anth 397 magazine

Most modern day North

Americans will agree

that the loss of human

life is tragic, but this

modern day moral does

not always match those

of ancient cultures. Hu-

man sacrifice has taken

place throughout many

cultures and eras

throughout the world,

although it is not always

a pleasant fact to accept.

As Pfluger (1995)

states:

Introduction to Child Sacrifice: T A B L E O F

C O N T E N T S :

Introduction 3

Aztec

Culture

4

Aztec Child

Sacrifice

8

Incan

Culture

12

Incan Child

Sacrifice

15

Conclusion &

Glossary

19

Word Search 21

References 22

C R E A T E D B Y : S A M A N T H A

M . , E M I L Y S . , K E N D A L L

M . , T E S S A H . , & C H L O E

M . Child sacrifice M A R C H 2 8 , 2 0 1 5 V O L U M E 1 , I S S U E 1

“We might all pre-

fer to believe that

such things had

never happened, or

at least that they

were done only

very long ago, by

people with no con-

nection to our-

selves. But this bit

of history shows

only too plainly that

human sacrifice, at

least as an occa-

sional emergency

measure, persisted

far longer than it is

comfortable for us

to admit.” (p. 68)

Figure 1: Map of South America with chosen archaeological sites

In this issue of The Archaeology of Death the

focus is specifically on the sacrifice of chil-

dren in ancient Inca and Aztec cultures. In

both cultures the reasons behind child sacri-

fice will be explored and evidence from ar-

chaeological sites will be examined. The In-

can site of Choquepukio in the Cuzco Valley

of Peru and the Aztec site of Tenochtitlan in

modern day Veracruz, Mexico will be ana-

lyzed.

P A G E 4

Aztec Culture The Aztecs are one of

the more well-known

ancient polytheist and

advanced civilizations

that had a vast empire

in Mesoameri-

ca. They were first

known as Mexica and

later became known

as the Aztecs. They

started out as merce-

nary nomads when

they arrived in Cha-

pultepec around 1248

(Aguilar-Moreno,

2007,p.18 ). Later they

made the island in

Lake Texcoco their

home, building their

capital Tenochtitlan in

1325 (Aguilar-Moreno,

2007,p.19). Tenoch-

titlan became the eco-

nomic, political, reli-

gious and cultural cen-

tre of their empire.

They learned from

their neighbors -

through trading and

tribute- how to build

chinampas, astrono-

my, and the different

uses of various plants.

The Aztecs through

trade, tribute and war

grew rich and became

the strongest society

in Mesoamerica.

C H I L D S A C R I F I C E

Aztec society was high-

ly complex and socially

stratified with the ruling

class at the top and the

slaves at the very bot-

tom. What was unique

about the Aztecs was

all children were ex-

pected to attend man-

datory public education;

though the nobility and

commoners were divid-

ed into separate

schools. There they

were educated on the

prospective jobs that

their station allowed,

cultural pursuits, and

everything else about

their society (Soustelle,

J. 1970,p. 37-70 ).

Someone’s social

standing was deter-

mined by their lineage.

Both matriarchal and

patriarchal lineage were

considered, but the pa-

triarchal lineage was

preferred . Ancient Az-

tec society was mostly

a patriarchal society,

women were (Aguilar-

Moreno, 2007,p.74,

Soustelle, J. 1970, P.54

-60). Women who died

in childbirth were hon-

oured like warriors who

were slain in battle.

The Aztec empire in its prime before being overthrown by the Spanish and their native allies. Tangient LLC, (2015).

Aztec Empire [Online image] Retrieved from Wikispaces https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%

https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS

P A G E 5 V O L U M E 1 , I S S U E 1

The Aztecs’ considered

childbirth to be a battle

with the infant and mother

fighting. Family and line-

age were important parts

of their society. Each ex-

tended family made up a

Calpullis which was ruled

by a chief who was nor-

mally related to the cal-

pulli members (Conrad,

G. W. 1984, p.24). Multi-

ple calpullis formed an

altepetl which was a city-

state that controlled a ter-

ritory. It was ruled by a

Tlatoani who was its city’s

high priest and warlord.

All city-states in the Aztec

empire had their own

Tlatoani. The female rul-

ers were called ci-

huātlahtoāni. In times of

war the Tlatoani was the

strategist for his warriors.

In the Aztec creation myth

the dual god Omecihuat

gave birth to himself out

of nothing. Omecihuat

later gave birth to the

gods: Tezcatlipoca, Quet-

zalcoatl, Tlaloc, and Xipe

Totec. They created the

world, the people and the

other gods except for the

sun (Soustelle, J. 1970,p

97). To create the sun

one of the gods would

have to be sacrificed.

Tezcatlipoca became the

first sun. The First Age

ended when Quetzalcoatl

used a club to knock

Tezcatlipoca from the

sky, ending his reign as

the sun and the world

grew dark. Enraged,

Tezcatlipoca had the

people of that age de-

stroyed by his jaguars.

Tlaloc as the new sun.

Tezcatlipoca seduced

Tialoc’s wife away, and

Tialoc, grief-stricken, re-

fused to send rain. Even-

tually Tialoc destroyed his

own age by causing it to

rain fire in answer to the

people’s prayers to end

the drought that Tialoc

had caused. The earth

was reduced to ash and

Tezcatlipoca went on to

destroy the other ag-

es, out of spite for his

First age ending. Quetzal-

coatl was the sun for the

Second Age. Tezcatlipoca

turned Quetzalcoatl’s be-

loved people into mon-

keys, upsetting Quetzal-

coatl, who blew them

away and stepped

down. The Third Age had

had to be rebuilt. The

Fourth Age was ruled by

Chalchiuhtlicue which

ended when Tezcatlipoca

caused Chalchiuhtlicue to

fall, and flooded most of

the world.

Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History, https://

mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS

A well-known image of the Aztecs sacrificing

someone by tearing out the heart. Done in

honour of their patron god Huitzilopochtli of

their city and deity of war, sun, human

sacrifice. If he was defeated, his people were

defeated.

P A G E 6

The five ages in

order were called

the Black Sun, the

Wind Sun, the Rain

Sun, the Water Sun

and the Earthquake

Sun.

The Fifth Age is still ongoing. it was thanks to The Brave Nanauat-zin who became the new sun but his weak-ness forced the

other gods to give him blood. According to myth, the fifth age is still ongoing however it shall end in catastro-phe like all the other ages, this time, by

earthquake. This myth

demonstrates that

death and sacrifice

were needed to fuel

and maintain the

world. It is a spiritual

justification as to why

they engaged in war-

fare, mock battles and

contests to acquire

sacrifices. Those that

were to be sacrificed

normally had their

every need taken care

of and purified until

they were to be sacri-

ficed. The Aztec’s be-

lieved that human sac-

rifice was needed to

repay the gods as it

allowed them to re-

plenish themselves.

The Aztecs consid-

ered it their sacred

duty to feed the gods

so that the world will

not end allowing life to

continue. The Aztecs

would offer these sac-

rifices during their

monthly festivals dedi-

cated to different

gods.

C H I L D

S A C R I F I C E

Tangient, LLC.

(2015). Tenochtitlan

In. [Online image].

Retrieved from Mr

Gray History, https://

mrgrayhisto-

ry.wikispaces.com/

UNIT+9+-

+AZTECS+%

26+INCAS

Depending on the month different Aztec gods were more important. There would be feasts, rituals, offerings and celebration depending on the the month, in addition to hu-man sacrifices. Each god had their own type of sacri-fice, from warriors to vir-gins and even children, as well as a method of sacri-fice. The officiating priest would follow a specific style of sacrifice in order to appease the god. For ex-ample Taiolic’s priests would sacrifice crying chil-dren to him asking for rain to end the dry season. Human sacrifice

was not only for religious

purposes, but also a socio-

political tool to control the

conquered city states. The

methods of obtaining sacri-

fices and slaves demon-

strated the Aztecs’ domi-

nance over their neighbors

and were a political mes-

sage to foreign leaders

(Conrad, G. W. 1984,p.4-

11). It was an excuse to

wage war to expand their

empire, gain slaves and

obtain needed resources

(Hassig, R.1995, P. 4-25).

Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr

Gray History, https://mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/UNIT+9+-

+AZTECS+%26+INCAS


The month Tozoztontli lasted from March 14 to April 2.

During it children were sacrificed to Coatlicue, Tlaloc,

Chalchitlicue, Tona.

The Aztecs as-

similated con-

quered civiliza-

tions thinking it

was for the

greater good,

forcing them to

stay obedient.

The tributes that

the conjured

states sent were

meant to keep

them weak and

prevent rebel-

lion.(Hassig,

R.1995, P. 4-

25). These prac-

tices made ene-

mies which al-

lowed the Span-

ish to lead new

allies against the

Aztecs, causing

the collapse of

the empire. Their

empire lasted

from the 14th to

the 16th century,

ending with the

Spanish con-

quering and de-

stroying the Az-

tecs.

Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenochtitlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved from Mr Gray History,


P A G E 8

Chalchiuhtlicue is the second wife or sister to Tialoc. She is the goddess of large bodies of water. Her sacri-ficial victims were always killed by drown-ing. Children and infants were mainly sacri-ficed to her and Tialoc. The months when sacrifices took place for her were At-lacacauallo and Tozoztontli.

Inside Story Headline

Aztec Archaeological Sites

Barker, Brandi. (Artist).

(unknown). Tenoch-

titlan. [Online image]

Retrieved from Class

Education, http://

www.class.uh.edu/

courses/engl3396/

bnbarker/


To the Aztecs, sacri-

fice was

the mechanism of

social control through

which they could con-

trol time. It was an in-

tegral portion of their

personal and spiritual

religion. Sacrifice to

the Aztecs could be

something as small as

a small blood letting

and auto-sacrifice,

when a small wound

is made by the indi-

vidual to show their

devotion, to ritualized

slaughter en masse of

both humans and ani-

mals. Many of the

sources the general

population has access

are from first-hand

witnesses by the

Spanish invasion.

These sources, as

would be expected,

are very skewed and

therefore must be tak-

en, as it is said, ‘with

a grain of salt’. Fur-

ther excavation of

sites, such as Ten-

ochtiltan and Tlatelol-

co, have given insight

into what was likely a

very complex religion

that the Aztec people

used in order to un-

derstand time, the

heavens and the

world around them.

http://www.class.uh.edu/courses/engl3396/bnbarker/





Ramírez Codex. (Artist) (1587). Fig Pierced Skull and A tzompantli,(skull rack) from Juan de Tovar’s 1587 manuscript,

also known as the Ramírez Codex. [Online image]. Retrieved from Historicagraphica, http://

www.historicagraphica.com/aztec-offerings-and-skull-rack-victims-found-in-mexico-city-past-horizons/

Excavation for Tenochtiltan began in the early 20th centu-ry. Originally thought of as a smaller site, the excavation revealed a complex city with more than eighty temples, schools, skull racks, and oth-er significant structures (Carrasco, 2011). In the mid-dle of this immense complex lies the Great Temple, a co-lossal temple where a signifi-cant portion of the sacrifices, especially human, took place. According to Carrasco,

2011, at the base of the

Great Temple there are hu-

man remains from a stagger-

ing 126 individuals. Of these

remains, there was evidence

of remains for 46 children,

individuals under the age of

16. The vast majority of these

child remains had evidence

on their cervical vertebrae

indicating their throat had

been cut. Some of these re-

mains also show evidence of

having been mounted on a

skull rack, which are most of-

ten used for sacrificed ene-

mies. However, the majority

of the child remains also

show evidence of having

been ill prior to their sacrifice.

According to De La Cruz

(2008), diseased children

were chosen to be sacrificed

as the markers of disease

were considered to be mark-

ers of the gods. These sick

children were selected by

their tribe because they be-

lieved the gods had chosen

them, made them ill, in order

to be sacrificed. Is was also

mentioned that no significant

portion of the child remains at

Tlatelolco were certainly sick,

as pathological markers are

absent.

http://www.historicagraphica.com/aztec-offerings-and-skull-rack-victims-found-in-mexico-city-past-horizons/

http://www.historicagraphica.com/aztec-offerings-and-skull-rack-victims-found-in-mexico-city-past-horizons/

P A G E 1 0

Fresque de Diego Rivera. (Artist). (1952) Tenochtitlan- Le Marché de Tlatelolco. [Online image] Retrieved from Viva Mexico, http://www.vivamexico.info/Index1/Tenochtitlan.html

Caption

describing

picture or

graphic.


Children were most of-

ten used as a sacrificial

victim to the gods that

the Aztecs believed to

control the rain. The

children were either fat-

tened of starved de-

pending on the time of

year, ritually bathed and

sacrificed to the de-

manding god. From the

remains at the Great

Temple in Tenochtiltan,

Carrasco extrapolates

that child sacrifice was

considered more sa-

cred than the sacrifice

of an adult .The rain

gods were thought as

small-bodied gods, re-

sembling children more

than adults . The Az-

tecs used children be-

cause it was believed

the child’s tears would

entice the god into giv-

ing them rain (James,

2002, p.345). It was a

form of sympathetic

magic and the priests

believed that the tears

would make the god

feel sympathy and cry

themselves, their tears

being rainfall. Children

were used for self-

sacrificing, blood letting

and for full sacrifice, de-

pending on the god be-

ing worshipped.Isabelle

De La Cruz (2008) re-

searched a sister site to

Tenochtiltan, now

called Tlatelolco. Here

there were human re-

mains for upwards of 40

individuals. Upon osteo-

logical examination of

the bones their age and

gender was ascertained

with some certainty. Of

those 40 individuals, 37

of them appeared to be

sub-adult, under the

age of 16. Of those 37

skeletons 66% of them

were under the age of

three. It would appear

that at Tlatelolco child

sacrifice was much

more prominent than at

Tenochtiltan. With the

two sites combined

more information about

gender patterning in

child sacrifice is clear.

http://www.vivamexico.info/Index1/Tenochtitlan.html




P A G E 1 1 V O L U M E 1 , I S S U E 1

Tlatelolco provides us with a

significant amount of infor-

mation, such as the abun-

dance of child sacrifices evi-

dent with the Aztecs. Due to

the young age of some of

these individuals, sex identifi-

cation is much less certain.

For these De La Cruz (2008)

and her team used tooth calci-

fication and eruption patterns

to better estimate age. Using

this technique, it was discov-

ered that 66% of the

subadults were under the age

of three, 6 could not be identi-

fied due to lack of teeth and

there were two adolescents,

both male. Almost all of the

subadult skeletons, between

22 and 32, were also identi-

fied to be male. This clearly

shows a gender bias towards

those chosen for sacrifice.

Due to the amount of males

sacrificed at Tlatelolco, it is

believed that they were being

sacrificed to a male deity,

specifically Ehecatla Quetzal-

coatl.

Tangient, LLC. (2015). Tenoch-

titlan In. [Online image]. Retrieved

from Mr Gray History, https://

mrgrayhistory.wikispaces.com/

UNIT+9+-+AZTECS+%26+INCAS

Child sacrifice was an integral

piece of Aztec culture used to

understand the world around

them. The use of children was

limited to specific gods, and

they were sacrificed about

four times a year, most often

to rain gods so that good

crops and drinking water

would be in abundance. More

common was adult sacrifice,

having a large variety of dif-

ferent ceremonies to control

their world. A significant por-

tion of the human sacrificing

was done to their enemies,

conquered in war. It was also

used to settle angst and anxi-

ety within the tribe, to quell

arguments and to control the

population through fear and

reverence.

P A G E 1 2

Klum, Mattias (photographer) (n.d). Llama. [Online image]. Retrived from National

Geographic, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/llama/

A llama looks

at the ancient

ruins of Machu

Picchu, Peru.

Incan Culture


The Inca’s were a great civilization in South America that was extremely com-plex prior to European contact and was the largest empire ever established in the western hemisphere. The Inca’s had com-plex and well refined rituals when it came to their ways of child sacrifice (Duviols 1964, p. 37). The main times for child sacrifice were in times of disaster and cele-bration. The majority of child sacrifices took place during times of disaster or celebra-tion.. The preparation

that went into a ritual this complex took years to plan and pre-pare.

The Inca territory

covered a massive

area in South Ameri-

ca.The Incas had a

complex road system

to stay connected with

all its citizens, this

ranged from the flat

grass lands to the

high peaks of moun-

tains at extremely high

altitudes (LaLone,

1998, p .602). This

can be seen in their

child sacrifices when

seeing the regions the

children had come

from (Andrushko et

al., 2011, p. 323). The

reach of the Incan em-

pire is evident in the

archaeological re-

mains of its people;

isotope analysis

proves people trav-

elled and moved

across the empire

(2011, p. 323). The

Inca’s had a very well

connected empire and

this embodied the

idea of unity and

strength even in times

of disaster (2011, p.

323).

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/llama/


The survival of Machu Picchu over hundreds of years, on a mountaintop subject to erosion and mudslides, is a testament to Inca engineering.

Bartosz, Hadyniak. (photographer) (n.d). Matchu Picchu. [Online image]. Retrieved from NOVA, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/lost-inca-empire.html

In the times of difficulty such as the death of an emperor, natural disaster, drought, or a new emperor was ascending to power a ritual of child sacri-fice took place called the Ca-pacocha (Wilson et al., 2013, p. 13323). The children being sacrificed in the Capacocha is what makes it different from all other sacrifices (p. 13322). Children were only sacrificed in times of great need or cele-bration to the Gods. (Duviols, 1964, p. 38). Sacrifice took place in South America before the Incan Empire came to power, but it did not hold the same meaning; the Incas had different gods, a highly com-plex belief system, and a stratified society (1964, p. 37). The children that were chosen for sacrifice ranged from in-fants to the age of sixteen and were selected based on their physical appearance (Andrushko et al., 2011, p. 324). The archaeological evi-

dence shows females were sacrificed more frequently than males; it also shows the children were sacrificed by strangulation, exsanguination, or interment while still alive (2011, p. 324).

The complex stratification

within this society can even be

seen in the placement of

these sacrifices. The sacrific-

es are often placed on moun-

tain tops to assert their power

within that area and their terri-

tories (Wilson et al., 2013, p.

13323). Children were chosen

one year in advance for sacri-

fice and gained an elevated

status prior to the sacrifi-

cial ritual; this suggests that

the children who were sacri-

ficed were born into a lower

status when looking at the

teeth though isotope analysis

(Andrushko et al., 2011,

p.331 ).There were three

ways that children were se-

lected for sacrifice.The first

being physical appearance,

beauty was demanded when it

came to being sacrificed to

the gods (Andrushko et al.,

2011, p. 324). The second

was for parent to volunteer

their children: volunteering a

child came with a great re-

ward, and offered great pres-

tige within the society (2011,

p. 324). The third way was for

children to be

“donated” (Wilson et al., 2013,

p.13324). This involved par-

ents being obligated to give

their child over to the sacrifice

with happiness and no sorrow,

for being sad and resisting

was considered very disre-

spectful to the empire and the

gods (2013, p. 13324).

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/lost-inca-empire.html


P A G E 1 4

A gold-sheet mask repre-senting the sun god Inti from the La Tolita part of the Inca em-pire. The de-sign is typi-cal of masks of Inti with zig-zag rays bursting from the head and ending in hu-man faces or figures


An element of child sacri-fice was intoxication. In-toxication came from two separate substances: an alcohol called chicha and coca (Wilson et al., 2013, p. 13325). Chicha is made from fermented maize and was important to most of the Incas social and cere-monial gatherings. The Inca’s believed that intoxi-cation opened the portals between reality and the spiritual world thus the children to be sacrificed began drinking chicha the year prior to the sacrifice (2013, p. 13326). Chicha not only served a spiritual purpose, when coupled with coca it served as a sedative (2013, p. 13326). When a sacrifice was made on top of a moun-tain in extremely cold tem-peratures that alcohol gave the illusion of being warm by reducing the bod-ies awareness to the cold and holding off shivering (2013, p. 13326). The re-

duced shivering allowed the children being sacri-ficed to pass on faster, for many sacrifices involved internment while still alive. The coca was often used to keep the individuals be-ing sacrificed calm and in a dazed mind set (2013, p. 13326). The amount of chicha and coca con-sumed increased drasti-cally in the weeks leading up to the sacrifice (2013, p. 13322). The main reason child sacrifice took place was to appease the gods; if there was a drought or natural disaster the rituals would take place in hopes that Inti, the sun god, would help the people (Andrushko et al., 2011, p. 323). The Incas had a myth to trace the sun to be one of their gods. The sto-ry of Manco Capac, who was believed to be the son of the sun, was the found-er of the Incan society. Because Manco was the

founder of the Inca society, he was also seen as a type of Messiah . The Inca’s be-lieved that the sun had taken pity on the “Indians” (Duviols,

1964, p. 39) and their bar-baric life style, so he de-cided to send down his son and daughter to guide the people and create a vast complex empire (1964, p. 39). In return for giving the people Manco and his sister the Sun was to be worshipped as their god (1964, p. 39). It was believed that the sun was the giver of life and the only thing that stood be-tween the Inca’s and the ugliness that the world could be (1964, p. 39).The sun was the Incas main god, because it was the only visible god they had. Many temples and gifts were given to the sun and many sacrifices including that of children were made (1964, p. 37). Child sacrifice in the In-can culture was a highly regarded ritual. The build up for this ritual took over a year of planning and had many variations depend-ing on the nature of the child sacrifice. The Inca empire was great and vastly spread over South America and kept in close-ly united though many ways including child sacri-fice.

Howe, Andrew (photographer) (07 March 2014).

Inca Gold Sun Mask. [Online image]. Retrieved

from Ancient History Encyclopaedia, http://

www.ancient.eu/image/2356/

http://www.ancient.eu/image/2356/


Choquepukio Site


“To catch the reader's attention,

place an interesting sentence or

quote from the story here.”

Site location: Choquepukio, Cuzco Valley, Peru (Andrushko, Buzon, Gibaja, McEwan, Simonetti, & Creaser, 2011). Date of excavation: 2004 Seven children from ages 3 to 12

years old were discovered buried

together along with an elaborate

assemblage of high status arti-

facts. Through the use of radio-

genic strontium isotope analysis, it

appears that they were selected

from various regions of the Incan

empire (Andrushko et al., 2011).

Archaeological analysis: Several stone slabs were inlaid in an Incan building with an intact floor. Using radiocarbon samples of burned roof material and wood-en columns, the building dated to 1410-1520 AD. These slabs held two large ceramic jars which con-tained the re mains of six adult skeletons, and

next to these jars there were six

juveniles found through the floor

and back wall of the building.

These six juveniles represent a

single burial event because of the

undisturbed nature of the primary

interments. The burial sites con-

tained various high status artifacts,

such as gold and silver miniature fe-

male figurines,

Map of Choquepukio site location and region. Andrushko, V. A. et al. (Author) (2011). Map of Choque-

pukio site location and region [online map image], Re-

trieved March 17, 2015, from: http://

www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/science/

article/pii/S0305440310003195

Incan Capacocha (Child Sacrifice) Sites red shell figurines of females and llamas, pins of

various fine materials, large amounts of cloth,

and a garment covered with gilded metal disks

(Andrushko et al., 2011).

P A G E 1 6

Capacocha

means solemn

sacrifice which

translates into

royal obligation

(Andrushko et

al., 2013).

Gold, silver,

and Spondylus

figurines of

human males

and llamas.


Approximately 3 meters from the group burial, an additional child was uncovered with a highly elab-orate artifact – a silver male figu-rine wearing a headdress and fragments of cloth, amounting to approximately 25 cm in height. It was surrounded by other human and llama figurines, a miniature bracelet, and pieces of gold foil (Andrushko et al., 2011). Osteological analysis: Through the analysis of the indi-

viduals’ dental development and

eruption dates, the individuals

were categorized as one 3-4 year

old; one 4-5 year old; two 5-6

year olds; one 6-7 year old; one 8

-9 year old; and one 11-12 year

old. Due to the juvenile status of

the individuals, sex identification

was impossible. There was no

visible evidence of physical trau-

ma; however, this could be be-

cause of the poor state of preser-

vation of the bones when found

(Andrushko et al, 2011).

Strontium isotope analysis: This analysis is based on the premise that individual’s teeth can reflect geographic area of child-hood residence through viewing radiogenic strontium isotope rati-os in soils and groundwater, which vary based on local geolog-ical conditions. Comparing the ratios of the strontium isotope can reveal presence of foreigners through deviations from the local isotope signature. Two of the sev-en children were identified as having a non-local isotope signa-ture – one seemingly from the Ti-wanaku range of Bolivia and an-other from the Ayacucho region. Capacocha appears to have been enacted on both a village level and a state level, and varied by age and number of victims, type of grave goods, and location (Andrushko et al., 2011).

Andrushko, V. A. et al.

(Author) (2011). Gold, sil-

ver, and Spondylus figu-

rines of human males and

llamas. [online image], Re-

trieved March 17, 2015,

from: http://

www.sciencedirect.com.ezp

roxy.library.uvic.ca/science/

article/pii/

http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/science/article/pii/S0305440310003195




P A G E 1 7

Many

capacocha

rituals

occurred just

outside the

empire's

capital, Cuzco.

Discussion and Conclusions


By combining the ar-

chaeological, osteo-

logical, and isotope

evidence, one can

strongly interpret the

Choquepukio site as

including a child sac-

rifice event. The ages

of these children

closely match colonial

accounts of capaco-

cha; also they repre-

sent a single inter-

ment episode – a sig-

nificant deviation from

normal children buri-

als, who are usually

buried alone or with

an adult. The types of

artifacts found (tiny

gendered human and

llama figurines) match

those of the Ampato

capacocha archaeo-

logical site. Capaco-

cha tributes were of-

ten chosen from

throughout the Incan

empire, which would

explain the two non-

local individuals.

Choquepukio was a

historically important

site: prior to rise of

the Inca empire, the

Panagua ethnic group

chose the location to

build monumental

temples for feasting

and forming alliances,

and this historical im-

portance could have

been passed down

into the Incan empire

for ceremonial value.

Overall, the findings

at Choquepukio sup-

port the Spanish eth-

nographic chronicles

for child sacrifice

(Andrushko et al.,

2011).

Site location: Mount Llullaillaco summit – 6715m above sea level (the world’s highest archaeologi-cal site) (Ceruti, 2004, p.108)

Date of excavation: 1999

Archaeological analy-sis: A rectangular plat-

form which held three

separate burials (a

young woman, a girl,

and a boy) and sever-

al offering assem-

blages made of shell,

metal, pottery, feath-

ers and textiles. Due

to the high elevation

and cold, everything

was well preserved.

The Llullaillaco site

comprises of multiple

archaeological sites

connected by a trail

ascending towards

the summit of the

mountain. This includ-

ed the base camp

lodging pilgrims,

priests and victims at

5200m and intermedi-

ate stations at 5600m

and 6300m (Ceruti,

2004, p.108). The

rectangular platform

is 10m long and 6m

wide that held three

frozen sacrificial bod-

ies. The burials them-

selves were con-

structed by enlarging

natural niches in the

bedrock where the

mummies could be

rested in a few me-

ters deep, and then

covered with an artifi-

cial fill.

Mount Llullaillaco Site


Discussion and Conclusions

The boy, approximately 7 years old, was dressed in a tunic (Ceruti, 2004, p. 109) and carried some small bags carrying coca leaves and hair, and some figurines in the shape of a man and llama were placed nearby the body. He was found in a sitting posi-tion with his legs tied to his body. The young girl, approxi-mately 6 years old, was in a flexed position and had been hit by lightning after she was buried, which damaged her

neck, shoulder, and chest area (2004, pp. 110-111). She wore a sleeveless dress, and tex-tiles, ceramic items, and figu-rines were placed around her body (2004, p.111). The young woman, approxi-

mately 15 years old, was

wearing a headdress and a

sleeveless dress and shawl.

She also

wore vari-

ous metal

and bone adornments, had red

pigment on her face, and had

intricately woven hair. She

had various ceramic and tex-

tile items around her body, as

well as three female figurines

made of gold, silver and Spon-

dylus shell (Ceruti, 2004,

p.112).

Because of the high alti-

tude, the assemblage of

this site most likely reflect

the broad spectrum of In-

ca imperial offerings due

to the excellent preserva-

tion of the items. Summits

of mountains are often

mentioned in ethnohistori-

cal accounts of capaco-

cha ceremonies, and this

site lines up with this nor-

mality. Various reasons

for sacrifices are as-

sumed to exist, such as

important events of the

Incan emperor, to stop

natural calamities, or to

appease mountain deities

in control of weather and

fertility (Ceruti, 2004,

p.113). The sacrificial in-

dividuals were believed to

be chosen as messen-

gers or representatives of

their communities in the

presence of the gods, and

chosen women around

the age of 14 would be

wives of local nobles,

consecrated as priestess-

es, or sacrificed in capa-

cocha ceremonies, which

is most likely what oc-

curred with the 15 year

old woman on the Llullail-

laco summit (2004,

p.114).

Young woman from the Llullaillaco

sacrifice discovery.

Waugh, Rob. (photographer) (n.d). Inca

Ice Maiden. [Online image]. Retrieved

from Mail Online, http://

www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-

2179217/Inca-ice-maiden-frozen-human-

sacrifice-infection-lungs.html

P A G E 1 9

.

Conclusion


In the previous articles the reasons behind child sacrifice were explored in both the ancient Inca and Az-tec cultures. The soci-eties had some simi-larities in their sacri-fice rituals. For in-stance in both cultures children were sacri-ficed to appease a particular god, espe-cially in times of need. Furthermore, in both the Inca and Aztec cultures it was seen as a great privilege to be selected to for sac-rifice. The two cultures also have differences

in the sacrificial rituals. The Aztecs used sac-rifice as a form of so-cial control. They had specific ways to per-form the ceremony to meet the needs of the particular god the sac-rifice was being made to. The Aztecs be-lieved those with ill-ness were marked by the gods to be chosen for sacrifice. In com-parison children from Inca society were se-lected to be sacrificed because of their looks or their parents volun-teering them for sacri-fice. The Inca also

planned sacrifices well in advance and those who selected for sacri-fice were given an ele-vated status prior to the ritual taking place. Both the Inca and the Aztec were powerful empires of their times, and firm believers of ritual human sacrifice. Although modern be-liefs can be in contrast to ancient ones it is important to under-stand the cultural background that lead these societies to such practices.

Glossary Self Sacrifice: A small blood letting given to a god instead of full hu-man sacrifice. Usually a small incision is made in the mouth or on the leg in order to give blood. Skull Rack: A rack designed to hold skulls of sacrificial victims. The skulls are punctured, threaded onto a wooden bar and hung as a warning to rivals. Polytheist: A religion that has more than one ruling god. Interment: Human burial in the earth. Exsanguination: To bleed an individual out until death occurs. Chinampas: A method of Mesoamerican agriculture using small rec-tangular areas of land floating on shallow lake beds. Tlatoani: The ruler of the altpetl (city-state) of the Mexica state. Cihuatlahtoani: the female equivalent of the Tlatoani


Osteological: Of or relating to human bones. Strontium Isotope Analysis: The method of identification for an isotopic sig-nature, specifically for the chemical element strontium. Isotopic Signature: A ratio of stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds of an investigated material. Assemblages: A group of different artifacts found in association with one another. Stratification: The layers within a society or bedrock.

Chicha: Fermented maize alcohol drank by the Inca’s.

Capacocha: Incan child sacrifice

Coca: Plant that the Inca’s chewed on to induce an altered state.

Messiah: The one who has come to save/liberate a group of people Inti: Incan sun god Pathological: Involving, caused by, or of the nature of a physical or mental disease.

Glossary Continued

Seilder. Ned, M. (Painter) (n.d). A Victorious Inca Emperor And His Army. [Online image]. Retrieved from Fine

Art America, http://fineartamerica.com/featured/a-victorious-inca-emperor-and-his-army-ned-m-seidler.html

http://fineartamerica.com/featured/a-victorious-inca-emperor-and-his-army-ned-m-seidler.html

P A G E 2 1

.

Word Search


ASSEMBLAGES

CAPACOCHA

CHICHA

CHINAMPAS

CIHUATLAHTOANI

COCA

EXSANGUINATION

INTERMENT

INTI

MESSIAH

OSTEOLOGICAL

PATHOLOGICAL

POLYTHEIST

SELFSACRIFICE

SKULLRACK

STRATIFICATION

STRONTIUMISOTO-

PEANALYSIS

TLATOANI

V O L U M E

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