L E S L I E B O H O N - A T K I N S O N , C A R L A C O S T E L L O , S H A R O N S T O N EE P P L 6 0 4

ANTHROPOLOGYPERSPECTIVE

ALBATROSS EXPERIENCE

• Pay careful attention to what you observe

WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY?

• Anthropology is the study of human behavior. It includes four broad fields – cultural/social anthropology, linguistics, physical anthropology and archaeology.

• Each of the four fields teaches distinctive skills, such

as applying theories and employing research methodologies, formulating and testing hypotheses and developing extensive sets of data.

Reference: American Anthropological Association, 2011; http:/www.aaanet.org/profdev.careers/Careers.cmf

ANTHROPOLOGY AIMS TO ANSWER:

• What does it mean to be human?• Why do people behave in particular ways?• What are historical and environmental pressures

that helped shape the experiences and behavior of a specific group of people?• What are the universal facts of human life?

Reference: American Anthropological Association, 2011;http:/www.aaanet.org/profdev.careers/Careers.cmf

CULTURE

• Our focus is on the cultural/social field of anthropology• This is where the concern of education lies• Cultural anthropologists study behaviors, customs

and beliefs that people attain as members of society (Barret, 1984)• Culture is a body of learned beliefs and traditions

that guide behavior-Key word is LEARNED (Barret, 1984).

Reference: Barret, R. A. (1984). Culture and conduct : An excursion in anthropology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

PARADIGMSSOCIAL/CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

• Post-Colonialism (Leslie)• Structural-functionalism (Carla)• Symbolic Anthropology (Sharon)

Anthropology

archaeology physical

cultural/social

Post-colonialism-Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire-Edward Saïd-Gayatri Spivak

Structural-functionalism-Alfred Radcliffe-Brown-Bronislaw Malinowski

Symbolic-Clifford Geertz-Victor Turner

Cultural/Social Paradigms

linguistics

Sociology roots-Emile Durkheim-Max Weber

POST-COLONIALISM

• the study of the interactions between European nations and the societies they colonized in the modern period• By WWI, Europe (England, France, Germany)

controlled over 85% of the world.• After WWII, this colonization began to disintegrate,

which led to postcolonial literature, philosophy, theory, criticism Sources: Emory Univ.:; http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Intro.html; Brown Univ.:

www.postcolonialweb.org

www.qub.ac.uk

WHO WAS COLONIZED?

Africa by end of WWI

static.newworldencyclopedia.org

Colonies in 1945

Decolonization after 1945

dt-ss.tripod.com

www.memo.fr

POST-COLONIALISM FIGURES

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Gayatri Spivak, 1942-•Born in India•Revived the term “subaltern” oppressed, minority groups – presence is crucial to self-definition by colonizers

Edward Saïd, 1935-2003•Born in Palestine•Wrote about “Orientalism” (study of the East by the West)•Says Orientalism is suspect because it is written as an outside view, for the benefit of the West

3QuarksDaily.com

jackkerouacispunjabi.blogspot.com

POST-COLONIALISM FIGURES

Aimé Césaire, 1913-2008•Born in Martinique•Poet, author, politician•One of the founders of the négritude movement•Wrote about the cultural identity of black Africans in the colonial setting

Frantz Fanon,1925-1961•Born in Martinique•Supporter of Algerian independence and championed decolonization

blackactivism.wordpress.com

Myelproductions.com

blackactivism.wordpress.com

LINGERING PROBLEMS OF COLONIZATION

• Whose language should be used in society? Language as social and cultural capital (Brock-Utne, 2001)• Failure of the “African Miracle ” – Western

government doesn’t work in many African countries; brings despair (Livingston, 2009)• The term “Third World” automatically conjures

ideas of inferiority (Coronil, 1996)

www.phucquach.co.uk

QUESTIONS POST-COLONIALISM CONSIDERS

• How did the experience of colonization affect those who were colonized while also influencing the colonizers?

• What traces have been left by colonial education, science and technology in postcolonial societies?

• How did colonial education and language influence the culture and identity of the colonized?

• Are new forms of imperialism replacing colonization and how?

• Should the writer use a colonial language to reach a wider audience or return to a native language more relevant to groups in the postcolony?

Source: www.english.emory.edu; Brock-Utne (2001) Education for All; Comaroff & Comaroff (2003) Ethnography

Graphic: sherise.files.wordpress.com

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM, RADCLIFFE-BROWN

• Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Birmingham, England(1881-1955). Influenced by Emile Durkheim• Developed the structural-

functional approach to anthropology-Sociology roots• Conducted extensive research on the

Andaman Islands-Rituals

References:

Radcliffe-Brown, A.F., (1948). The andaman islanders. Glencose, IL: Free Press.

Chilcott, J.H. (1998). Structural-functionalism as a heuristic device. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29(1), 103-111.

Homas, G. C. (1941). Anxiety and ritual: The theories of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. American Anthropologist, 43(2), 164-172.

RADCLIFFE-BROWN• Radcliffe-Brown ‘s structural functionalism claimed:

• The rules of conduct within a society lead to a social structure consisting of defined roles.

• As these roles are enacted, they contribute to maintaining the social structure.

• Social structure is the arrangement of persons in relation to each other.• Basic premise: Society can be viewed as a system of mutually

interdependent parts• Social organization is the arrangement of activities of two or more

people• Culture functions to meet the needs of society as a whole

Reference: Chilcott, J.H. (1998). Structural-functionalism as a heuristic device. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29(1), 103-111.

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM, MALINOWSKI

• Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942), Polish Anthropologist. Influenced by Emile Durkheim.

• Known as the father of the founder of Social Anthropology, father of the functionalist school

• Trobriand Islands- Ethnography “Writing about the tribe/nation”

---Participant observation

MALINOWKSI• Ethnocentrism, by contrast, evaluates other’s beliefs in

comparison to your own. This increases the likelihood of cultural misunderstandings.

• Believed that anthropologists must have daily contact with their subjects to fully understand their culture.

Malinowski’s structural-functionalism stressed:• Culture functions to meet the needs of individuals rather

than society as a whole.• When the needs of individuals are met, the needs of the

larger society are met.

References: Malinowski, B. (1944). A Scientific Study of Culture. Chapel Hill: UNC Press.Gregory, K. L. (1983). Native-view paradigms: Multiple cultures and culture conflicts in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28 (3), 359-376.

MYTH

• “Malinowksi argued that myths serve primarily to support social institutions” (Peacock, p. 998).• He gained support for this argument through his

ethnography of the Trobrianders. Reference: Peacock, J. L. (1981). Durkheim and the social anthropology of culture. Social Forces, 59(4), 996-1008.

SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

• Emerged in the early 1960s• Rooted in psychoanalysis and sociology of

knowledge• Tendency to focus on myth and ritual• Inclined toward qualitative, thick description• Two major strands:• Clifford Geertz, University of Chicago• Victor Turner, Cornell

SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

• Clifford Geertz (August 23, 1926 – October 30, 2006) • Influenced by Max Weber and Sigmund Freud• Culture is embodied in public symbols• Symbols are vehicles for communication and

meaning• His question: “How [do] symbols shape the

ways social actors see, feel, and think about the world”

Reference: Ortner, S. B. (1984). Theory in anthropology since the sixties. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 26(1), 126-166. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/178524

SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

• Victor Turner (May 28, 1920 – December 18, 1983)• Influenced by Emile Durkheim, Max Gluckman, and

Sigmund Freud• Interested in ritual analysis and the predictive value of

drama• Symbols are operators producing social transformations

(pragmatic dimension)

SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

• Convergence with cognitive anthropology• Both can be termed “microanthropology,” i.e., an

interest in process rather than structure• Neither has a strong theoretical framework• Linguistic theory brings greater precision to both

Reference: Colby, B. N., Fernandez, J. W., & Kronenfeld, D. B. (1981). Toward a convergence of cognitive and symbolic anthropology. American Ethnologist, 8(3), 422-450. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/644295

SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

• Intent is to find meaning through cultural symbols, including myth and ritual• Problems• Rich symbols are multi-layered• Which meaning is relevant? • Are all meanings equally important?

• Emerging practice: use linguistic tools to analyze cultural symbols in the form of metaphors, etc.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND EDUCATION

APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

• Ethnographic research-observations and interviews • Important in understanding different cultures• Individuals have different constructs of reality• Students must make sense of their environment• “Teachers can recognize, as Malinowski did, that

the introduction of a new element into the system requires adjustments to be made throughout the whole system” (Chilcott, p. 107)

Reference: Chilcott, J.H. (1998). Structural-functionalism as a heuristic device. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 29(1), 103-111.

APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION• Educational phenomena is examined in a cross-cultural

framework• Anthropologists, like educators, try to place behaviors in

comparative cross-cultural settings• “The branches of archaeology are dedicated to participant

observation. Participant observation is central to anthropological approaches to education” (Harrington, p. 327-328).

• Anthropological approaches take a very broad view of education. “Education must encompass both formal and informal learning” (Harrington, p. 328).

Reference: Harrington, C. (1982). Anthropology and education: Issues from the issues. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 13(4), 323-335.

APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

• Cultural transmission-can be understood as an anthropological definition of education• Examines the ways values and behaviors are

taught within a specific society or culture• How does a culture transmit itself from

generation to generation?• How do individuals adjust to change?• Cultural transmission studies of formal education

focus on schools and classrooms• Schooling is only one type of cultural transmission

APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION• Individuals are seen as members of certain groups• They learn which actions and beliefs are acceptable-

encultured• School teaches us how to mesh with society• We LEARN to behave in ways that others expect us to• “Structural-functionalism provides tools for the social

structures that mediate between larger society and individual choices. This paradigm also shows us that choices are controlled by social contexts” (Harrington, 330).

Reference: Harrington, C. (1982). Anthropology and education: Issues from the issues. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 13(4), 323-335.

APPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION• Symbolic anthropology applies to organizations, like school

divisions, buildings, and classrooms• However, these cultures are embedded in a wider system• Organization is maintained through symbols of shared meaning

and shared reality• How do interpretations of symbol relate to action?• Leadership in organizations can be described as the

management of meaning

References: Hannerz, U. (1986). Theory in anthropology: Small is beautiful? The problem of complex cultures.

Comparative Studies in Society and History, 28, 362-367. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/178977

Smircich, L. (1983). Concepts of culture and organizational analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2(3), 339-358. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2392246

CULTURAL VALUES ACTIVITY