof trust.

Retrospective Interview

A retrospective interview can be either struc-tured or informal. The goal of the researcher isto have the person responding to the questionsrecall, from memory, an incident in the past. Allquestions reflect this goal. Retrospective inter-views often do not provide the most accuratedata because of the high potential for humanerror that might result from poor memory.

Interview QuestionsThere are various types of questions that aresearcher might ask. They can include the following:

• Demographic questionsThese questions relate to the background ofthe respondent and address topics such asage, occupation, income, and education.

• Knowledge questionsThese questions elicit answers that reflect factas opposed to opinion. For example, aresearcher might ask a priest or minister toidentify the milestones that are consideredsacraments in his or her Church.

• Experience questionsThe goal of these questions is to elicit descrip-tions of behaviours that might have beenobserved had the researcher decided to con-duct an observation instead of an interview. Forexample, a researcher might ask: “If I were toattend an Easter Sunday service, what ritualswould I observe?”

• Opinion questionsThese questions attempt to elicit an opinion, ordetermine the respondent’s values or beliefs.

294

Skill Path In-depth Interview

For example: “What do you think about theChurch’s policy on human cloning?”

• Feelings questionsThe intent of these questions is to determinehow the respondent feels about a topic—whathis or her emotions are with regard to experi-ences. For example: “How did you feel whenyou attended Sunday School as a child?”

Note: Often researchers confuse feelings andopinion questions. Discovering peoples’ opin-ions on issues is not the same as probing foremotions regarding experiences. “How do youfeel…” should elicit responses that reflect arespondent’s likes and dislikes; whereas“What is your opinion of/What do you thinkabout…” should elicit a respondent’s point ofview about an issue or policy.

Tips for a Successful Interview • Arrive on time with all necessary equipment.• Greet your respondent and reconfirm the pur-

pose of your research.• Ask your questions clearly.• Be a good listener, and be prepared to

follow-up with questions for fur ther clarification.

• Use point-form notes to record responses, orconsider taping the interview.

• When you are finished, thank the respondentand mention that you may call back for clari-fication of answers.

Practise It!

1. Identify each type of interview question fromthe list below.• What do you think about the Church’s policy

on divorce?• How did you feel during your ordination?• How old are you?• What vestments does a minister wear during

Sunday worship?• How often does the Church offer communion?• What is your occupation?

2. Interview a priest, minister, or activeChristian about the meaning of his or her faithin the modern world. Don’t forget to chooseyour type of interview and questions carefully.

295

GROUPS ANDINSTITUTIONS

For several hundred years, theChristian Church formalized itsbeliefs and extended its geographicalboundaries. Zealous missionaries con-tinued the work of St. Paul. St.Patrick took Christianity to Ireland,and, although he was more a warriorthan a missionary, by 800 CE, KingCharlemagne of the Germanic Frankshad established the Holy RomanEmpire, which stretched across muchof Europe.

As the Church grew larger, the forcesof history began to pull it in two.When Roman Emperor Constantineshifted his capital city, he gave theempire two focal points—Rome in thewest and Byzantium (Constantinople)in the east. As Christianity expandedwestward into Europe, the influenceof the Roman patriarch increased, andhe came to be called “pope.” Seriousdisagreement developed as the popeclaimed authority over the wholeChurch.

There was also significant disagree-ment within the Church over issues ofdoctrine. The breaking point was thefilioque clause, a Latin word insertedinto the Nicene Creed by the Churchin the west. The Roman pope addedthe expression “and the Son” to theend of the following statement fromthe original Nicene Creed of 325 CE:“And we believe in the Holy Spirit, theLord and giver of Life, who proceedsfrom the Father.” The western Churchbelieved that both the Father and Son

sent forth the Holy Spirit. TheEastern Church believed that thepower of the Holy Spirit came onlyfrom God the Father.

In 1054 CE, the pope in Rome and the patriarch in Constant-inople excommunicated, or formallyexpelled, one another’s senior Churchofficials. A schism, or break, occurredas the Church split into two branch-es— the Eastern Orthodox, centred onthe universal patriarch in Const-antinople, and the Western Church,focused upon the pope in Rome.

Followers of the Eastern OrthodoxChurch rejected the authority of thepope and any other modificationsmade to Christian belief after 787 CE.

Missionaries of the Greek OrthodoxChurch actively spread the faith intoEastern Europe and Russia. Today,the Eastern Orthodox Church is pre-dominant in Greece, Russia, Ukraine,Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania.Migration has spread Orthodoxyworldwide, and today it claimsapproximately 225 million members.

Typically, Eastern Orthodox Churchesare constructed with a distinctivecross-shaped floor plan, where fourshort wings meet under a roundedcentral roof. Inside, they are ornatelydecorated with religious icons repre-senting Jesus, Mary, the angels, andsaints of the early Church (Figure7.20). The Orthodox service, called theDivine Liturgy, is usually long andvery elaborate, focused upon ritualsestablished early in Christian history.


Ornate vestments, or clothing, wornby the priest, chanting, and the smellof incense burning all contribute to asense of “other-worldliness” duringthe Divine Liturgy.

Today, the Eastern Churches areled by an Ecumenical Patriarch inIstanbul (formerly Constantinople).In an important symbolic healing ofthe East-West schism, the patriarchAthenagoras, and Pope Paul VI met in1965 and lifted the excommunicationsthat their predecessors had levied solong ago. However, the two Churchesremain separate institutions.

Only men can be Orthodox priests,and they are allowed to have beenmarried before their ordination; how-ever, once ordained, they cannotmarry. The Orthodox Churches havealways promoted monastic life formen and women, and thousands livein monasteries around the world.

Monastic priests and nuns are notpermitted to have been married.

Several sects (Figure 7.21) in theMiddle East and Africa broke fromMediterranean Christianity in thefifth and sixth centuries CE. Whilethey worship the Holy Trinity, theseChurches disagree with the decision ofearly Church councils that JesusChrist was both true God and trueman. About 15 million people belongto these sects, about half of them inthe Ethiopian Church. This Africansect is the most unusual of theChristian Churches, sharing manytraditions with Judaism; for example,practicing ritual purification, keepingthe Sabbath, and using a replica of theArk of the Covenant during worship.

CHRISTIANITY 297

Figure 7.20Christ the Saviour Cathedralin Moscow is an example ofa Russian Orthodox church.

1. East Syrian Church—Iraq,Middle East

2. Chaldean Church—Iraq, Iran

3. West Syrian Church—Syria,Lebanon, Iraq

4. Armenian Church—MiddleEast

5. Coptic Church—Egypt

6. Ethiopian Church—Ethiopia

After the schism with Orthodoxy, theWestern Church expanded its influ-ence and centralized its authority. In1095 CE, Pope Urban II proclaimed agreat expedition to recover Jerusalemand the Holy Land from Muslim rule.This began the Crusades, a “holy war”that lasted more than a century. Therewere at least five “waves” of cru-saders, one of which even attackedand captured the Eastern Orthodoxcapital of Constantinople. Historiansagree that in the fight against a com-mon enemy, the Crusades unifiedEurope and extended the reach of theWestern, or Roman Catholic Church.

In response to the Protestant Reform-ation (see page 299) the Church spenteighteen years, beginning in 1543, atthe Council of Trent affirming all ofits basic teachings, in what is calledthe Catholic Reformation. Amongother things, the council identified the seven Catholic sacraments for the first time, and described three

destinations for the souls of thedead—heaven, hell, and purgatory.Purgatory is a temporary state inwhich souls exist until they arecleansed of sin and can enter heaven.The Council deemed that prayers tothe saints, and to Mary, are acceptableRoman Catholic practices, and itupheld the importance of both theBible and Church tradition. Duringthe centuries that followed theCouncil of Trent, missionaries andmigration carried Roman Catholicbeliefs to practically every corner ofthe world. Today, this Church hasmore than one billion members.

The central role of the pope is onething that sets the Roman CatholicChurch apart from the rest ofChristianity. As early as the fourthcentury CE, the bishop of Romeclaimed leadership of the Church,linking himself to the following wordsof Christ: “Thou art Peter [the apos-tle] and upon this rock I will build mychurch,” (Matthew 16:18). Catholicsbelieve that popes are successors toSaint Peter and that their centralleadership helps hold the huge mem-bership of the Church together. In1870, the First Vatican Councilstrengthened the pope’s authority bymaking papal infallibility RomanCatholic doctrine. This means, thatprovided the pope has consulted wide-ly and is speaking formally as Churchleader, his teachings relating to faithand morals are protected from errorby God.

Vatican II, the second VaticanCouncil, held between 1962 and 1965,


Figure 7.21Independent Eastern

Christian Churches

introduced many important docu-ments that updated almost everyaspect of the Church. Among otherthings, Latin was eliminated fromworship in favour of the local lan-guage. Direct participation in theservice, or the Mass, was encouragedby turning the altar and the priest toface the congregation, and by givinglay people roles as commentators andassistants in distributing Holy Com-munion. Since Vatican II, theEucharist can be taken in two forms:a small, circular wafer of unleavenedbread, called the host, and wine, bothof which have been consecrated.

One of the major challenges facingthe Roman Catholic Church today is ashortage of priests, particularly inindustrialized nations, such as Canada,the United States, and WesternEurope. Catholic priests must be malesand they must remain both celibate,that is, abstain from marriage, andchaste, that is, abstain from sexualrelations. They have a very strict per-sonal code to maintain in an increas-ingly secular and individualistic socie-ty. And, it is quite unlike the OrthodoxChurches where men may marrybefore they are ordained, or theProtestant Churches, with both mar-ried clergy and female clergy. For thepast generation, the number of newCatholic priests has not been sufficientto replace retirees or to keep up withthe growth of new parishes, or churchdistricts. Few churches have more thanone priest any more; in fact, the clus-tering of two or three parishes togeth-er is becoming increasingly common.

The second great division in theChurch took place almost five hun-dred years after the Eastern schism,during the Renaissance, an era ofsocial change. In 1517 CE, a Germanmonk named Martin Luther caused adramatic change in the RomanCatholic Church by challenging manyof its medieval practices. He called fora simpler “inner faith,” free fromlong-established rituals and outwardshows of devotion. The Church excom-municated him, no longer allowingLuther membership or participationin its rites of faith. His followersestablished the Lutheran Church, andthe Protestant Reformation—thereform of the western Church inprotest to its practices—was under-way. The Protestant Reformation alsocaused the Catholic Reformation, which began in 1543 as a response tothe criticisms of the Protestantreformers.

CHRISTIANITY 299

Figure 7.22Pope John Paul II, whobecame the leader of theRoman Catholic Church in1978, has been called the“people’s Pope” because ofhis concern for the poor andhis frequent world missions.

The Orthodox and Roman Churcheshad always focused on the importanceof both faith and works, but MartinLuther introduced a new view.Salvation by faith alone turned theexpectations of belief inward, ratherthan focusing on outward signs. Whilelove and service to others was impor-tant, they were not necessary for sal-vation. Knowing God through thestudy of the Bible became more impor-tant than following long-establishedrituals of worship. This is a definingcharacteristic of many ProtestantChurches today.

Martin Luther’s translation of theBible from Latin into German wasalmost as important as his new interpretation of Christianity. Soon,Luther’s new Bibles were in the handsof the emerging commercial middleclasses of northern and westernEurope. Educated people could nowread and interpret the gospels them-selves, without the direction of RomanCatholic clerics. As a result, theReformation spread rapidly, throughGermany, Switzerland, Holland, Brit-ain, and Scandinavia. New interpreta-tions of the faith took hold, and thefoundations of the Lutheran, Cal-vin-ist, and Anglican Churches wereestablished. Later, several otherChristian Churches in the Protestanttradition emerged, some of which willbe discussed in this section.

More than 75 million people in theworld are Lutherans, the first of theProtestant Churches. They focus onthe message of God’s forgiving love

and consider the Bible, rather thanChurch doctrine, as the sole guide toreligious truth. There are two sacra-ments in the Lutheran Church—bap-tism and the Lord’s Supper, or HolyCommunion. Lutherans believe thatin communion, Christ is present in avery real way, through consubstantia-tion. Consubstantiation acknowledgesthe presence of Christ’s body andblood in the offering, but all around it,without altering the substance of thebread and wine.

During the mid-sixteenth century,John Calvin, a classical scholar, expe-rienced a sudden religious conversionin Switzerland. He developed a core ofdoctrine that accepted justification,but introduced new elements of belief,for example, the absolute sovereigntyof God. John Knox was influenced byCalvin and carried his ideas toScotland, where he founded thePresbyterian Church. Today, about100 different Calvinist-based denomi-nations belong to the World Allianceof Reformed Churches.

Calvinism stresses sanctification,that is purification from sin, throughobedience of the Ten Commandmentsof the Old Testament. Members aretaught to value integrity, sincerity,and hard work, since all humanactions are under scrutiny from God.The liturgies of Reformed Churchesare relatively free of ritual, with astrong focus upon preaching andhymn singing. The Lord’s Supper iscelebrated in a symbolic way, and bap-tism is the only other sacrament.


Profile:Martin Luther wasborn in 1483 CE,and was ordainedas a priest in1507. He entereda monastery tofollow an isolatedlife of prayer andfasting, but foundthat this rever-ence was notbringing him clos-

er to God. Bible study led Luther to refine the ideaof justification, that which makes a person worthyto God. While the Roman Catholic Church believedthat one was justified by having faith, doing goodworks, receiving the sacraments, and fulfilling anumber of Church demands, Luther felt that it wassimpler than that. He claimed that salvation wasgained “by faith alone.” Furthermore, since God iskind, he looked favourably upon all people, not justthe pious.

In 1517, Martin Luther posted his famousNinety-five Theses on a church door in Wittemberg,Germany. These were points of debate about cer-tain beliefs and practices. Some of the theses pre-sented his radical views about salvation, but hiscriticism directed at selling indulgences angeredChurch authorities most of all. An indulgence wasusually a formal penance of prayers done to obtain

God’s forgiveness for sins; however, the wealthycould simply donate money to the Church insteadof praying. This challenge led to intense scholarlydebate about the Ninety-five Theses with Catholictheologian Johann Eck. Luther defended his viewsabout justification and salvation, but went even fur-ther. He denied the supremacy of the pope anddeclared that Church councils could commit errorsof faith.

He was excommunicated and banned as “anobvious heretic.” Luther translated the whole Bibleinto German. Later, he wrote several books andpamphlets that outlined his views of a reformedChristianity.

Luther’s revised liturgy was both simpler and inthe language of the people instead of Latin. MartinLuther intended to reform the Church rather thanbreak from it, but when he died in 1546, he wasalready recognized as an important figure who hadchanged the course of Christianity.

Figure 7.23

QUESTIONS1. How did Luther’s ideas about salvation differ from

those of the Roman Catholic Church?

2. Indicate with which of Luther’s ideas you agree ordisagree. Be prepared to explain your positions.

Martin Luther1483-1546

301

Anglicanism includes the originalChurch of England, the AnglicanChurch of Canada, and the Epis-copalian Church in the United States.The formation of this Church wasentirely political. King Henry VIIIwanted his marriage to Catherine ofAragon annulled, or made void, andthe Catholic Church would not comply.King Henry had the Archbishop ofCanterbury annul the marriage andhad Parliament pass the Act ofSupremacy, which made the monarchhead of the Church in England. Heordered the translation of the Bibleand worship services into English, butmade no other changes in doctrine.Anglicans do not recognize the author-ity of the pope, nor do they accept thedoctrine of transubstantiation in theEucharist (see page 286). However,their liturgy is very similar to that ofCatholicism, with the result that

Anglicans tend to view themselves as a“bridge” between Protestants andRoman Catholics.

These Churches have their origin inthe Anabaptist movement of sixteenth-century Protestantism. Baptists believethat becoming a Christian should be amature and informed decision, and nota birthright. In Baptist Churches, thissacrament calls for the total immersionof adults in water, in the way John theBaptist baptized Jesus (Figure 7.24).Baptist liturgy includes the sacramentof communion, with Christ present inspirit only, as well as Bible preachingand hymn singing. Martin Luther KingJr., the American civil rights leaderwho championed the rights of AfricanAmericans in the 1960s was a Baptistminister. In Canada, Tommy Douglas,the founder of the Canadian medicaresystem and the first leader of the NewDemocratic Party, was also a Baptistminister.

These Churches originated two cen-turies after the Protestant Refor-mation. In the eighteenth century,John Wesley, an Anglican priest inEngland, founded the movement as heand a group of friends “methodically”sought a deeper assurance of personalsalvation through prayer, discussion,and reflection. He developed the fol-lowing three basic principles for follow-ers: “Do no harm; Do good; Attend toall the ordinances of God.” Methodismstressed a Christian lifestyle in theworld, and has often supported impor-tant social causes. Methodist Churches


Figure 7.24This baptism is taking place

in a Baptist church. What areyour views on adult

versus infant baptism?

vary, but all celebrate baptism, andmost liturgy is a song-filled preachingservice, occasionally concluded by asymbolic Lord’s Supper.

The United Church of Canada,formed in 1925, is a product of a merger among the Methodist, Congre-gationalist, and Presbyterian Churches.

The Evangelical Movement, whichhas historic ties to the ProtestantReformation, represents a very activeform of Christian belief and practicebased on the literal authority of theBible. This movement has grown rap-idly in Canada to represent one of thelargest communities of Protestantworshippers in the country. Evangel-ical Protestant Christians are veryactive in charitable causes, such asWorld Vision, which is the largest non-governmental organization in Canada,raising some 200 million dollars forworld relief.

In the 1820s, American Joseph Smithhad visions of God the Father, JesusChrist, and an angel he called Moroni.He claimed to have received smallgolden panels engraved in an ancientlanguage that he was given the abilityto translate into the Book of Mormon.The Mormon Church, known as theChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-daySaints, regards this book as divinelyinspired sacred writing. Under theleadership of Brigham Young, they

established Salt Lake City, the presentcapital of the state of Utah. This cityis world headquarters to more thanseven million Mormons.

Mormons do not recognize originalsin; therefore, baptism only serves toreceive new members into theChurch. Mormons believe that a per-son’s spirit remains on earth afterdeath, and, therefore, family life cancontinue to include deceased familymembers. One result is that theChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-daySaints has developed a strong interestin genealogy, the study of one’s ances-tors. In fact, they operate the largestresearch library for this purpose inthe world.

This religious group began in theUnited States in 1868, and currentlyhas about four million members.Jehovah’s Witnesses obey the call to“witness the faith,” that is bring it toothers, by spreading the good news ofthe kingdom of God. Members person-ally carry out their ministry by deliv-ering their magazines door-to-door intheir home communities. They rejectthe idea of the Holy Trinity, and inter-pret the Bible in literal detail, holdingit as the infallible source of the truth.One controversial aspect of this faithis its opposition to blood transfusions,even in life-threatening situations.Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that it isforbidden by God to take the blood ofanother into one’s body.

CHRISTIANITY 303

Community StudyThe Salvation Army

Most Canadians arefamiliar with theSalvation Army insome way, for theyplay a very importantsocial and religiousrole in many communi-ties. You’ve probablyseen uniformed mem-bers in shopping

malls at Christmas,with bright red containers to collect dona-tions for the poor. Perhaps you’ve heardtheir band play music on street corners orin local parades, and seen their familiarbig collection boxes for used clothing andfurniture. But, you may not know that theSalvation Army is also a Church, one thathas been in Canada since 1882.

William and Catherine Booth, marriedMethodist preachers, started the Army in1865 to bring faith to the “un-churched” inthe poorest districts of London, England. Itwas organized along military lines, andgave completely equal status to male andfemale members, called “soldiers,” andministers, called “officers.” To this day,members pledge themselves to spreadthe gospel of Jesus, particularly throughcharitable works, and to lead a moral life,free from alcohol, tobacco, and illegaldrugs. Ministers also accept a frugal life ofrelative poverty. William and CatherineBooth pioneered a Christian faith with astrong tradition of music and preaching,but with very little ritual and none of thesacraments. Instead, open prayer and per-

sonal testimony, are encouraged as valu-able ways to lead others toward a choicefor their own salvation.

The Army has earned the respect ofCanadians because of the wide range ofsocial services that it provides to the dis-advantaged (below). From the beginning,the motto of the Salvation Army has been“With heart to God, and hand to man.”

Salvation Army Activity in Canada • Clothing and furniture distribution

centres called Thrift Stores• Community food drives and food

banks • Hospitals and retirement homes for

the elderly• Counselling centres for alcohol and

drug addiction• Shelters and meals for the home-

less• Outdoor summer camps for under-

privileged children• Parole supervision for recently

released prisoners• Language instruction for new

immigrants

QUESTIONS1. Describe the role of women in the

Salvation Army, and trace this role tothe founders of the movement.

2. Explain how the community work ofSalvation Army members is linked tothe movement’s origins and to their religious principles.

Figure 7.25

304

CHRISTIANITY 305

y1. Identify the meaning of the following

terms:

a) purgatory

b) papal infallibility

c) sanctification

2. Compare the views of the Christian

Churches toward a married clergy.

3. Explain the controversy of the

filioque clause and its effect.

4. In your opinion, has the division of

Christianity been good or bad for the

faith? Explain.

5. What personal questions do you

have about any of the Christian

denominations described in this

section? How would you go about

getting your questions answered?


CULTURAL IMPACT

Numbering almost two billion people,Christians form the largest religion inthe world. About one-third of the glob-al population follows the teachings ofJesus Christ. As a result of both itshuge membership and geographicaldistribution, Christianity has had asizable cultural impact on Canada andthe rest of the world.

Maps and statistics show thatChristianity is dominant in Europeand the Western hemisphere (Figures7.26 and 7.27). During the ages ofexploration and colonization byEuropean powers, such as Britain,France, Spain, Portugal, and theNetherlands, missionaries and immi-grants carried Christianity to theAmericas. Indigenous peoples in thoseregions were Christianized by peace-ful conversion, or by show of force. Inthe late nineteenth century, the age ofimperialism pushed European inter-ests and Christianity deeper into Asia

and Africa. Today, almost two-thirdsof Roman Catholics live in the devel-oping nations of Latin America, Asia,and Africa.

The link between Christianity anddeveloping nations can be seen todayin the activities of church-based inter-national activities. Many ChristianChurches and organizations fund andoperate missions, schools, orphanages,hospitals, and other community insti-tutions in the Third World. For exam-ple, the Christian Children’s Funduses a sponsorship plan to fund edu-cation for the children of poor familiesoverseas. Other organizations, such asthe Canadian Catholic Organizationfor Development and Peace, orCCODP, support community-basedeconomic development projects indeveloping nations. Finally, Churchgroups, like the Mennonite CentralRelief Committee, respond to interna-tional crises, such as, famine, flood,and hurricane destruction.


World Distribution of Christianity

Protestant and Roman Catholic

Protestant

Roman Catholic

Eastern Orthodox

Oxford World Religions 7bb (old 7.27) ch

PACIFIC OCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

Orthodox

Protestant

Roman Catholic

OtherChristians*

TOTALS

Africa

33

108

118

68

317

Asia

15

46

111

125

297

LatinAmerica

1

43

443

40

527

Europe

167

110

287

6

570

NorthAmerica

7

98

74

48

227

Oceania

1

11

8

1

21

WORLD

224

416

1040

288

1968

* Catholics (non-Roman), marginal Protestants, Indigenous Christian Churches of Asia, Africa, and Latin America

Figure 7.26 What evidence is there that Christianity is truly a global faith?

Figure 7.27 Christian Adherents by Continent (in millions), 1997

Christianity is the most widely heldfaith in Canada, and this has affectedour society in many ways. Christianchurches are the most striking build-ings in many Canadian communities(Figures 7.28-7.30). The architecturallandscape of our country features arange of church styles. Some of thesechurches are the centre of the impor-tant pilgrimage travel industry. Forexample, Ste. Anne de Beaupré nearQuebec City, St. Joseph’s Oratory inMontreal, and Martyrs’ Shrine inMidland, Ontario, each draw a contin-uous stream of religious travellers.

The impact of Christianity is alsoevident in the Canadian educationalsystem. Some provinces, such asOntario and New Brunswick, havepublicly-funded Roman Catholicschool systems, first guaranteedunder the terms of the 1867 BritishNorth America Act as part of the his-

torical set of compromises that creat-ed the dominion of Canada. Religious-based schools, denominational col-leges, and “Sunday school” programsaim to pass on the faith from one gen-eration to the next.

Christianity’s impact on Canadacan clearly be seen with a casual ref-erence to a map or local street direct-ory. Many cities, towns, villages, lakes,and rivers bear Christian saints’names, particularly in Quebec. The St.Lawrence River, Sainte-Marie-Among-The-Hurons, St. Mary’s and St.Thomas, Ontario, and St. GeorgeStreet in Toronto are some examplesof this phenomenon. Many of the hol-idays that we enjoy as Canadians wereoriginally Christian holy days. Theseinclude Christmas, Easter, andThanksgiving. Thus, although Canadais very multifaith and multiculturaltoday, the Christian heritage is still animportant feature of Canadian society.

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fWebQuest1. ChristianChildren’s Fund athttp://www.christianchildrensfund.org

2. Development and Peace athttp://www.devp.org

3. MennoniteCentral Committeeathttp://www.mhsc.ca

Figure 7.28St. Dunstan’s Cathedral,Charlottetown, PEI

Figure 7.29Precious Blood Church,Winnipeg, Manitoba

Figure 7.30Trinity United

Church, Oakville,Ontario

Living My ReligionHow Christianity has Influenced my Life by Renée DesRivieres

Renée DesRiviereswas born in NorthYork, Ontario, in 1979She spent much ofher adolescence inSarnia, Ontario,w h e r eshe graduated from St. Christopher Sec-ondary School. Beforebeginning university,she attended “WorldYouth Day 1997” inParis, France. Duringthis pilgrimage, theRoman Pontiff, JohnPaul II, challengedyouth to be a voicefor the voiceless inour current “culture

of death.” Renée felt a calling to pursue this chal-lenge. While at the University of Western Ontario,she worked at a teen pregnancy crisis centre. Renéealso held the presidential position in the university’s

pro-life association, and attended the UnitedNations world population conference in New York Cityas a pro-life delegate. After graduating with a biologydegree in ecology and evolution, Renée began grad-uate study of Catholic theology at St. Peter’sSeminary, in London, Ontario. She aspires to work ina biomedical ethics field where she can combineChristian faith, biology, and medicine.

Renée states:

“The most influential effect of Christianity on mylife comes from reflecting upon the life of Christ. Helived a life of perfection and calls each one of us toimitate Him. I feel this call on a daily basis. For exam-ple, if I walk by a homeless person, I am immediate-ly reminded of Christ’s words, “…just as you did notdo it to the least of my brothers or sisters, you didnot do it to me,” (Matthew 25:45). He calls us to loveour neighbour as ourselves and in doing this we areall challenged to protect the rights of the vulnerable,feed the hungry, and comfort all those in need.” Thispractice has affected my life on both practical andprofound levels.

QUESTIONS1. Identify and describe the event that influenced Renée’s commitment to the Christian

faith. What activities in her life demonstrate the impact of this event upon her?

2. Think of an event that had a strong positive impact upon you. Write a paragraph detail-ing how this event affected you.

Figure 7.31

308

CHRISTIANITY 309

Christian Churches led social reform in Canada. About a century ago, the Women’s Christian TemperanceUnion, or WCTU, was a powerfulchurch-based organization opposed tothe widespread sale and abuse ofliquor. They succeeded in outlawingthe purchase of alcohol in Canada andthe United States for a period of timeknown as Prohibition. This movementhelps explain why the sale of alcohol inCanada is still carefully controlled bygovernment.

During the Great Depression, chur-ches stepped up their efforts to collectand distribute food and supplies forthe unemployed and the desperatefarmers in the Prairies. Two Christianministers in the West, J. S.Woodsworth and William “Bible Bill”Aberhart, helped found new politicalparties that aimed to use politicalmeasures to end the economic prob-lems of the times. The Co-operativeCommonwealth Federation (or CCF,forerunner to today’s New Democratic

Party), and Aberhart’s Social CreditParty were both elected in Westernprovinces, and introduced bold socialspending programs. For example, in Saskatchewan, the CCF introducedpublic health care, a program avail-able to all Canadians today.

One of the most important ways inwhich Christianity affects society canoften pass unnoticed, yet its impactcan be profound. Most ChristianChurches in Canada have developedvital pastoral ministries within the Church community. Pastors andtrained volunteers provide emotionalsupport during personal and familycrises; for example, bereavementcounselling for family members of thedeceased. Visiting programs reach thesick, the elderly, and even prisoninmates. Youth ministry programsand marriage preparation coursesare examples of ongoing projects carried out by several Christian denominations.

1. Use Figure 7.27 to rank the world

continents from most Christians to

least. Explain this pattern.

2. Summarize three different types

of activities currently supported in

developing nations by Christian

organizations.

3. a) Make a list of ways in which

Christianity has affected Canadian

society.

b) Describe the cultural impact of the

following in Canada: the WCTU,

the Salvation Army, J.S. Woodsworth,

and William Aberhart.

4. What is pastoral ministry? Use two

examples to show how it can have a

significant impact upon people.


ActivitiesCheck Your Understanding

1. Explain the part played by each of thefollowing in the life of Jesus Christ:a) John the Baptist b) Judas c) Mary Magdalene

2. Note two beliefs about the nature ofGod shared by Christians and Jews.

3. Compile a summary chart about fourimportant Protestant founders as follows:

Think and Communicate

4. How important is each of the followingin shaping your values: religion, school,media, parents, friends? Rank these fivefrom most to least important, and explainyour choices.

5. Do you support or reject the idea thatJesus was a rebel who challenged thestatus quo of his day? Explain.

6. Prepare a profile, like the one ofMother Teresa on page 288, that exam-ines the role of an important woman, orgroup of women, in Christianity. Examplesmight include Mary Magdalene, CatherineBooth (founder of the Salvation Army), orthe Women’s Christian Temperance Union(WCTU).

7. Interview a church pastor or a volun-teer about the pastoral counselling workthat he or she performs. Try to find outthe difficulties and the rewards that thisperson experiences with such work.

8. Examine the synoptic gospels and findthree examples of the same parables con-tained in all of them. Then find threeparables that are not found in all threegospels. Record the subjects of theseparables in a chart.

9. Work with a partner to compare thestyle and content of the gospels of Lukeand John. Summarize some important dif-ferences that you notice, using examples.

10. Use photography or sketches to col-lect images of different types of religiousarchitecture in your neighbourhood orcommunity. Arrange these pictures in aninteresting display.

Important Concepts or Church Founder Church Name Activities Introduced

a. Martin Luther

b. John Calvin

c. Henry VIII

d. John Wesley

310

Apply Your Learning

11. Examine the Sermon on the Mountin the gospel of Matthew (page 291).Summarize three teachings within thatpassage that would be good advice intoday’s world. Explain each of your choic-es.

12. Use print and/or electronic sourcesto prepare a page of research about oneof these topics:a) The Crusadesb) The Coptic Churches of Egypt and/orEthiopiac) The American civil rights movement

13. To what degree should a person befree to practise his or her faith? Selectone of the following pairs of statementsand explain your point of view:a) i) Refusal to volunteer for military service

ii) Refusal to report for the draft in time of war

b) i) Refusal to receive a blood transfusion in a medical emergencyii) Refusal to allow a young family member an emergency transfusion

14. Work within a group to research theviews of Canadian political parties onhuman cloning, capital punishment, abor-tion, euthanasia, or another contentioussocial issue regarding human life. Preparea report of your findings, and presentthem to the class in an oral presentation.

15. Compare secular and religious cele-brations held either at Christmas orEaster. Trace the origins of the secularcelebration, then show how the secularand religious celebrations differ.

311


apostle [a POSSLE]. One of the twelvedisciples chosen by Christ to go out toteach the gospel to the world.

Ascension. Holy day that marks thebodily passing of Christ from earth toheaven on the fortieth day after Easter.

baptism. Sacrament or action thatinvolves the sprinkling of a person withwater or full immersion as a sign ofwashing away sin and entering theChurch.

Christmas. Festival that celebrates thebirth of Jesus, marked by special Churchservices, gifts, and greetings.

confirmation (also known as chrismation). Sacrament, or rite insome Churches that is a component ofthe initiation process into the Christianfaith, which begins with baptism.

confession (also known as reconciliation). Sacrament in someChurches in which a person acknowl-edges, to a priest or a confessor, wrongscommitted and receives forgivenessfrom God.

Crucifixion [croo suh FICK shun].Execution of Christ on a wooden cross,in the method of the Romans; an eventcommemorated by Christians on GoodFriday.

disciple. Follower of Jesus Christ duringhis public ministry; includes, but is notlimited to, the twelve apostles.

Easter. Christian festival that cele-brates the Resurrection of Christ.

epistles [ep PISSLE]. Letters writtenby Christ’s apostles to instruct Churchesand individuals about the faith.

filioque clause [filly O quay]. Latinword, meaning “and the son” insertedinto the Nicene Creed by the Western, orRoman, Church.

gospels. Story of Jesus Christ’s life andteachings told in the first four books ofthe Bible’s New Testament.

Holy Communion /Eucharist [YUKE arist]. Sacrament by which Christianscommemorate the Last Supper.

Holy Spirit. One of the three persons inGod, believed, by Christians, to bestowspiritual gifts upon individuals.

indulgences. Prayers or actions in theRoman Catholic Church that are believedto free the individual from spending aspecified period of time in purgatory.

justification. Belief in some Churchesthat Christians are free from punishmentfor sin through their faith in Jesus Christ.

Last Judgement. Day of God’s finaljudgement at the end of the world, whenthe faithful will go to heaven.

Last Supper. Jesus’ last meal with hisdisciples before he was crucified; the ori-gin of the sacrament of Holy Communion.

Glossary

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Lent. Forty weekdays between AshWednesday and Easter Sunday; a periodof fasting and repentance for sin in manyChristian Churches.

liturgy of the word. Portion of theChristian worship service that empha-sizes Bible readings and preaching to thechurch congregation.

martyr [MAR tur]. Someone who hassuffered or died for his or her religion orbeliefs.

Messiah [muh SIGH uh]. Saviour,prophesized by the Old Testament, whowould lead his people to God; Christiansbelieve this saviour to be Jesus.

original sin. Belief of the human ten-dency to sin and evil, presented in scrip-ture as a result of Adam and Eve’s dis-obedience of God in the garden of Eden.

papal infallibility. Roman Catholicbelief that the pope cannot err whenspeaking on matters of faith and moralsin his role as head of the Church.

parable. Type of short story often usedby Jesus to teach an important truth orlesson in morality.

parish. Area that has its own church anda minister or priest.

pastoral ministry. Non-ordained peoplewho assist the clergy with many differentaspects of their work.

Pentecost [PENTA cost]. Christian fes-tival commemorating the descent of theHoly Spirit upon the apostles to helpthem spread the Christian faith.

Protestant Reformation. Religiousmovement in Europe during the six-teenth century that led to the establish-ment of the Protestant Churches.

Purgatory. Temporary stage in RomanCatholicism in which the souls of thosewho have died are purified from sin.

Resurrection. Rising of Christ from his tomb on the third day after his crucifixion.

rosary. A string of beads used for devo-tional prayers by some Christians.

sacrament. Ritual or ceremony that isan outward sign of spiritual benefits thatare given to the recipient.

saint. Holy person that Christians venerate.

sanctification [sank tiffa KAY sh’n].Act of being purified from sin and maderight or holy in the eyes of God.

schism. Division of the Church into sep-arate, and often hostile, groups becauseof strong difference of opinion.

transubstantiation [tran sub stanshyAY sh’n]. Changing of bread and wineinto the substance of the body andblood of Christ during Holy Communion.

Trinity. Christian belief that there arethree persons in one God: the Father,the son (Jesus Christ), and the HolySpirit.

answered him, “i tell you the truth, today you will be …...then he said, “jesus, remember me...

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