antropologiaaa
TRANSCRIPT
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These PowerPoint slides have been designed for use by students and instructors using the Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity textbook by Conrad Kottak. These files contain short outlines of the content of the chapters, as well as selected photographs, maps, and tables. Students may find these outlines useful as a study guide or a tool for review. Instructors may find these files useful as a basis for building their own lecture slides or as handouts. Both audiences will notice that many of the slides contain more text than one would use in a typical oral presentation, but it was felt that it would be better to err on the side of a more complete outline in order to accomplish the goals above. Both audiences should feel free to edit, delete, rearrange, and rework these files to build the best personalized outline, review, lecture, or handout for their needs.
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C C h h a a p p t t e e rr 1717
This chapter introduces students to the anthropological study of politics. It focuses on the band, tribe, chiefdom, and state system of sociopolitical organization.
Political SystemsPolitical SystemsPolitical SystemsPolitical Systems
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IntroductionIntroductionPower is the ability to exercise one’s will over others.Authority is the socially approved use of power.
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TypologyTypologyIn 1962, Elman Service developed a typology of political
organizations. Bands are small kin-based groups found among foragers. Tribes are associated with non-intensive food production and
have villages and/or descent groups, but lack formal government and social classes.
The chiefdom is a form of sociopolitical organization that is intermediate between the tribe and the state, still kin-based, but characterized by a permanent political structure with some degree of differential access to resources and a political structure.
The state is characterized by formal government and social classes.
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TypologyTypologyIn bands and tribes, the political order (polity) is not a
distinct institution, but is embedded in the overall social order.
Because of this embeddedness, Kottak prefers to speak of sociopolitical (rather than simply political) organization in discussing cross-cultural similarities and differences in the regulation or management of interrelations among groups and their representatives.
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Sociopolitical Types and EconomySociopolitical Types and EconomyThere are many correlations between economy and
sociopolitical organization. Foragers tend to have band organization. Horticulturalists and pastoralists tend to have tribal
organization. Agriculturalists tend to have either chiefdom-level or state-
level organization.In general, as the economy becomes more productive,
population size increases leading to greater regulatory problems, which gives rise to more complex social relations and linkages (greater social and political complexity).
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Sociopolitical Types and EconomySociopolitical Types and EconomySociopolitical
TypeEconomic Type Type of
RegulationExamples
Band Foraging Local Inuit, San
Tribe Horticulture, pastoralism
Local, temporary regional
Yanomami, Nuer, Kapauku
Chiefdom Horticulture, pastoral nomadism, agriculture
Permanent regional
Qashqai, Cherokee, Polynesia
State Agriculture, industrialism
Permanent regional
Ancient Mesopotamia, modern United States and Canada
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Foraging BandsForaging BandsIn foraging societies the only two social groups that are
significant are the nuclear family and the band. Membership in these groups is fluid and can change from year
to year. Kin networks, both real and fictive, are created and maintained
through marriage, trade, and visiting.Foraging bands are egalitarian, in that all differences in
status are achieved.Foragers lack formal law, conflict resolution is embedded in
kinship and social ties (e.g. blood feuds).Prestige refers to esteem, respect, or approval for culturally
valued acts or qualities.
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Tribal CultivatorsTribal Cultivators Tribes usually have a horticultural or pastoral economy and are
organized by village life and/or descent-group membership. Social classes and formal government are not found in tribes. Small-scale warfare or intervillage raiding is commonly found in tribes. The main regulatory officials are village heads, "big men," descent-
group leaders, village councils, and leaders of pantribal associations. The officials have limited authority. They lead through persuasion and by example, not through coercion.
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Tribal CultivatorsTribal CultivatorsLike foragers, tribes are egalitarian.
Tribes often have marked gender stratification. Status in tribes is based on age, gender, and personal traits and
abilities.Horticulturalists are egalitarian and tend to live in small
villages with low population density.
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The Village HeadThe Village HeadThe Yanomami are used as an example of a society with a
village head.The position of village head is achieved but comes with
very limited authority. He cannot force or coerce people to do things. He can only persuade, harangue, and try to influence people to
do things.The Village head acts as a mediator in disputes, but he has
no authority to back his decision or impose punishments.
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The Village HeadThe Village HeadThe village head must lead in generosity.
He must be more generous, which means he must cultivate more land.
He hosts feasts for other villages.In the last decade, particularly, the Yanomami have suffered
greatly from violence and disease, both of which have come from the encroaching mining and ranching industries of Brazil.
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The “Big Man”The “Big Man”A big man is like a village head, except that his authority is
regional, in that he may have influence over more than one village.
The big man is common to the South Pacific.Among the Kapauku, the big man is the only political figure
beyond the household. The position is achieved through generosity, eloquence,
bravery, physical fitness, and supernatural powers. His decisions are binding among his followers. He is an important regulator of regional events (e.g. feasts and
markets).
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The “Big Man”The “Big Man”
Map showing the location of the Kapauku.
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The “Big Man”The “Big Man”In order to be a tribal leader, a big man or village head, a
person must be generous. They must work hard to create a surplus to give away. This surplus is converted into prestige.
The big man is a temporary, regional regulator who can mobilize supporters from several villages for produce and labor on specific occasions.
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Segmentary Lineage OrganizationSegmentary Lineage OrganizationSegmentary lineage organization (SLO) is based upon
descent-group structure (typically patrilineal).Segmentary lineages are composed hierarchically, with
smaller units (potentially) combining into larger ones. Maximal lineages share a common ancestor who lived long
ago and whose membership is spread over a large area (inclusive).
Minimal lineages are the smallest unit in which members live in the same village and share a common ancestor who lived no more than four generations ago (exclusive).
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Segmentary Lineage OrganizationSegmentary Lineage OrganizationNilotic peoples, such as the Nuer, are exemplary of
segmentary lineage organization.With SLO, the closer the relationship in terms of descent,
the greater the mutual support and the more distant the common ancestor, the greater the potential for hostility.
Conflict resolution When a dispute develops between people who share a
common living ancestor, he intervenes to settle it. When the combatants do not share a common living ancestor,
a blood feud may develop.
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Segmentary Lineage OrganizationSegmentary Lineage Organization
Map showing the location of the Nuer.
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Pantribal Sodalities and Age GradesPantribal Sodalities and Age GradesSodalities are non-kin based organizations which may
generate cross-societal linkages. They are often based on common age or gender. Some sodalities are confined to a single village. Some sodalities span several villages; these are called
pantribal sodalities.Pantribal sodalities tend to be found in areas where two or
more different cultures come into regular contact. Especially in situations where warfare is frequent. Since pantribal sodalities draw their members from several
villages, they can mobilize a large number of men for raids.
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Pantribal Sodalities and Age GradesPantribal Sodalities and Age Grades Pressure from European contact created conditions which promoted
pan-tribal sodalities (age sets are one example) among the groups of the North American Great Plains of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Age sets are sodalities that include all of the men born during a certain time span. Similar to a cohort of class of students, like class of 2004. Members of an age set progress through a series of age grades
together (e.g. initiated youth, warrior, adult, elder or in American universities: freshmen, sophomore, junior, senior, graduate).
Secret societies are sodalities with secret initiation ceremonies. Sodalities create non-kin linkages between people based on age, gender,
and ritual and create a sense of ethnic identity and belonging to the same cultural tradition.
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Pantribal Sodalities and Age GradesPantribal Sodalities and Age Grades
This photograph shows the warrior (ilmurran) age grade of the Masai dancing with a group of girls from a lower age grade (intoyie).
Photo Credit: Douglas Kirkland/ The Image Bank
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Pantribal Sodalities and Age GradesPantribal Sodalities and Age Grades
Map showing location of Masai.
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Nomadic PoliticsNomadic Politics Nomads must interact with a variety of groups, unlike most sedentary
societies. Powerful chiefs are commonly found in nomadic groups that have large
populations (e.g. the Basseri and the Qashqai of southern Iran). The Basseri have a smaller population and their chief, khan, is similar to
a village head or big man. The position is achieved. Allegiances are with the person, not the office.
The larger Qashqai have multiple levels of authority and more powerful chiefs. Their authority can be more coercive. Allegiance are with the office, not the person.
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Nomadic PoliticsNomadic Politics
Map showing the location of the Qashqai and Basseri.
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Chiefdoms and StatesChiefdoms and StatesChiefdoms are a transitional form of sociopolitical
organization between tribes and states.Carneiro (1970) defines the state as “an autonomous
political unit encompassing many communities within its territory, having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws. archaic or nonindustrial states industrial or modern states
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ChiefdomsChiefdoms Unlike band and tribal political systems, chiefdoms and states are
permanent: their offices outlast the individuals who occupy them. An office is a permanent position of authority that exists independently
of the person who occupies it. It must be refilled when it is vacated. Offices ensure that the sociopolitical organization endures across
generations. Chiefs play an important role in the production, distribution, and
consumption of resources. Chiefs collect foodstuffs as tribute (upward movement). Chiefs later redistribute these collect foodstuffs at feasts (downward
movement).
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ChiefdomsChiefdoms
Chiefdoms created the megalithic cultures of Europe, such as the one that built Stonehenge.
Photo Credit: Louis H. Jawitz/The Image Bank
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Chiefdoms: Social StatusChiefdoms: Social StatusIn chiefdoms, social status is based on seniority of descent.All of the people in a chiefdom are believed to have
descended from a group of common ancestors. The closer you and your lineage are related to those founding
ancestors, the greater your prestige. In chiefdoms, there is a continuum of prestige with the chief at
one end and the lowest ranking individuals at the other. The chief must demonstrate his seniority of descent.
Chiefdoms lack social classes.
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Chiefdoms and States: Social StatusChiefdoms and States: Social StatusUnlike tribal and band organizations, there are systemic
status distinctions in chiefly and state societies.State and chiefdom status systems are based upon
differential access to wealth and resources, and differential allocation of rights and duties. States are characterized by much clearer class divisions than
chiefdoms, typically associated with stratum endogamy. The result of stratum endogamy is social stratification, the
hierarchical arrangement of unrelated classes. Social stratification, social classes, is one of the key
distinguishing features of states.
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Social StratificationSocial StratificationWeber’s Dimensions of Social Stratification
Wealth or economic status Political status based upon power Social status based upon prestige
In chiefdoms, all three dimensions are tied to kinship and descent.
In the early states, distinctions in all three dimensions appeared between endogamous groups for the first time.
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Social Status in Archaic StatesSocial Status in Archaic StatesIn archaic states there were two basic class distinctions.
The superordinate stratum was the elite or higher class that had privileged access to wealth, power, and other valued resources.
The subordinate stratum was the lower or underprivileged class.
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States: SpecializationStates: SpecializationStates have specialized units that perform specific tasks.
Population control: fixing boundaries, establishing citizenship, and the taking of a census
Judiciary: laws, legal procedure, and judges Enforcement: permanent military and police forces Fiscal: taxation These subsystems were more or less embedded into the overall
ruling systems of archaic states.
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States: Population ControlStates: Population ControlStates use administrative divisions to control their
populations. Provinces, districts, counties, and townships. Each administrative divisions is managed by state officials.
States displace the role and importance that kinship has in bands, tribes, and chiefdoms.
States foster geographic mobility and resettlement.States assign differential rights to different status
distinctions. citizens vs. non-citizens elites vs. commoners vs. slaves soldiers vs. civilians
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States: JudiciaryStates: JudiciaryLaws are explicit codes for behavior, issued by the state,
and are distinct from the consensual mores and expectations that exist in non-state societies.
The state is unique as a political system in that it governs family affairs.
The presence of laws has not reduced violence—indeed, states are responsible for some of the most violent episodes in human history.
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States: EnforcementStates: EnforcementA judiciary obligates the existence of a system of
enforcement.The judiciary and enforcement typically work not only to
control internal and external conflict, but also to preserve the existing state hierarchy.
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States: Fiscal SystemsStates: Fiscal SystemsState rulers typically perform no subsistence activities.The fiscal system serves to support the rulers and ruling
structure by collecting a portion of that produced by other members of the state.
Fiscal systems of archaic states also worked to maintain and elaborate class distinctions, as in the support of sumptuary goods for the elites.