I. Composing a short argument:

1. Distinguishes premises and conclusion.2. Present your ideas in a natural order.3. Start from reliable premises.4. Be concrete and concise.5. Avoid loaded language.6. Use consistent terms.7. Stick to one meaning for each term.

II. Arguments by example.

8. Give more than one example.9. Use representative examples.10.Background information is crucial.11.Consider counterexamples.

III. Arguments by analogy.

12. Analogy requires a (one) relevantly similar example.

IV. Arguments !om authority.

13. Sources should be cited.14. Seek informed sources.15. Seek impartial sources.16. Cross-check sources.17. Personal attacks do not disqualify a source.

V. Arguments about causes.

18. Explain how cause leads to effect.19. Propose most likely cause.20. Correlated events are not necessarily related.21. Correlated events may have a common cause.22. Either of the two correlated events may cause the other.23. Causes may be complex.

VI. Deductive arguments.

24. Modus Ponens. If p then q. p. Then q.

25. Modus To#ens. If p then q. Not -q. Therefore, not-p.

26. Hypothetical syllogism. If p then q. If q then r. Therefore, if p then r.

27. Disjunctive syllogism.

p or q. Not -p. Therefore, q.

28. Dilemma. p or q. If p then r. If q then s. Therefore, r or s.

29. Reductio at absurdum.

To prove: p. Assume the opposite: Not-p. Argue that from the assumption we’d have to conclude: q. Show that q is false (contradictory, silly, “absurd”). Conclude: p must be true for all.

30. Deductive arguments in several steps.

VII. Composing an argumentative essay.

A. Exploring the issue. A1. Explore the arguments on all sides of the issue. A2. Question and defend each argument’s premises. A3. Revise and rethink arguments as they emerge. B. Main points of the essay. B1. Explain the question. B2. Make a definite claim or proposal. B3. Develop your arguments fully. B4. Consider objections. B5. Consider alternatives.

C. Writing. C1. Follow your outline. C2. Keep the introduction brief. C3. Give your arguments one at a time. C4. Clarify, clarify, clarify. C5. Support objections with arguments. C6. Don’t claim more than you have shown.

D. Definition. D1. When terms are unclear, get specific. D2. When terms are contested, work from the clear cases: 1. Includes all the things that the term clearly fits; 2. Excludes all the things that the term clearly does not fit; and 3. Draws from the plainest possible line somewhere in between, and explains why the line belongs there and not somewhere else. D3. Don’t expect the definitions do the work of the arguments.