Anthropological Methods

Anthropology 330

Kimberly Porter Martin

Anthropological Methods

There are two general strategies used to study culture in anthropology:

1. Ethnography – the detailed study of one culture 2. Ethnology – the comparative study of cultures

Ethnographies provide the data; ethnology draws generalizations.

What is Ethnography?

DEFINITION Ethnography is

the detailed description of a single culture through fieldwork and participant observation.

KEY COMPONENTS1. Ethnography can be both a

process and a product

2. The ethnography process involves fieldwork and first hand experience studying and participating in another culture

3. The ethnography product can be presented in book, film or video form

The Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)

The world’s largest anthropological data bank.

Developed for the purpose of testing hypotheses and building theory.

Ethnographic data on over 300 cultures organized according to 700 different subjects.

What is Fieldwork? DEFINITION Fieldwork involves

going to live in the group you want to study for a prolonged period of time

KEY COMPONENTS1. Fieldwork gives first-hand

information about a group2. Fieldwork usually lasts for a

prolonged period of time, frequently at least one year so that seasonal differences can be studied

3. Fieldworkers use a wide variety of data collection methods to gather information about the culture in which they are living.

Basic Stages of Field Research

1. Selecting a research problem

2. Formulating a research design

3. Collecting the data

4. Analyzing the data

5. Interpreting the data

6. Reporting the results

Preparing for Fieldwork

Obtain funding from a source that supports anthropological research.

Take the proper health precautions. Obtain permission or clearance from the

host government. Become proficient in the local language. Make arrangements for personal

possessions while out of the country.

Ethics and Anthropology

Areas of responsibility for anthropologists: The people under study The local communities The host governments and their own government Other members of the scholarly community Organizations that sponsor research Their own students

Avoiding The Far Side

Cultural anthropologists often have an obstructive effect on the people they study.

They must be careful to disrupt cultural patterns and beliefs as little as possible.

Fieldwork Settings

Traditional or Western cultures

Rural or Urban

Societies or Sub-cultures

The study of everyday life in the state of Bahia in Brazil (above) presents different problems and challenges to the field anthropologist than does the study of village life in Namibia (below).

Common Issues in Fieldwork

Dealing with Culture Shock Language difficulties Gaining acceptance in the community. Selecting the most appropriate data-gathering

techniques. Understanding how to operate within the local

culture and political structure. Taking precautions against investigator bias. Choosing knowledgeable informants. Be willing to reevaluate findings in the light of

new evidence.

What Kinds of Methods Are Used in Fieldwork?

Observation Language

acquisition Participant-

Observation Interviewing Mapping

Photography and Videography

Geneology Document analysis Surveys Census taking

Data Recording Methods

Field notes Photo and video records Computer spread sheets Journaling

What is Observation? DEFINITION

Collecting data about actions, contexts, props, roles and kinds of participation in both individual and social situations.

KEY COMPONENTS1. Observation is such an obvious

way to collect information that we sometimes don’t note it as a research method

2. Observation is the only way of collecting information in a new cultural context when the researcher does not speak the language.

3. Observations are recorded in detailed field notes that record behaviors, contexts, props, roles and participants.

Why Language Acquisition? Learning the

native language of the group is essential to the study of culture for several reasons:

Interviewing depends on being able to speak the native language.

Participation depends on being able to speak in social situations.

Words commonly do not translate exactly from one language to another.

Word are labels for cultural categories. In order to understand a culture, you must know something about the kinds of categories people use to organize the world.

What is Participant-Observation? DEFINITION

Participating in the social events, rituals and daily activities of the group they are studying

KEY COMPONENTS1. Participation gives the researcher

a visceral and emotional perspective on the activities of the group.

2. Participation is only possible in limited kinds of situations defined the gender, age and other qualifications of the researcher.

3. Participation gives the researcher roles to play in the group that allow him/her to be more accepted.

Guidelines for Participant-Observation Fieldwork

When introducing oneself, select one role and use it consistently.

Proceed slowly. Assume the role of a student wanting to learn

more about a subject on which the people are the experts.

Establish relationships with key informants of whom you can ask the “stupid” questions of an outsider

Participant Observation

Anthropologist Mark Jenike weighs a duiker that was caught by a Lese hunter in Zaire, central Africa.

Alan Rumsey listens to a warrior from Highland New Guinea while collecting linguistic anthropological data.

Kim Martin with Oaxacan family of embroiderers.

Participant-ObservationAdvantages Disadvantages

Focuses on the emic perspective

Enables fieldworkers to distinguish actual from expected behavior.

Permits observation of nonverbal behavior

Allows the interaction of factors to be observed and documented

Small sample size

Difficult to obtain standardized comparable data

Problems of recording

Obtrusive effect on subject matter

What is Interviewing?

DEFINITIONAsking questions of insider members of the group you are studying.

KEY COMPONENTS1. The people interviewed are

generally called “informants” 2. Interviewing allows the researcher

to find out WHY things are done3. Interviewing allows the researcher

to find out what things MEAN. 4. Interviews can be structured, where

the researcher asks for specific information.

5. Interviews can be unstructured, where the researcher encourages the speaker to talk about a certain topic, and does not ask specific questions.

What is Ethnographic Interviewing?

DEFINITION An interviewing

technique that uses content free questions to get an insiders view of cultural material.

KEY COMPONENTS

1. The interviewer does not have to know anything but the word/label for the concept he/she wants to know more about.

2. The results are an “emic” or insiders view of the topic with minimal researcher bias.

3. Content-free (frame elicitation) questions are used as probes, e.g.:

4. Tell me about ____________.

5. Are there different kinds of ____?

What is Mapping?

DEFINITION

Drawing sketches and plans for things that are important to the culture

USES FOR MAPPING Maps can record geography

and resource distribution Maps can record ownership

of resources or material possessions.

Maps can record social locations and activities.

Researchers can make their own maps or use existing ones to record data.

What are Photography and Videography?

DEFINITION

The use of photos, videos and/or film to record aspects of the culture

USES FOR PHOTOGRAPHY AND VIDEOGRAPHY

Photographs can be used to communicate about things or events when language is not adequate

Photographs and video can record complex activities that cannot be completely recorded though observation or participant-observation.

Photographs and videos can record color, sound and emotional components not accessible through other methods

What is Geneology?

DEFINITION

The collection and recording of data about family structure and membership

REASONS FOR DOING GENEOLOGY

Geneological data includes kinship by birth, marriage and fictive relationships

Geneological data provides a model for how family and social organization is structured

Geneological data provides information about priorities and values within a society

What is Document Analysis?

DEFINITION

The study of existing written documents that can provide information about a group

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS EXAMPLES

Church records can provide geneological records from the past

Historic accounts provide comparative information about how culture change has occurred

Political records document the passage of authority and leadership over time.

What is Survey Research?

DEFINITION

The use of written questionnaires to collect information.

ISSUES WITH SURVEYS Surveys are the least useful

method for anthropologists generally

Surveys presume that people can read

Surveys provide impersonal, statistical data that does not give details about the culture and how it works.

Surveys are usually used in a final phase of research where specific information is needed.

What is Ethnology?

DEFINITION Ethnology is the

process of comparing and contrasting a variety of cultures to identify general rules about how culture works.

KEY COMPONENTS1. Ethnology uses

ethnographies as the basis of comparison

2. Ethnology studies multiple cultures at one time

3. Ethnology seeks to create hypotheses and theories to explain how culture works

Powerpoint Study Guide

Ethnography

Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)

Fieldwork

Participant Observation

Geneology

Census taking

Ethnographic Interviewing

Ethnology

Document Analysis

Mapping

Journaling

Fieldnotes

Ethical Considerations