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Med 6573 Nervous System Winter 2010Dr. Janet Fitzakerley [email protected] Visionhttp://www.d.umn.edu/~jfitzake/Lectures/Teaching.html of 19

VISION

CRITICAL FACTS(if med school is a Minnesota forest with millions of trees, these are the red pines).

1. There are two fundamental protective mechanisms for the eye. Regulation of eyelid position (including BLINKING) involves striated (ACh; nicotinic) and smooth (NE; α1 adrenergic) muscles. TEAR PRODUCTION occurs spontaneously (basal), reflexly or in response to emotional stimuli, and is partially regulated by the parasympathetic nervous system (ACh; muscarinic). EPIPHORA (overflow of tears) can be due to either overproduction or blocked drainage.

2. The cornea and lens focus light on the retina; the cornea has greater refractive power but the focusing power of the lens can be adjusted to allow near vision (accomodation). Refractive errors include cataracts, hyperopia, myopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.

3. Light intensity is regulated by the PUPILLARY LIGHT REFLEX, which causes MIOSIS as a result of parasympathetic stimulation of the sphincter pupillae muscles (muscarinic receptors). MYDRIASIS results from sympathetic stimulation (α1 receptors) that activates the dilator pupillae muscles.

4. Increased intraocular pressure causes loss of vision (potentially permanent). Open angle glaucoma (the most common form) results from overproduction of the aqueous humor. Closed angle glaucoma (typically the most rapidly evolving form) is caused by blockage of fluid outflow.

5. Rods are responsible for SCOTOPIC vision (the monochromatic vision that occurs in low light). The three types of cones (blue, green and red; or Short, Medium and Long wavelength) have better temporal and spatial resolution than rods, making PHOTOPIC VISION better for discrimination of surfaces and movement under bright light conditions.

6. The ability to discriminate fine details of the visual scene is termed VISUAL ACUITY. Three types are recognized: SPATIAL, TEMPORAL and SPECTRAL. Visual acuity is primarily a function of the cone system.

7. PHOTOTRANSDUCTION occurs via a 4 step process that uses a 2nd

messenger cascade to amplify the signal. In rods, activation of rhodopsin ultimately results in the closure of cyclic nucleotide gated Na+ channels, and hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor.

http://www.d.umn.edu/~jfitzake/Lectures/Teaching.html

mailto:[email protected]


8. The VISUAL CYCLE consists of bleaching and recycling of 11-cis-retinol between the photoreceptors and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). It is a key component of dark adaptation in rods and is disrupted in vitamin A deficiency, and macular degeneration.

9. Ganglion cells (GCs) are like CNS neurons, in that their contrast-detecting capabilities are enhanced by lateral inhibition provided by amacrine cells. On-center GCs produce more action potentials when stimulated by a bright light in the center of their receptive field, and inhibited by stimuli delivered to the surround. Off-center GCs are stimulated by surround stimuli, and inhibited by center stimuli.

10. Perception of colour is a learned process which involves associating patterns of photoreceptor activity with a particular hue. Even though the distribution of cones within the retina is unique to each individual, the description of hue is standardized by teaching people to associate specific words with their unique pattern of cone response.

11. Within primary visual cortex (V1), inputs from the fovea are overrepresented relative to the periphery. The separate maps that are established for each visual field in primary V1 are merged to form a single perceptual map of visual space. Due to OCULAR DOMINANCE, cortical can extract depth cues based on the disparity in the images, providing the basis for STEREOPSIS (depth perception).

12. STRABISMUS is a muscle imbalance that results in a misalignment of the visual axes of the two eyes. Any type of strabismus that occurs after ~6 months of age causes DIPLOPIA (perception of a single object as double) because the images fall on noncorresponding parts of the retinas. In young children, suppression of the image in the weaker eye can cause a permanent decrease in visual acuity (AMBLYOPIA).

ESSENTIAL MATERIAL FROM OTHER LECTURES1. Structure of the eyeball, including the innervation of the levator palpebrae superioris and

superior tarsal muscle, the lacrimal gland, the cornea and the lens (Dr. Severson, Applied Anatomy)

2. CSF formation (Dr. Drewes, Nervous System)

3. Pupillary reflex/innervation of the dilator and constrictor muscles of the pupil (Dr. Forbes, Nervous System)

4. Anatomical structures associated with aqueous humor formation and flow, including the ciliary body and the canal of Schlemm (Dr. Severson, Applied Anatomy).




5. Histology of the retina (Dr. Downing, Nervous System).

6. Receptor potentials and lateral inhibition (Dr. Fitzakerley, Nervous System)

7. Visual Fields (Dr. Forbes, Nervous System)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Be able to describe the neurotransmitters involved in eyelid movements, and characterize the purpose and types of blinking. Explain tear production and how it is regulated.

2. Explain the processes of refraction and accomodation as they apply to transmission of light to the retina. Define the following refractive errors: cataracts, hyperopia, myopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.

3. Describe the processes of mydriasis and miosis, including the neurotransmitters involved.

4. Explain how the aqueous humor is formed and drains, and outline control mechanisms for each part of the process. Detail the differences between closed angle and open angle glaucoma.

5. Compare and contrast the physiology of rods and cones. Relate the physiological differences between rods to the different forms of visual acuity. Differentiate between retinopathy and retinitis pigmentosa.

6. List the steps in phototransduction, including the properties of the receptor potential.7. Describe the visual cycle, and understand the perturbations that occur to this process

during vitamin A deficiency and macular degeneration.8. Outline how lateral inhibition contributes to the receptive field properties of ganglion

cells. Describe the function of bipolar, horizontal and amacrine cells.9. Explain how the primary visual cortex processes color and motion, and generates

depth perception. Describe how amblyopia develops from stabismus and diplopia.



There are two fundamental protective mechanisms for the eye. Regulation of eyelid position (including BLINKING) involves striated (ACh; nicotinic) and smooth (NE; α1 adrenergic) muscles. TEAR PRODUCTION occurs spontaneously (basal), reflexly or in response to emotional stimuli, and is partially regulated by the parasympathetic nervous system (ACh; muscarinic). EPIPHORA (overflow of tears) can be due to either overproduction or blocked drainage.


OPTICS

Protective Mechanisms

Blinking

eyelid movements are mediated by the orbicularis oculi (OO) and levator palpebrae superioris (LPS) muscles, as well as by the superior tarsal muscle (ST)o OO and LPS are striated muscles (ACh acts on nicotinic receptors to

cause contraction)

o the superior tarsal muscle is a smooth muscle (sympathetic innervation via α1 receptors)

three types of motions:

1. maintaining ocular opening tonic activation of LPS and ST;inactivation OO

2. gentle opening/closing, adjustment to changes in globe position

activation/inactivation of LPS;inactivation OO

3. blinking, firm closure of eyes OO activation; inhibition of LPS

blinking serves a number of functions, including: o corneal lubricationo eye protectiono visual information processing




blinking can be spontaneous or reflex o spontaneous blinking:

is precisely conjugated, periodic, symmetrical, brief and occurs in the absence of external stimuli or internal effort

show a wide variation in rate (typically 10-20 blinks/minute in adults; lower in children)

originates in premotor brainstem structures that are highly influenced by dopaminergic activity decreased in Parkinson's disease, and increased in schizophrenia

and Huntington's disease, for example o the blink reflex:

can be initiated by either touch to the cornea (afferents in the trigeminal nerve) or by bright light/rapidly approaching objects (afferents in the optic nerve)

is faster than spontaneous blinking

Tear Production

the tear film that covers the suface of the eye has 3 layers: 1. lipid secred by oil glands in the eyelids2. aqueous-based solution from lacrimal gland (contains lysozyme and other

enzymes that provide protection against infection)3. mucous from the conjunctiva

the composition of the tear layer varies depending upon the stimulus and with ageo emotional tears contain more hormones, such as prolactin, ACTH and

enkephalin o basal tear production decreases with age

tear flow occurs via evaporation and drainage through the nasolacrimal ducts into the nasal cavity o parasympathetic stimulation produces epiphora (overflow of tears) by:

1. increasing tear production by the lacrimal gland2. decreasing outflow by facilitating closure of the lacrimal duct

passage



The cornea and lens focus light on the retina; the cornea has greater refractive power but the focusing power of the lens can be adjusted to allow near vision (accomodation). Refractive errors include cataracts, hyperopia, myopia, presbyopia and astigmatism.


o epiphora can be induced by: 1. stimulation of the cornea (cranial nerve V) which produces reflex tears 2. strong emotional responses (mediated by the limbic system, especially

the hypothalamus) which produce psychic tears (crying or weeping) strong parasympathetic stimulation is accompanied by other

symptoms, like reddening of the face and convulsive breathing

FocusingRefraction




Accomodation



Light intensity is regulated by the PUPILLARY LIGHT REFLEX, which causes MIOSIS as a result of parasympathetic stimulation of the sphincter pupillae muscles (muscarinic receptors). MYDRIASIS results from sympathetic stimulation (α1 receptors) that activates the dilator pupillae muscles.


Refractive Errors

Regulation of Light Intensity



Increased intraocular pressure causes loss of vision (potentially permanent). Open angle glaucoma (the most common form) results from overproduction of the aqueous humor. Closed angle glaucoma (typically the most rapidly evolving form) is caused by blockage of fluid outflow.


Formation of the Aqueous Humor

Glaucoma



Rods are responsible for SCOTOPIC vision (the monochromatic vision that occurs in low light). The three types of cones (blue, green and red; or Short, Medium and Long wavelength) have better temporal and spatial resolution than rods, making PHOTOPIC VISION better for discrimination of surfaces and movement under bright light conditions.


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RETINA

Visible Light

Photoreceptors

RODS CONES

Amount of photopigment More Less

Pigment type 1 = rhodopsin 3 overlapping




patterns of activity for colour (see page 15)

Sensitivity

High(1 photon if dark adapted)

Saturated in daylight Smaller dynamic range

Low(multiple photons to activate) Saturate in very intense light Large DR

Temporal resolutionLow

Slow response Responses are integrated

High Fast response Less integration

Spatial resolution

Poor Respond to scattered light Not in fovea large

amount of convergence onto bipolar cells

Very good Respond to narrow spots of

light In fovea little amount of

convergence onto bipolar cells



The ability to discriminate fine details of the visual scene is termed VISUAL ACUITY. Three types are recognized: SPATIAL, TEMPORAL and SPECTRAL. Visual acuity is primarily a function of the cone system.

PHOTOTRANSDUCTION occurs via a 4 step process that uses a 2nd messenger cascade to amplify the signal. In rods, activation of rhodopsin ultimately results in the closure of cyclic nucleotide gated Na+ channels, and hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor.


Visual Acuity

Phototransduction




Receptor Potential

Retinosis Pigmentosa

Retinopathy

Visual Cycle



The VISUAL CYCLE consists of bleaching and recycling of 11-cis-retinol between the photoreceptors and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). It is a key component of dark adaptation in rods and is disrupted in vitamin A deficiency and macular degeneration.


Vitamin A Deficiency

Macular Degeneration



Ganglion cells (GCs) are like CNS neurons, in that their contrast-detecting capabilities are enhanced by lateral inhibition provided by amacrine cells. On-center GCs produce more action potentials when stimulated by a bright light in the center of their receptive field, and inhibited by stimuli delivered to the surround. Off-center GCs are stimulated by surround stimuli, and inhibited by center stimuli.


Ganglion Cell Physiology



Perception of colour is a learned process which involves associating patterns of photoreceptor activity with a particular hue. Even though the distribution of cones within the retina is unique to each individual, the description of hue is standardized by teaching people to associate specific words with their unique pattern of cone response.


VISUAL CORTEX PHYSIOLOGY

Colour Perception



Within primary visual cortex (V1), inputs from the fovea are overrepresented relative to the periphery. The separate maps that are established for each visual field in primary V1 are merged to form a single perceptual map of visual space. Due to OCULAR DOMINANCE, cortical can extract depth cues based on the disparity in the images, providing the basis for STEREOPSIS (depth perception).


Edge Perception

Topographic Maps



STRABISMUS is a muscle imbalance that results in a misalignment of the visual axes of the two eyes. Any type of stabismus that occurs after ~6 months of age causes DIPLOPIA (perception of a single object as double) because the images fall on noncorresponding parts of the retinas. In young children, suppression of the image in the weaker eye can cause a permanent decrease in visual acuity (AMBLYOPIA).


Depth Perception

Development



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