antropomotoryka nr 57 [2012] - awf w krakowie · wiesław osiński, joachim raczek, teresa...

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATIONCRACOW, POLAND

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATIONIN WROCLAW, POLAND

CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012

ISSN 1731-0652

COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATIONAND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIEN CES

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK

ANTROPOMOTORYKAVol. 22, nr 57INDEX COPERNICUS

AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GOIM. BRO NI SŁA WA CZECHA W KRA KO WIEAKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI ZYCZ NE GO

WE WROCŁAWIU

KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012

ISSN 1731-0652

KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJI INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN

MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPOR TO WEJ – IASK

ANTROPOMOTORYKAVol. 22, nr 57INDEX COPERNICUS

COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASKUNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLANDVOL. 22, NR 57 CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012

Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, PolandPrint: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29

Circulation: 150

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

CHAIRMANEdward Mleczko

V-CHAIRMANZofia Ignasiak

MEMBERSJan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,

Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta

EDITORIAL BOARD

Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko,

Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia),Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,

Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak

EDITOR’S OFFICE

al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 KrakówPoland

Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS

This publication is funded in part by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education

Translation: Wiesław Horabik, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia WillcoxProofreading: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox

© Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland

ANTROPOMOTORYKAISSN 1731-0652

ANTROPOMOTORYKAKOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FI ZYCZ NEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN

MIĘ DZY NA RO DO WE STO WA RZY SZE NIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASKAKADEMIA WY CHO WA NIA FI ZYCZ NE GO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZE CHA W KRA KO WIE

AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU

ISSN 1731-0652

VOL. 22, NR 57 KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012

Opracowanie gra ficz ne i łamanie: Dział Projektów Wydawniczych AWF KrakówDruk: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29

Nakład: 150 egz.

REDAKCJA

Redaktor NaczelnyEdward Mleczko

Z-ca Redaktora Na czel ne goZofia Ignasiak

Komitet RedakcyjnyJan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,

Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta

RADA REDAKCYJNA

Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski, Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko,

Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja), Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,

Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak

ADRES REDAKCJI

al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 KrakówPoland

Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS

Publikacja częściowo dotowana przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego

Tłumaczenie: Wiesław Horabik, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia WillcoxAdiustacja i korekta: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox

© Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow

– 5 –

NR 57 2012ANTROPOMOTORYKA

CONTENTS

From Editors 7Information for the Authors 11

ORIGINAL PAPERSKazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając

Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players 17

Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub AdamczykThe impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists 27

Ivan Čillík, Darina KozolkováBody response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle 35

Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena ZagórskaThe influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming activities among students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow 45

Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta MajewskaAssessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people 57

Václav BuncWalking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence 63

Marta WieczorekFunctional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years (continuous research) 73

Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata PasławskaKnowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education participating in an obligatory winter camp. Part II 83

Jerzy Januszewski, Edward MleczkoLong-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (H-RF) in light of result of physical fitness assessment using T-scores 89

Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka DmitrukAnthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness of rural boys from Lublin region 103

REVIEW PAPERSEmilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski

The movement of a human being in the medical exoskeleton – the anthropomotoric aspects 115

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SPIS TREŚCI

Od Redakcji 7Informacje dla autorów 13

PRACE ORYGINALNEKazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając

Ćwiczenia rozciągające i siłowe w relacji z szybkością biegową i mocą anaerobową koszykarzy 17

Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub AdamczykWpływ redukcji masy ciała na dyspozycję startową zawodników judo 27

Ivan Čillík, Darina KozolkováReakcje na obciążenia treningowe u płotkarzy w mikrocyklu okresu przygotowawczego 35

Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena ZagórskaWpływ przekazu informacji wizualno-werbalnej na skuteczność uczenia się i nauczania oraz doskonalenia czynności pływackich studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie 45

Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta MajewskaOcena efektywności turnusu rehabilitacyjnego na sprawność fizyczną i tolerancję wysiłku osób w wieku starszym 57

Václav BuncWpływ marszu na sprawność fizyczną oraz skład ciała przedstawicieli różnych grup wiekowych 63

Marta WieczorekAsymetria funkcjonalna i dynamiczna chłopców w wieku 10–12 lat (badania ciągłe) 73

Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata PasławskaZnajomość zasad bezpieczeństwa wśród studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego uczestniczących w programowym obozie zimowym. Część II 83

Jerzy Januszewski, Edward MleczkoDługookresowe tendencje zmian sprawności fizycznej ujętej w konwencji zdrowia w świetle wyników ich ewaluacji z wykorzystaniem skali tenowej 89

Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka DmitrukAntropologiczna ocena wpływu czynników socjoekonomicznych na rozwój i sprawność fizyczną chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny 103

PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWEEmilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski

Poruszanie się człowieka w egzoszkielecie medycznym – aspekty antropomotoryczne 115

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FROM EDITORS OD REDAKCJI

THE ENGLISH VERSION OF “ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY” IN 2012?

W NOWYM 2012 ROKU „ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY” – PO ANGIELSKU?

I hope that it will not be a rhetorical sentence when we meet in New Year. We are planning to is-sue four quarterlies in English. In these activities we are supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. We have conducted serious talks with the publishers interested in promoting our journal abroad. It obliges us to international cooperation and to make the research topics inter-nationally known. From this perspective, we shall put forward increasingly higher requirements to the authors. Only such contributions shall be qu-alified for printing, which will have a chance to be quoted. Moreover, we have to become more profes-sionalized. We are forced to do it by new guidelines concerning the assessment of periodicals.

It might certainly be helpful if we have acquired DOI (digital object identifier). As one can read in the latest 2012 issue of DOI Handbook, published by The International DOI Foundation, the founder and the owner of the DOI system and trademark defines DOI as: “a digital identifier for an object of intellectual pro-perty, which aims at the persistent identification of any object of intellectual property in digital networks in con-nection with the current data which refer to it” One mi-ght formulate a question: why possessing the DOI is so important?

Well, in order to be cited and have the published articles cited, we have to have a tool which will ena-ble us to get in contact with all renown and prestigious scientific publications which do possess DOI. The iden-tification of a digital object is perceived as something “natural”. DOI is also used by different software suppor-

ting the process of writing scientific publications (e.g. by the manager of bibliographies). Thus, one – while using DOI – can easily attain the latest bibliography to an article from all over the world.

It will certainly not be an easy way to win the world market. However, why should we not aspire to the rank of a highly appreciated periodical even today? It will certainly depend on our readers but also on the me-thods of prioritizing the scientific periodicals.

The publication which is not indexed in Thomson Reuters Scientific database cannot have a Predicted Impact Factor (PIF) calculated. Such publication is not disqualified, however. It may be awarded the punctu-ation in “Index B”; but – unfortunately – the articles which are indexed there are the second category publi-cations. The way to jump into a higher position may be the indication by DOI. So, we are waiting for it. I think, the majority of the publications included in the 57th issue of “Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology” deserves to be known not only in our country. So far, we could have only referred to the opinions of our readers. What is there, in the 57th issue of the Krakow and Wroclaw periodical?

Undoubtedly, these are the empirical works which evoke the principal attention. In the article en-titled Stretching and Strength Exercises in Relation to Running Speed and Anaerobic Power in Basketball Players, the authors have presented interesting re-sults of an experiment with the testing of effectiveness of using stretching exercises in the sports training. It turned out that the strength exercises performed even with a small capacity at the lack of an intensive stret-

From Editors

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ching stimulus had a positive impact on a dynamic de-velopment of the anaerobic power and running velocity. Intensification of the stretching exercises limited the increase of speed abilities and the anaerobic power.

On the other hand, the experiment The Impact of the Rapid Weight Loss on the Competitive Preparation of Judoists conducted on the competitive sportsmen proved that the reduction of the body mass before the competition might have (in a short period of time) a ne-gative impact on the physical and psychical disposition of the competitors. Hence, the potential reduction of the body mass should take place under the control of the professionals (trainers, physicians, physiotherapists).

The results of an interesting training experiment con-ducted in the Czech Republic may interest the sports practitioners. The results were revealed in the article Body Response of Hurdle Runners to Training Load in Microcycle. The experiment showed the differences in the intra-individual and inter-individual reaction of the competitors’ bodies in different training units, in the fol-lowing monitored variables: time of the push-off, effec-tiveness in the active phase of the push-off, the height of the push-off and the effect of the push-off.

Another experiment conducted by the Krakow scien-tists, the results of which were presented in the work The Influence of Visual and Verbal Information Transfer on the Effectiveness of Learning and Mastering Swimming Activities among Students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow, showed the significant dependence between the implemented method of te-aching the swimming activities based on the enriched delivery of visual and verbal information and the effecti-ve mastering of the crawl swimming technique.

The importance of an effective 9-day rehabilitation course for senior citizens in the area of the improvement of their physical fitness from the health perspective was reported in the article Assessment of the Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Period on Physical Fitness and Exercise Tolerance in Elderly People. It showed the po-sitive effects in the area of the improvement of physical fitness checked by Fullerton test and the lack of positive results in the area of the BMI indicators.

Different conclusions were drawn by the Czech researchers in the publication Walking as a Tool of Physical Fitness and Body Composition Influence. They conducted a 5-months training experiment in three age groups. Walking was the primary tool (80%). Each of the groups performed it with different intensity: 1000 kcal – the elderly persons; 1500 kcal – the middle aged people, and 200 kcal – children and young people. All

the participants showed significant changes in physical fitness and in the components of the somatic composi-tion. Moreover, the working people reported the impro-ved feelings and efficiency in performing the professional activities. The authors are of the opinion that quick march of about 10 000 steps a day may be an effective stimulus for the improvement of health and the compensation for the deficit of movement which today characterizes the lifestyle of the people of various ages.

The article Functional and Dynamic Asymmetry in 10–12-year-old Boys (Research in Progress) referred to – the so far unexplained – phenomenon of the func-tional and dynamic asymmetry and its etiology. On the basis of the continuous testing of 10–12-year-old boys it was concluded that some changes occurred in the area of the functional asymmetry while no such tenden-cy was reported in the level of the dynamic asymmetry checked in the tests of the motoric fitness.

The results of an interesting research described in the article Knowledge of Downhill Skiing Safety Principles among Students at the University of Physical Education Participating in an Obligatory Winter Camp. Part II (Part I was published in the “Antropomotoryka” issue No 55) revealed that more attention should be paid to the application by future skiing instructors and trainers the knowledge of a safety theory of practicing this very popular and attractive sport. The authors are of the opinion that the activities should focus on the provision of an appropriate clothes, skiing shoes, the awareness of the threats to health in the frosty mounta-in climate, high mountain sickness.

In two articles: Long-term Trends in Changes of Physical Fitness Defined in the Concept of Health (H-RF) in Light of Results of Physical Fitness Asses-sment Using T-scores and Anthropological Evaluation of the Influence of Socio-Economic Factors on the Development and Physical Fitness of Rural Boys from Lublin Region, which were created in different acade-mic centers and on the basis of the material attained at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries in various geo-graphical regions of Poland (The Lublin Region – “The Eastern Wall of Poland” and South-Eastern Poland – Małopolska) differing in infrastructure and in the life-styles, the long-term trends of changes in the somatic and motoric development, popularly called “the secular trends” were confirmed. It is also interesting that in both cases, different methodologies to solve the problem were used. In the first one, while using the specially de-veloped scale (“T”) the lack of foundation for identifying “the phenomenon of the open scissors” in the youngest

From Editors

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generation of the tested children and young men was identified. Up till now, it was commonly believed that the dynamic, somatic development of the younger ge-neration and lowering of the physical fitness continue. In the cited article, there was a greater dynamics of the improvement of the motoric capabilities, particularly the endurance capabilities, than the somatic features.

In the second article, the 10–11-year-old and 17–18-year-old boys were divided into groups, the characte-ristic of which was the level of social stratification of parents. In most cases, the greater rate of the somatic and motoric development of children and of the young people from rural areas was identified. It is probable that in that way the inhabitants of the rural areas are making up for the past backwardness in relation to the inhabi-tants of the cities and thanks to the improvement of the conditions of living, despite poverty and deficiencies of the life in the rural areas that can still be observed.

In the review section, the reader shall find an in-teresting article The Movement of a Human Being

in the Medical Exoskeleton – the Anthropomotoric Aspects. In a very interesting way, the authors point to the importance of “exoskeletons” i.e. mechanical con-structions fixed to particular parts of human body and supporting the man’s movement with the aid of the in-built effectors, in didactics and scientific works. Our today’s knowledge and understanding of the adapta-tion of a human being to walking and performing the everyday activities in cooperation with robots such as exoskeleton are still limited. The article is an attempt to assess to what extent the possibilities in this area are being utilized.

I wish you all an interesting reading, and I wish the authors numerous citations of their creative work.

Edward Mleczko

Editor-in-Chief“Antropomotoryka”

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INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS

1. “Kinesiology” (“Antropomotoryka”) is an official scientific quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics – IASK, pub lished at the University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the Polish Acad emy of Sciences.

The magazine presents the results of original re search work and experiments in the field of human mo to r icity and re lated sciences. It also publishes review ar ticles, opinion ar ticles and discussion of scientists evalu ating the current situation and perspectives of sci en tific de vel opment of human motoricity.

2. Materials for publication (one copy of computer printouts) should be sent together with the compact disc at the following address: Redakcja “Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31571 Kraków, tel. 12 683 12 78, tel/fax 12 683 10 76 or at the email address: [email protected].

3. General conditions:• Upon submitting a paper to be published the Author

(Authors) trans fers copyright to the Publishing House of the “Antro po mo to ryka”. The works qualified for pub li cation become therefore the prop erty of the Publishing House of the “Antro po mo to ryka” and cannot be published in extenso or in fragments in other pe ri odi cals or other media without the written per mission of the Publisher. The work submitted for publication in the “Antro po mo to ryka” cannot be submitted for pub li cation ear lier on or simultaneously in any other pe ri odical. The Author is required to make a written statement to this effect. If the work in cludes any figures, tables, etc. which have al ready been published elsewhere, the Author is obliged to obtain a written per mission for re printing.

• “Antropomotoryka” accepts demonstrative, origi nal, experimental, and historical papers, in for mation about conferences, reports from con gresses and con ferences on human motoricity, short summa ries of works published in foreign pe ri odi cals and book re views on human motoricity. Origi nal works are accepted in En glish.

• The works of particular sci en tific value sub mitted and accepted for pub li cation earlier on in a for eign sci en

tific periodical can also be submitted for publication in the “Antro po mo to ryka”, however, on condition that the Author ob tains a permission from the publisher of the pe ri odical.

• All papers should be no longer than 22 pages with 1800 letters per page (i.e. 30 lines 60 points each). They should be in doublespaced or 1,5 spaced typewriting on one side of the paper only.

4. Rules of constructing the work:• The accompanying letter should contain both home and

office addresses and the information at which address to send the correspondence.

• Empirical works should contain the following in for mation: title, name(s) of the author(s), key words in Polish and in English, brief summary in Polish, summary in English (as mentioned above), in tro duction, ma terial, methods, results and dis cussion, con clusions and bib li og ra phy.

• The number of key words should be from 3 to 15.• The summary has to contain: the purpose of the work,

material, methods, results and con clusions.• The first page should contain the information in the

following order: title, name(s) of the author(s), scientific degree(s) of the author(s) and the pro fessional affiliation, including the address, key words, brief summary in Polish and in English. The summary should not contain less than 200 and no more than 250 words.

• The reference materials should be listed on a sepa rate sheet of paper. Only the aterials the Author refers to in the text may be included. They should be num bered using Arabic numerals and placed in the order they are quoted in the work (not in the alphabetic order). Each item of the reference materials should be written in a new verse. The surname(s) of the author(s) of the quoted work should be followed by the initials of their first name(s), then the original title of the maga zine where the work was published should be given. The abbre viation of the title of a magazine should be taken from the Index Medicus (or In ter na tional Committee of Medical Journal Editors: Uni form Re quirements for manu scripts submitted in bio medical jour nals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336, 309–315).

Information for the Authors

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Examples:a) works printed in magazines:

• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu roen do crine differentiation lacks prognostics sig nifi cance in prostate core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160: 406–410.

b) monographs:• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un der-

standing Medical Statistics, ed 3, re vised. Basel, Karger, 1966.

c) chapters in textbooks:• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies against

HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Mapping of an immune response and progress towards antiviral immu no therapy; in Capra JD (ed.): An ti body Engineering, Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997, 65: 18–56.

• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w. Zieliński J, Leń ko J (eds): Urologia, War sza wa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 9–20.

All the illustrations have to be of high quality. Graphic material should be submitted on white sheets of pa per. Copies of photographs and pho to graphs should be submitted on glossy paper. The con secutive num ber of the photograph should be written with a soft pencil on the back side of each photograph as well as an arrow marking its top edge. Only black and white pictures are printed. Scales and pictures should be placed on separate pages and numbered with Arabic numerals. The headings, descriptions and suscriptions under the pictures and above the scales should be written in Polish and English.

Example in Polish: Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy Example in English: Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Please, use round pa ren the ses. Physical or chemical

for mu lae should be written clearly. This re fers par ticu larly to in di ces and ex po nents.

The article can be written using the editor of MS Word 6.0 to 2007 or Open Office, preferably DOC or RTF format. Illustrations and tables should be packed in sepa rate files and, on the printouts, the place where they are to be included should be marked in pencil. The graphs made in black. It is permissible to use gray tints with various shades of intensity and texture. While typing the descriptions uniform char ac ter we kindly ask used due to esthetic reasons, e.g., arial. Bold print, italics, etc., should be limited to the nec essary mini mum. While scanning the illus trations, the dis tri bution should be at least 300 dpi. Black and white illustrations (line art) should be sent in TIFF for mat and pictures (gray) – in TIFF or JPEG format (at the low degree of com pression, up to 10%). All the files should be packed using RAR or ZIP. After copying them on CD it is necessary to check if all the files are copied.

The reference materials should be given in the order of quotation.[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by to we

jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wo lań ski N (red.): Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. War sza wa, PWN, 1987, 68–88.

[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor to we-go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.

[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy sio lo gi cal fit ness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev. 1983; 11: 112–115.

[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nal-nych i prób spraw no ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop-ców w wie ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków, AWF, 1983; 35.

While quoting the reference materials in the text, only square parentheses with the number of the quoted item in Arabic numerals should be given. When qu oting two or more works the square parentheses sho uld con ta in the chronological or der of their pu bli ca tion.

5. Editors’ remarks• All the materials are evaluated and anonymously re

viewed.• The reviewers’ opinion is passed on to the Author by the

editor.• The proof copy of the article will be emailed to the Author

as a PDF file. When the necessary corrections are made and the article is approved of by the Author, it should be emailed back within 10 days to the editorial board of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology”. A delay in sending back the article may postpone its printing till the next issue of the magazine.

• The Publisher of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” reserves the right to do stylistic revisions as well as the possible right to correct nomenclature and to shorten texts.

• The article (with a written statement – see: General condi-tions) should be sent with a cover letter signed by a senior reasercher, who is responsible for the content of the of the article.

• The Author gets a free copy of “Antropomotoryka – Kinesiology” in PDF format. The magazine in book form can be ordered on condition of payment at the email address: [email protected] when the corrected proof copy is returned.

• Current copies of Antropomotoryka and those from the files can be ordered on condition of payment from Kra kowska Księgarnia Kultury Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31571 Kraków, tel/fax (012) 681 36 22.

• Summaries in Polish and English can be found at the following Internet addresses: www.awf.krakow.pl; link: wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka, and www.journals.indexcopernicus.com.

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1. „Antropomotoryka” („Kinesiology”) jest ofi cjal nym, recenzowanym kwartalnikiem na uko wym Mię dzy na ro do we go Stowarzyszenia Mo to ry ki Spor to wej – IASK, wy da wa nym w Akademii Wy cho wa nia Fi zycz ne go w Kra ko wie pod pa trona tem Ko mi te tu Rehabilitacji, Kultury Fizycznej i Integracji Społecznej PAN. W cza so piśmie przed sta wia ne są wyniki ory gi nal nych ba dań i do świad czeń w dzie dzi nie mo to rycz ności czło wie ka oraz dziedzin po krew nych. Za miesz cza ne są również pra ce prze glądo we, poglądy oraz dys ku sje oceniające obec ny stan i per spek ty wy rozwoju do rob ku ba daw cze go sze ro ko po ję tej an tro po mo to ry ki.

2. Materiały przeznaczone do druku (jeden egzemplarz wydruku komputerowego) należy przesłać łącznie z płytą CD na adres: Redakcja „Antropomotoryki”, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31571 Kraków, tel. 12 683 12 78, tel./fax 12 683 10 76 lub na adres poczty elektronicznej e-mail: [email protected].

3. Warunki ogólne• Zgłoszenie pracy do druku jest jed no znacz ne z prze

kazaniem przez au to ra (au to rów) prawa do własności Redakcji „An tro po mo to ry ki”. Prace za kwa li fi ko wa ne do wy dru ko wa nia stają się zatem wy łącz ną własnością Redak cji i nie można ich pu bli ko wać w całości lub w części w in nych cza so pi smach lub mediach cyfrowych bez pi sem nej zgo dy Wydawcy. Praca złożona do druku w „Antropomotoryce” nie może być także wcześniej ani równocześnie złożona w in nym cza so pi śmie, co stwierdza autor w pi sem nym oświad cze niu. W razie umieszczenia w pracy rycin lub ta bel itp., pochodzących z opra co wań opu bli ko wa nych w innych cza so pi smach autor ma obo wią zek uzy ska nia zgody na przedruk.

• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” przyjmuje do dru ku pra ce poglądowe, oryginalne, doświadczalne, opra co wa nia hi sto rycz ne, komunikaty kon fe ren cyj ne, spra woz da nia ze zjaz dów i konferencji o tema ty ce an tro po mo to rycz nej oraz krót kie stresz cze nia prac wy dru ko wa nych w czasopi smach za gra nicz nych i recenzje książek z za kre su teorii mo to rycz ności czło wie ka. Pra ce przeglądowe i ory gi nal ne będą zre da go wa ne w ję zy ku polskim. Ar tykuły mogą być pu bli ko wa ne w ję zy ku angielskim.

• Prace przed sta wia ją ce dużą war tość na ukową, za kwali fi ko wa ne wcze śniej do wy dru ko wa nia w cza so pi śmie za gra nicz nym, mogą być rów nież zgło szo ne do druku w „An tro po mo to ry ce”, jed nak pod wa run kiem uzyskania przez autora pi sem nej zgo dy Wy daw cy cza so pi sma, w któ rym teksty zostały lub zo staną opu bli ko wa ne.

• Objętość artykułu nie powinna przekraczać 22 stron wydruku komputerowego, na których zamieszczono po 1800 znaków (np.: 30 wierszy po 60 znaków). Praca musi być napisana jednostronnie z podwójną lub 1,5 interlinią.

4. Zasady konstrukcji pracy• W liście towarzyszącym prosimy podać do kład ne ad re sy

(zarówno prywatny, jak i miejsca pra cy) z zaznaczeniem, gdzie należy przesyłać ko re spon den cję.

• Prace empiryczne powinny mieć następujący układ: ty tuł, imię (imiona) i nazwisko autora (ów), słowa klu czo we w języku polskim i angielskim, zwięzłe stresz cze nie w języku polskim i an giel skim, wstęp, materiał i metody, wyniki ba dań, dys ku sja, wnioski oraz wy kaz piśmiennictwa.

• Słowa kluczowe powinny liczyć od 3 do 15 wy ra zów. • Streszczenie musi zawierać: cel pracy, materiał, me to dy

lub materiał i metody, wyniki, wnioski.• Na pierwszej stronie opracowania należy za mie ścić

w ko lej ności: tytuł pracy w języku polskim i an giel skim, imię i na zwi sko autora(ów), stopień na uko wy au to ra(ów), miejsce za kła du pra cy, sło wa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe stresz cze nie po pol sku i an giel sku. Jego objętość nie może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów.

• Spis piśmiennictwa należy wydrukować na osob nej stro nie. Prosimy wymienić w nim jedynie po zy cje, na które autor powołuje się w tekście. Po win ny być one nu me ro wa ne cy fra mi arabskimi i usze re go wa ne w ko-lejności cytowania ich w pra cy (a nie w kolejności al fa betycz nej). Każdą po zy cję piśmiennictwa należy zapisywać od no we go wiersza. Po nazwisku autora (lub wszyst kich au to rów) cytowanej pracy należy po dać pierw sze li te ry imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmie niu ory gi nal nym oraz nazwę czasopisma, z któ re go praca pochodzi. Skrót tytułu cza so pi sma na leży podać zgodnie z jego brzmie niem w Index Medicus (patrz rów nież: International Com mit tee of Medical Jo ur nal Editors: Uniform re qu ire ments for ma nu

INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW

Informacje dla Autorów

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scripts sub mit ted to bio me di cal jo ur nals. N Engl J Med 1997; 336; 309–315).

Przykłady:a) prace wydrukowane w cza so pi smach:

• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H, Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu ro en do cri-ne dif fe ren tia tion lacks pro gno stic si gni fi cian ce in pro sta te core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998; 160: 406–410.

b) monografie:• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un der-

stan ding Me di cal Statistics, ed 3, re vi sed. Ba sel, Karger, 1996.

c) rozdziały w książkach:• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies aga inst

HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Map ping of an im mu ne response and progress towards antiviral im mu no the ra py; in Ca pra JD (ed.): An ti bo dy En-gi ne ering. Chem Immunol. Ba sel, Kar ger, 1997, 65: 18–56.

• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leń ko J (red.): Uro lo gia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 9–20.

Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą ja kość. Powi nien być wykonany na białych kart kach. Re pro duk cje zdjęć oraz fotografie należy przy go to wać na błysz czą cym papierze fo to gra ficz nym. Na od wro cie fo to gra fii trzeba napisać mięk kim ołów kiem jej kolejny numer oraz zaznaczyć strzałką, gdzie znaj du je się jej górny brzeg. Redakcja dru ku je je dy nie zdję cia czarnobiałe. Tabele i ryciny należy zamieszczać na oddzielnych stronach i nu me ro wać cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, ob ja śnie nia oraz podpisy pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim i angielskim. Przy kład:

Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Prosimy używać nawiasów okrą głych. Wzory mu szą być

napisane czytelnie, szcze gól nie wskaźni ki i wykładniki potęg.

Artykuł może być napisany na edytorze od Word 6.0 do

2007, Open Office, w for ma cie DOC lub RTF. Ilu stra cje, ta be le i wy kre sy powinny być za miesz czo ne w osobnych plikach, a na wydrukach oraz na mar gi ne sie za zna czo ne ołów kiem ich miej sce w tekście. Wykresy na le ży wy ko nać w kolorze czar nym. Moż na stosować tin ty szare o różnym na tęże niu lub tek stu ry. W opisach, ze względów es te tycznych, prosimy stosować czcionkę jed no ele men to wą (np. arial). Nie należy nad uży wać wyróżnień (bold, ita lic). Przy ska no wa nych ilustracjach rozdzielczość musi wy no sić co najmniej 300 dpi. Ilustracje czar nobiałe (line art.) po win ny być w formacie TIFF, a zdjęcia (grey) w for ma cie TIFF lub JPEG (w ni skim stopniu kompresji, do 10%). Wszystkie pli ki mogą być spa ko wa ne RARem lub ZIPem. Po sko pio wa niu na CD należy spraw dzić, czy wszyst kie pliki się kopiują.

Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony we dług ko lej no ści cytowania:[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by to we

jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wo lań ski N (red.): Czyn ni ki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987; 68–88.

[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor to-we go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.

[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy sio lo gi cal fit ness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev, 1983; 11: 112–115.

[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo to rycz no ści: ana li za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk cjo nal-nych i prób spraw no ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop-ców w wie ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kra ków, AWF, 1988; 35.

Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję pi śmien nic twa na le

ży podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cy frę arab ską. Przy ta cza jąc dwie lub większą ich licz bę należy podawać w na wia sie kwa dra to wym ko lej ność chro no lo gicz ną ich wy da nia.

5. Uwagi Redakcji• Wszystkie prace podlegają ocenie i są ano ni mo wo re cen

zo wa ne.• Redakcja zapoznaje autora z uwagami re cen zen tów.• Odbitka szczotkowa pracy jest wysyłana do Autora pocztą

elektroniczną jako plik PDF. Po niezbędnej korekcie i akceptacji pracy do druku należy ją odesłać w terminie do 10 dni na adres email Redakcji „Antropomotoryki”. Przetrzymywanie korekty może spowodować przesunięcie artykułu do następnego numeru.

• Redakcja „Antropomotoryki” zastrzega sobie prawo adiustacji, dokonywania poprawek w zakresie ujednolicania nazewnictwa i ewentualnego skracania tekstów.

• Przysyłane do druku artykuły (wraz z oświadczeniem – patrz: Warunki ogólne) powinny być kierowane do Redakcji pismem przewodnim podpisanym przez samodzielnego pracownika nauki, równocześnie odpowiadającego za merytoryczną stronę opracowania.

• Autor otrzymuje bezpłatnie plik PDF z zawartością numeru „Antropomotoryki”, w którym zamieszczono jego pracę. Czasopismo w formie książkowej można zamówić odpłatnie przy zwrocie korekty autorskiej pod adresem: [email protected].

• Pełne numery bieżące i archiwalne „An tro po mo to ry ki” moż na zamówić odpłatnie w Krakowskiej Księ gar ni Kultury Fizycznej, al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31571 Kra ków, tel/fax (012) 681 36 22.

• Streszczenia w języku polskim i angielskim są zamieszczone na stronie internetowej: www.awf.krakow.pl; link: wydawnictwa, czasopisma, antropomotoryka oraz www.journals.indexcopernicus.com.

ORIGINAL PAPERSPRACE ORYGINALNE

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STRETCHING AND STRENGTH EXERCISES IN RELATION TO RUNNING SPEED AND ANAEROBIC

POWER IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS

ĆWICZENIA ROZCIĄGAJĄCE I SIŁOWE W RELACJI Z SZYBKOŚCIĄ BIEGOWĄ I MOCĄ ANAEROBOWĄ

KOSZYKARZY

Kazimierz Mikołajec*, Adam Maszczyk**, Arkadiusz Stanula**, Ryszard Litkowycz*, Adam Zając***

*** PhD, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Team Sports, Chair of Basketball, Katowice, Poland

*** PhD, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Sports Theory, Chair of Methodology and Statistics, Katowice, Poland

*** Prof. Dr. Habil., Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Sports Theory, Katowice, Poland

Key words: basketball, stretching, strength exercises, anaerobic power, running speedSłowa kluczowe: koszykówka, rozciąganie, ćwiczenia siłowe, moc anaerobowa, szybkość

biegowa

Aim of the study. This study aimed to identify the effect of stretching and strength exercises on running speed and anaerobic power of young (13–15 years old) basketball players, and the relationships between variables representing their speed, anaerobic power and flexibility.

Material and methods. Thirty-six young basketball players were randomly allocated to 3 groups (GR, GS and GC) that carried out special 3-month training programs. Before the training macrocycle commenced and after it ended, the participants were tested for running speed, anaerobic power and flexibility.

Results. ANOVA and post hoc test showed that the “training factor” distinguished more clearly the strength exercise subgroup and the stretching exercise subgroup (p = 0.002 and p = 0.003, respectively). The discrimi-nant analysis showed that power, 5-meter running speed and 20-meter running speed were these variables that distinguished the strength exercise subgroup. In addition, the results of post hoc tests, pointed the level of flexibility as a factor which discriminated more clearly subgroups GR and GS, and then GS and GC (p = 0.005, p = 0.009 and p = 0.006, p = 0.012, respectively).

Conclusions. The experiment has demonstrated that under the absence of strong stretching stimuli even low-volume strength exercises lead to the dynamic development of anaerobic power, running speed and flex-ibility, whereas more intensive stretching exercises limit improvements in these motor abilities.

Cel pracy. Badanie miało na celu określenie wpływu ćwiczeń rozciągających i siłowych na sprawność szyb-kościową i moc beztlenową młodych (13–15 lat) koszykarzy oraz zależności między następującymi zmiennymi: szybkość, moc anaerobowa a elastyczność.

Materiał i metody. 36 młodych koszykarzy podzielono losowo na 3 grupy realizujące 3-miesięczny specyficzny program treningowy: GR (rozciąganie), GS (akcent rozwoju siły), GK (grupa kontrolna). Przed rozpoczęciem i po zakończeniu makrocyklu zostały przeprowadzone próby oceniające poziom szybkości biegowej (5 m, 20 m), mocy anaerobowej (wyskok dosiężny na platformie tensometrycznej) oraz gibkości.


SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE

Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając

– 18 –

Wyniki. ANOVA i testy post hoc wykazały, że czynnik treningowy różnicuje bardziej podgrupę realizującą ćwi-czenia siłowe i rozciąganie podgrupy wysiłkowej (odpowiednio p = 0,002 i p = 0,003). Analiza dyskryminacyjna dowiodła, że moc anaerobowa, szybkość biegowa 5 m i szybkość biegowa 20 m – to zmienne dyskryminujące podgrupę realizującą program ćwiczeń siłowych. Wyniki analiz post hoc wskazały dodatkowo, iż poziom gibkości to czynnik różnicujący podgrupy GR i GS, a następnie GS i GW (odpowiednio, p = 0,005, p = 0,009 i p = 0,006, p = 0,012).

Wnioski. Eksperyment wykazał, że ćwiczenia siłowe, wykonywane nawet z małą objętością, przy braku in-tensywnych bodźców rozciągających pozwalają na dynamiczny rozwój mocy anaerobowej i szybkości biegowej oraz gibkości, gdy tymczasem intensyfikacja ćwiczeń rozciągających ogranicza przyrost tych zdolności moto-rycznych.

Introduction

Modern concepts of physical training for competitive sports are based on the multifaceted discipline or eventspecific fitness preparation, that assumes exercise periodization and pays special attention to the calendar of sports events (competitions), correctly selected exercise volume and intensity, as well as to periodic change of training means and methods. The term “physical training” has been replaced today with “physical preparation systems or programs” for athletes. These programmes are characterized by appropriately balanced proportions of exercises developing athletes’ muscle strength, power, speed, coordination, agility, flexibility, local anaerobic endurance, as well as aerobic endurance. Because the proportions should closely correspond to the physical effort during an event, special training programmes have been developed for each discipline, which additionally address athlete’s age, sex, training experience and the training and competition circumstances.

In team sports fitness training is also frequently ad-justed to players’ positions on court and their respective tasks.

A major methodological and training problem in competitive sports is posed by the need to determine how stretching exercises performed in the warm-up phase, as part of the main phase of a training unit, or before the competition affect athletes’ speed and strength [1].

This knowledge is critical in the case of sprints and athletics jumps, combat sports and team games char-acterized by dynamic movements, such as volleyball, hockey or basketball.

It has been still a matter of controversy whether stretching exercises improve speed and muscle con-traction force, or whether they rather deteriorate them.

Following Kerner and D‘Amico’s opinions [2], most athletes do stretching exercises before a training unit or

an event. Evidence has been appearing, though, that not only do stretching exercises done before an event not protect the athlete from injuries, but they also have a negative effect on their performance.

As suggested by Witvrouw [3], stretching exercises may fulfil their protective role in sports involving dynam-ic take-offs and rapid changes in movement directions, such as soccer, volleyball and basketball. This opinion would be justified, if a stretched muscle was capable of absorbing larger amounts of energy.

Many studies have shown that stretching exercises have a positive effect on muscle contraction speed and force, thus improving parameters such as take-off speed and absolute speed [4, 5, 6], jumping ability [7, 8, 9], balance and the reaction time [10, 11], as well as power [12].

Other authors are of the opinion that intensive stretching reduces maximal strength, the height of a vertical jump, take-off speed and absolute speed. The data they present lead to a rational conclusion that this type of exercises should not be done before very dynamic physical activity [13, 14, 15, 16].

While the aspects of muscle strength and power development are relatively well-covered in the litera-ture and the opinions on the effectiveness of particu-lar training means and methods are quite consistent, the methodology which is employed to develop flex-ibility and the actual stretching effects on athlete’s performance stir many controversies. A common po-sition on how stretching exercises contribute to injury prevention, physical fitness and athletic performance in the power and speed sports and those requiring technique and coordination has not been adopted yet [17, 18, 19].

Intensive stretching damages contractile proteins in the skeletal muscles, as well as the muscles’ ability to regenerate after effort.

This study sought answers to the following ques-tions:

Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players

– 19 –

• Is the rate of changes in running speed and anaerobic power of young basketball players more affected by a stretching exercise programme or a strength exercise programme?

• Which of the two types of training has a greater effect on the development of the players’ flexibility?

• How are the level of flexibility of young basketball players and their running speed and anaerobic power parameters interrelated?

The above relationships were studied based on long-term adaptive changes that were induced in the young athletes by a special, 3-month training pro-gramme.

The research project was approved by the Bioethical Commission at Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice. Before the commencement of research, the participants were informed about its na-ture and objectives, and their parents consented to their participation. The participants could withdraw from the study at any stage.

Material and methods

Participants

The sample consisted of 36 male basketball players aged 15.7 ± 1.2 years and having training experience of 2.1 ± 0.9 years, who were selected based on a purposive sampling technique. They were divided into three subgroups of 12 participants. Each subgroup carried out a different fitness programme, but their technical and tactical programmes were similar:Group I (GR, n = 12) – stretching exercises done in

each training unit for 3 months.Group II (GS, n = 12) – strength exercises done in each

training unit for 3 months.Group III (control) (GC, n = 12) – a technical and tacti

cal programme carried out in each training unit for 3 months.

Procedures

The study involved a 3month training macrocycle during which all three subgroups carried out similar technical and tactical training programmes, but started and ended each training with their specific exercises aimed to develop selected motor abilities:

Group I (GR) did 10-minute stretching exercises during the warm-up and in the final phase of training.

Group II (GS) did 10-minute dynamic strength ex-ercises in the second part of the warm-up and isomet-ric exercises of the same duration in the final phase of training.

Group III (GC) was a control group doing technical and tactical exercises of identical duration, without any accents on muscle strength and flexibility.

The participants were tested for running speed (5 and 20 metres), anaerobic power (vertical jump on a tensometric platform) and flexibility (three fitness tri-als) before and after the macrocycle.

Anaerobic power was measured on a tensometric platform produced by AMTI (USA) AccuGait, at 100Hz sampling frequency. The following variables were re-corded: FO – take-off propulsion [N/s], VO – take-off velocity [m/s], WWP – vertical jump height [m], PO – work at take-off [J/kg], MS – mean power, and MM – maximum take-off power [W/kg], relative values of work and of the mean and maximum take-off power (i.e. in relation to the player’s bodyweight), the angle of the GRF vector at take-off.

Running speed was measured using the laser de-vice LDM 300C-Sport for the following variables: SS5 – take-off speed (5-meter) [s], SA20 – absolute speed (20-meter) [s], DKB – running step length [m], CKB – running step frequency [k/s].

Flexibility was estimated based on a sit and reach test (an SRT variable), a test for hip joint flexibility in the sagittal plane (a GKDS variable) and a test for hip joint flexibility in the frontal plane (a GKDC variable).

The sit and reach testDescription: The participant sits on the floor with feet

spread at shoulder width and blocked against a support (e.g. a side of a bench) and then bends forward (keeping his knees straight) to make fingertips marks on the scale attached to the support (the bench) as far as he can.

Measurement: The test is repeated four times, dur-ing the fourth trial the participant is asked to hold the position for at least 1 second. The measurement is read from the centimetre scale.

Equipment and aids: a bench, a 0–100 cm scale.

The test for hip joint flexibility in the sagittal planeDescription: During the sagittal flexibility test the

subject assumes a front stance and then tries to do the forward splits, the legs straight and the hands support-ing the body on both sides.

Measurement: The flexibility coefficient (G) is cal-culated by dividing the distance between the floor and


– 20 –

the crouch (a) by the distance between the heel of the forward leg and the toes of the rear leg (b).

G = a/b

Test for hip joint flexibility in the frontal planeDescription: During the frontal flexibility test the

subject bends forward with straight legs spread side-ways and the body supported on the hands placed in front, and then tries to do the side splits.

Measurement: The flexibility coefficient (G) is cal-culated by dividing the distance between the floor and the crotch (a) and the distance between the inner sides of the feet (b).

G = a/b

Equipment and aids: a measuring tape, a piece of chalk.

Note: in both cases hip joint mobility (in the frontal and sagittal planes) is represented by the lower abso-lute values of the coefficients.

Made before and after the 3-month experiment, the measurements were intended to determine the relation-ship between the flexibility of the lower extremities and the running speed and anaerobic power parameters in young basketball players.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the computer software package Statistica PL StatSoft v 8. The research results were presented as mean values (X) and standard deviations (± SD). A Repeated Measures ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) was employed to establish the significance of the different effects of, respectively, stretching and strength exercises on the parameters recorded before and after a particular type of training and between particular groups (GS, GC and GR). The statistically significant results were further subjected to post hoc tests. A discriminant analysis was applied to find out which variables statistically significantly differentiated the “training factor” (p < 0.05). The relationships between the level of flexibility and the running speed and anaerobic power parameters were determined from a regression analysis.

Results

The results obtained from the Repeated Measures ANOVA (the analysed factors were the type of training and the time of measurement, obtained before and after the 3month training cycle) justified rejecting the hypothesis of homogeneity of variance in the GS and GC subgroups (the independent variables were power,

Figure 1. The mean value of average power before and after


– 21 –

5meter and 20meter running speed, takeoff velocity, takeoff height and work at takeoff). In the post hoc tests, “final measurement” was a factor that differentiated the subgroups statistically significantly. The “training factor” distinguished more clearly the strength exercise subgroup and the stretching exercise subgroup (p = 0.002 and p = 0.003, respectively).

The discriminant analysis clearly showed that power (Wilks’ lambda 0.034 and p = 0.006), 5-meter running speed (Wilks’ lambda 0.038 and p = 0.004) and 20-me-ter running speed (Wilks’ lambda 0.041 and p = 0.006) were variables that distinguished the strength exercise subgroup.

The analysis of the mean raw data obtained from the measurements made before and after the experi-ment indicated that:• In the strength exercise subgroup

– average power increased (p < 0.01; see Fig. 1); – average takeoff speed for 5 meters grew sig

nificantly (see Fig. 2); – absolute running speed for 20 meters improved

as well (p < 0.01; see Fig. 3). • In the stretching exercise and control groups statis

tically significant differences between the pre and postmeasurement data did not occur.

The next stage of the study aimed to evaluate changes in the flexibility of lower extremities in particu-lar subgroups.

The results of the Repeated Measures ANOVA pro-vided grounds for rejecting the hypothesis of homoge-neity of variance in the subgroups. The post hoc tests pointed the level of flexibility as a factor that differenti-ated the subgroups statistically significantly. This fac-tor discriminated more clearly subgroups GR and GS, and then GS and GC by (p = 0.005, p = 0.009 and p = 0.006, p = 0.012, respectively).

In the discriminant analysis, though, variables “forward bend” (Wilks’ lambda 0.023 and p = 0.009) and “sagittal flexibility” (Wilks’ lambda 0.036 and p = 0.011) were clearly indicated as discriminating, again, the strength exercise group. The baseline vector R0 and then R1 representing an optimal combination of the variables (from the set of all speed and anaerobic power parameters analysed in the study) pointed to three independent variables (the vertical jump height, work at take-off and the running step length) as being statistically significantly related to the successively analysed dependent variables, i.e. forward bend, flex-ibility in the sagittal plane, and flexibility in the frontal plane.

Figure 2. The mean value of velocity at 5 meters before and after


– 22 –

The regression analysis showed that the DKB vari-able (running step length) was a statistically significant predictor both in the sagittal flexibility model:

GKDS = 36.03+0.05DKB ± 0.321 (4.233) (0.015)

and in the forward bend model:

SRT = 26.45+0.12DKB ± 0.121 (3.651) (0.231)

The other independent variables were not entered into the models. The third regression model did not re-veal any statistically significant predictors for “frontal flexibility”.

Discussion

The research problem analysed herein seems extremely important from the cognitive perspective, but even more so regarding its bearing on competitive sports. The study aimed to establish how stretching and resistance exercises, as well as the absence of

these training stimuli, affect changes in the motor abilities, flexibility and anaerobic power of young basketball players going through a period of dynamic biological development (aged 15–16 years).

In the subgroup, whose training programme con-tained some elements of resistance exercise, all vari-ables showing the levels of speed ability and the power of lower extremities significantly improved. This is consistent with the findings of other authors who have demonstrated a positive effect of dynamic strength exercises with low or moderate loads (weight vests, medicine balls) or free weights (barbells, dumb-bells), done at maximum speed, on vertical jumping ability. The exercises’ effectiveness is explained by increased rigidity of the Achilles tendon, stronger reflexive con-traction of muscle spindles after the eccentric phase of motion and weaker inhibitory reflex from the Golgi ten-don organs. These changes enable increased rate of force development (RFD) that seems to be a key factor in improving jumping ability through resistance training [17, 18, 19, 20].

In examining the measurement and analytical data on the young basketball players special attention should be paid to the vertical jump, whose height improved by

Figure 3. The mean value of velocity at 20 meters before and after


– 23 –

4 cm on average, the volume of take-off increased by 0.40 J/kg of bodyweight and maximal power improved by over 2 W/kg. Similar, statistically significant changes were noted in the players tested for take-off speed and absolute speed. The strength exercise subgroup per-formed better by 0.09 s in the 5-meter run, the improve-ment for the 20-meter run being 0.13 s on average.

Similar results were obtained in studies dealing with the effect of maximal and supramaximal intensity exercises on athletes’ jumping ability in sports where the ability is a prerequisite for performance (jumping events and hurdles, volleyball, basketball or ski jump-ing). Trzaskoma [21] have demonstrated that eccentric exercise with supramaximal resistance (120–150% 1RM), for instance barbell squats, has a particularly positive influence on the height of the vertical jump. Again, the phenomenon was explained by an excep-tionally effective engagement of fast-contracting motor units, increased rigidity of lower extremity tendons, and, to some extent, by a contraction reflex generated from muscle spindles, which is strongly activated during ec-centric muscle work [22, 23, 24].

In the subgroups doing the stretching exercises or not doing them at all, significant changes in players’ speed and power were not observed. It seems that the static stretching exercises that the young participants did regularly in the warm-up phase of each training unit had the least beneficial effect on the course of adaptive changes in these abilities. Other authors have reached similar conclusions. Namely, they have found that in-tensive stretching exercises, particularly static ones, reduce speed as well as the skeletal muscle contract-ibility by reducing the number of newly formed actin-myosin bridges [14, 25, 26, 27, 28].

In the subgroup, that received only technical and tactical training, the measurements revealed only slight changes in the players’ speed and power, but the re-sults were showing an upward trend. In the stretching exercise subgroup almost no improvements in speed and power abilities were observed during the 3-month study.

The results of the measurements and analyses are thereby consistent with the current opinions and results of world studies, according to which stretching exercis-es, particularly high-intensity static exercises, constrain

athlete’s power and speed potential, mainly by making the muscle-tendon complex less rigid, decreasing the excitability of motor units, and reducing muscle con-tractibility because of fewer actin-myosin bridges be-ing formed during a dynamic physical activity, such as jumping or take-offs in running [15, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].

The last part of the study aimed to estimate the flex-ibility of young basketball players and to find a relation-ship between this motor ability and running speed, and anaerobic power parameters. The measurements were made at the end of the 3-month experiment and the flexibility tests focused on the players’ hip joints. Most coefficients representing the baseline correlation matrix were low and statistically insignificant. The determined vector R1 showed the optimal combination of the vari-ables (vertical jump height, work at take-off, and run-ning step length) being statistically significantly related to the successively analysed dependent variables – for-ward bend, sagittal flexibility, and frontal flexibility. The other independent variables were too strongly related to each other. The regression analysis evidently indi-cated the running step length as a variable predicting both sagittal and frontal flexibility. Both flexibility tests not only allowed assessing players’ hip joint and lumbar flexibility, but also provided information on the flexibility of their posterior thigh muscles. In the literature [26], the key determinants of the running step length are take-off force and hip-joint mobility; the measurements made during this study indirectly confirm the observations. Another finding consistent with the literature that arises from the analyses is that very flexible muscles and high mobility of the joints evidently reduce the capacity for generating physical power. The finding corresponds to the results obtained by Guissard and Duchateau [14] and Makaruk [34].

It can be therefore concluded that excessive mobil-ity of lower extremity joints and very flexible muscles have an adverse effect on young basketball players’ power and speed. The 3-month study involving a train-ing process has clearly demonstrated that under the absence of strong stretching stimuli even low-volume resistance exercises enable athletes to dynamically increase their power and running speed, while more intensive stretching exercises seriously limit improve-ments in these motor abilities.


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[8] KochAJ,O’BryanHS,StoneME,SanbornK,ProulxC,HrubyJ,ShannonhouseE,BorosR,StoneMH:Effect of warm-up on the standing broad jump in trained and untrained men and women.JournalofStrength&Condi-tioningResearch,2003;17:710–714.

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[10] BehmDG,BamburyA,CahillF,PowerK:Effect of acute static stretching on force, balance, reaction time, and movement time.MedicineScienceSportsExercise,2004;36:1397–1402.

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[12] YamaguchiT, IshiiK: Effects of static stretching for 30 seconds and dynamic stretching on leg extension power.JournalofStrength&ConditioningResearch,2005;9:677–683.

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[14] GuissardN,Duchateau J:Natural aspects of muscle stretching.ExerciseandSportSciencesReviews,2006;34(4):154–158.

[15] MagnussonSP,SimonsenEB,AagardP,SorensenH,KjaerM:A mechanism for altered flexibility in human skeletal muscle.JournalPhysiol,1996;497:291–298.

[16] StoneM,O’BryantHS,AyersC,SandsWA:Stretching

acute and chronic? The potential consequences.StrengthCondJ,2006;28:66–74.

[17] AmakoM,OdaT,MasuokaK,YokoiH,CampisiP:Effect of static stretching on prevention of injuries for military recruits.MilMed,2003;168(6):442–446.

[18] ShellockFG,PrenticeWE:Warming-up and stretching for improved physical performance and prevention of sports-related injuries.SportsMedicine,1985;2:267–278.

[19] Smith LL,BrunetzMH,ChenierTC,McCammonMR,HoumardJA,FranklinME,IsraelRG:The effects of static and ballistic stretching on delayed onset muscle soreness and creatine kinase.ResearchQuarterlyforExercise&Sport,1993;64(1):103–107.

[20] BoberT:Muscles in stretch-contraction cycle, and the effectiveness of sports techniques.ProfessionalSports,1995;1–2:41–50.

[21] TrzaskomaZ,TrzaskomaŁ:Increasing muscle strength of high-class athletes.ProfessionalSports, 1999; 1–2:10–35.

[22] FaulknerJA,ClaflinDR,McCullyKK:Power output of fast and slow fibers from human skeletal muscles;in:JonesNL,McCartneyN,McComasAJ (eds):Human Muscle Power.Champaign,HumanKinetics,1986:81–91.

[23] EliaszJ,GajewskiJ,JaniakJ,TrzaskomaZ,WitA:Signs of muscle strength, the terms and conditions of the measurements and the importance of training for practice. ProfessionalSports,1994;5–6:23–36.

[24] WilsonG,NewtonR,MurphyA,HumpheriesB:The optimal load for the development of dynamic athletic performance.Medicine&ScienceinSports&Exercises,1993;25(11):1279–1286

[25] NelsonAG,KokkonenJ:Acute ballistic muscle stretching inhibits maximal strength performance.ResQExercSport,2001;72:415–419.

[26] ShrierI:Does stretching improve performance? A systematic and critical review of the literature.ClinicalJournalofSportMedicine,2004;14:267–273.

[27] NelsonAG,DriscollNM,LandinDK,YoungMA,Schex-nayderIC:Acute effects of passive muscle stretching on sprint performance. Journal ofSportsSciences, 2005;23(5):449–454.

[28] MarekSM,CramerJT,FincherAL:Acute effects of static and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching on muscle strength and power output.JournalofAthleticTraining,2005;40(2):94–103.

[29] Cramer JT,HoushTJ,Weir JP:Power output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal, concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women.JournalofStrength&ConditioningResearch,2002;16:399–408.

[30] YoungWB,ElliottS:Acute effects of static stretching, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching, and maximum voluntary contractions on explosive force production and jumping performance.ResearchQuarterlyforExercise&Sport,2001;72:273–279.

[31] ChurchJB,WigginsMS,MoodeFM,CristR:Effect of

LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO


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warm-up and flexibility treatments on vertical jump performance.JournalofStrength&ConditioningResearch,2001;15:332–336.

[32] PowerK,BehmD,CahillF,CarrollM,YoungW:An acute bout of static stretching: effects on force and jumping performance.Medicine&ScienceinSports&Exercise,2004;36:1389–1396.

[33] YoungWB,BehmDG:Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. Journal ofSportsMedicine andPhysicalFitness,2003;43:21–27.

[34] MakarukH,SacewiczT:Effects of Plyometric Training on Maximal Power Output and Jumping Ability.HumanMovement,2010;1:17–22.

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THE IMPACT OF RAPID WEIGHT LOSS ON THE COMPETITIVE PREPARATION OF JUDOISTS

WPŁYW REDUKCJI MASY CIAŁA NA DYSPOZYCJĘ STARTOWĄ ZAWODNIKÓW JUDO

Dariusz Boguszewski*, Katarzyna Boguszewska**, Jakub Adamczyk***

* PhD, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland ** MSc, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland*** PhD, Medical University of Warsaw, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland

Key words: judo, rapid weight loss, competition, competitive preparationSłowa kluczowe: judo, szybka redukcja masy ciała, zawody, przygotowanie startowe

Aim of the study. Judo is a sport based on weight category divisions. The purpose of the research was to establish the relationship between pre-competition weight loss and competitive preparations, as well as the influence of pre-competition weight loss on the competitive results of judo competitors.

Material and methods. The research covered 28 judo competitors (13 juniors and 15 seniors). The research method was the author’s questionnaire, selected tests of motor fitness by Denisiuk, and the Spielberger STAI self-evaluation questionnaire.

Results. More than half (53.6%) of competitors in the research group reduced their weight regularly in pre-competition periods. The average reduction was 4.2% among juniors, and 5.4% among seniors. The most commonly applied body weight reduction methods included reducing the amount of food and liquids, increased physical activity, and treatments in the sauna. During the periods of body weight reduction, contestants felt deterioration of mood, decreased strength and endurance, and headaches. Functional trials performed during rapid weight loss pointed to regression of the results connected with the process of weight loss reduction. In the control (non-reducing) group, the differences were not significant. The anxiety level one day before the competition was higher in the reducing group. In the research (reducing) group, 46.7% of the participants fulfilled result assumptions; in the non-reducing group, the proportion was 58.3%.

Conclusions. In cases involving judoists, weight reduction in a short period of time has negative effects on their competitive (physical and psychological) preparation. The eventual reduction of body weight should be attempted under the control of professionals (coaches, physicians, physiotherapists).

Wprowadzenie. Judo jest dyscypliną sportu, w której rywalizacja toczy się z podziałem na kategorie wagowe. Celem badań było ustalenie zależności między redukcją masy ciała a dyspozycją startową i wynikami sportowymi judoków.

Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 28 zawodników (13 juniorów i 15 seniorów), przyjmując jako metodę badawczą wybrane próby sprawności motorycznej Denisiuka, kwestionariusze Spielbergera oraz ankietę autor-ską.

Wyniki. Ponad połowa (tj. 53,6%) objętych badaniem zawodników regularnie obniżała masę ciała w okresie przedstartowym. Redukcja ta wynosiła średnio 4,2% u juniorów, u seniorów zaś 5,4% masy ciała. Najczęściej stosowanymi metodami były: ograniczenie ilości przyjmowanych pokarmów i płynów, zwiększony wysiłek fizyczny, zabiegi w saunie. W trakcie redukcji masy ciała u zawodników występowało pogorszenie samopoczucia, obniże-nie poziomu siły i wytrzymałości oraz bóle głowy. Próby sprawności wykonywane przed i po redukcji masy ciała wskazały na znaczny regres wyników. W grupie, która nie redukowała masy ciała różnice nie były istotne. Poziom



Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk

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lęku jako stanu na dzień przed startem był wyższy w grupie, w której redukowano masę ciała. W grupie, której uczestnicy nie redukowali masy ciała, założenia startowe zostały zrealizowane w 58,3%, podczas gdy w grupie redukującej masę ciała – w 46,7%.

Wnioski. Redukcja masy ciała przed startem (w krótkim czasie) może negatywnie oddziaływać na fizyczną i psychiczną dyspozycję zawodników. Ewentualne obniżanie masy ciała powinno podlegać kontroli specjalistów: trenerów, lekarzy, fizjoterapeutów.

Introduction

Combat sports are disciplines where competition means direct confrontation between the competing parties. Judo is a martial art derived from the Japanese schools of jujitsu. According to the principles of its creator, Jigoro Kano, it is not only a sport but also a system of physical education, real combat, and intellectual education [1]. Taking into account the utilitarian aspect (nonsport confrontation), judo is a relatively mild means of defense [2].

Initially, judo competition was carried out without division into weight categories. Weight divisions were introduced for the first time (as a test) during the Brussels European Championship in 1954. Since 1959 the European Championships have regularly been conducted in a few weight categories. In 1964, during the Olympic Games in Tokyo, the Olympic judo tournament was carried out for the first time. The competition, however, ran then along the lines of an open category. In the world competitions, the fights in various weight limits started during the World Championship in 1965 in Rio de Janeiro and the Olympic Games in Munich in 1972 [3, 4].

Current weight limits, in which the competitors participate, are a precondition for being admitted to compete. Therefore, judoists are obliged to adjust their body weight to a particular weight category in a given period of time. The weighin is conducted on the morning before the competition. Competitors, perceiving better chances in the competition in a lower category, use various methods to reduce their body weight: limiting food and liquid consumption, increased physical activity, intensive efforts to sweat, and medication [5–10]. This is not a practice that is exclusively characteristic of judo competitors. In other sports where sportsmen are also divided into weight categories, such as in wrestling, kickboxing, karate or taekwondo, competitors behave in similar ways [11–14]. Hence, the question arises: to what extent does such reduction influence the competitive results? Do not the negative side effects nullify the advantages resulting from competing in a lower category?

The main cognitive aim of the research was the establishment of the relationship between precompetitive reduction of the body weight of judo competitors and the competition disposition (physical and psychological), as well as its effect upon the competitive results. The application aim was to draw attention to the problem of the competitors’ body weight reduction and to indicate directions of effective management of the process of preparation for the competition.


The research covered 28 judo competitors (13 junior and 15 senior). The average age of the participants was 19.34 years, training experience 9.96 years, height 178.04 cm, and body weight 80.29 kg. Of the competitors, 8 had master class (MM or M), 13 – first sports class (I), and 7 – secondary class (II). The detailed characteristic of the examined group is illustrated in Table 1.

To assess the physical condition of the competitors, select trials of Denisiuk’s motoric fitness test were used. Among them were a trial that assessed the dynamic strength of a shoulder girdle, back and stomach (doublehanded throw of 3 kg medicine ball in a simple forward kneeling position) and a trial that assessed the explosive force of lower limbs (a long jump without a runup) [15].

Psychological condition was assessed on the basis of Spielberger’s StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) [16].

Additionally, the participants completed the original questionnaire that elicited information concerning training experience, judo rank, ways of reducing body weight (if competitor regularly reduced body weight), and subjective estimate of side effects of those activities.

On the basis of the training diaries (and consultations with coaches), the expected optimal result for each tournament was defined for each contender.

The first measurement (physical fitness test, Spielberger’s questionnaire, and the original questionnaire) was conducted 14 days before the scheduled

The impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists

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participation in the targeted tournament. The examination (physical fitness test and Spielberger’s questionnaire) was repeated a day before the start.

To develop empirical data, the following statistical tools were used: arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and Student ttest. The minimum level of relevance was established at the p < 0.05 level.

Results

Over half of the judoists (54%) in the researched group were reducing body weight. There were 5 of them among juniors and 10 among seniors. The average re

duction among the juniors was 2.8 kg and 4.8 kg among the seniors, which constituted 4.2 and 5.4% of body weight, respectively. A third of the judoists (from both groups) admitted that they reduced body weight before each start. None used the help of a dietician, physician, or physiotherapist.

Usually, reducing the body weight started 10 (juniors) and 8.8 (seniors) days before the official weighin. The first attempt to reduce body weight was undertaken by competitors at 15.6 years of age (juniors, 13.7; seniors: 17.3).

The ways of reducing body weight (RBW) mentioned by participants (see Fig. 1) were: limiting the

Table 1. Characteristics of research groups

Researchgroups Age [years] Training experien-

ce [years] Height [cm] Weight category [kg] Body mass [kg]

JUN

IORS

J1 15 3 167 55 58

J2 16 9 170 60 60

J3 16 8 168 60 61

J4 16 8 167 60 62

J5 15 6 173 60 64

J6 16 4 175 66 66

J7 16 8 180 73 72

J8 16 10 176 73 72

J9 16 10 181 82 81

J10 17 4 180 81 81

J11 16 7 182 90 89

J12 15 6 177 90 90

J13 16 7 188 90 93

SEN

IORS

S1 30 18 171 66 68

S2 28 18 170 66 69

S3 21 16 168 66 70

S4 21 11 176 73 73

S4 23 15 174 73 79

S5 18 11 183 81 81

S6 27 9 181 81 83

S7 20 14 182 90 90

S8 20 9 188 90 90

S9 21 13 182 90 92

S10 19 7 176 90 93

S11 19 12 181 90 96

S12 24 14 181 90 99

S13 21 10 193 100 100

S14 23 14 195 100 109


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amount and frequency of food, limiting the consumption of liquids, intensified physical effort, sauna, exercising in special sweatresistant suits, and pharmacological methods. All participants indicated limiting eating as the main way of RBW. Over half of the participants also declared reduced consumption of liquids (3 juniors and 7 seniors), as well as increased physical efforts (4 juniors, 5 seniors). Exercising in special, sweatresistant suits was practiced by nearly half the participants (3 juniors and 4 seniors). About onethird of the participants used sauna (1 junior, 4 seniors), and pharmacological products were used by 2 seniors. The longest applied method (average 8.75 days) was increased physical effort (juniors, 7.8 days; seniors, 9.5 days), reducing consumption of meals (juniors, 6.2 days; seniors, 6.9 days), and sauna (juniors, 6 days; seniors, 6.5 days).

Most of the contenders felt negative effects due to body weight reduction. Among the most often mentioned negative effects of RBW were: lowered endurance levels (it referred to all juniors and 6 seniors) and worse physical and mental state (half of the juniors and 8 seniors). Most of the juniors and half of the seniors complained also of decreased levels of strength.

Fewer than half of the participants (2 juniors and 5 seniors) tried to find a way to minimize the negative effects of precompetitive body weight reduction. Diet supplements were used in this case.

The results of the test of the force of lower limbs in the group of those who did not reduce body weight showed slight oscillations in successive trials. The majority (7 juniors and 2 seniors) achieved worse results in

the second attempt than in the first one. The contenders reducing their body weight achieved worse results 1 day before the competition than 2 weeks earlier. The difference was p = 0.043 among juniors, and p = 0.057 among seniors (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Rapid weight loss methods

Figure 2. Average results of the long jump of juniors and se-niors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (* significance at p < 0.05)

Results of the dynamic force test of the lower limbs and torso were less diversified, although here also the majority (10 juniors and 5 seniors) achieved worse results during the second measurement. The greatest differences (p = 0.025) were noted in the group of the seniors reducing body weight (Fig. 3).

Assessing the psychological condition measured with Spielberger’s questionnaire indicated slight differences of the StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) values

increasedphysicalactivity

reductionofconsumption

offood

sauna exercisesinspecial clothes

reductionofconsumption

ofliquids

pharmacologicalmethods

others


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(anxiety as a state of mind) in first and second measurements among the contenders nonreducing body weight. Among those who did reduce body weight, an increase of STAI values was noted (the difference amounted to p = 0.38 among juniors and p = 0.002 among seniors Fig. 4). It is interesting to note that the STAI results of anxiety as a feature among seniors reducing body weight were also significantly higher (p = 0.044).

niors who reduced their body weights won 9 competitions (an average of 1.8 per person), and those who did not reduce their body weights won 20 competitions (average of 2.5). The opposite relationship was noted in the group of the seniors where judoists reducing their body weights won 23 competitions (average of 2.3) and those nonreducing only 8 (average of 1.6) (Fig. 5).

Figure 3. Average results of medicine ball throw of juniors and seniors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (* significance at p < 0.05)

Figure 4. Average points STAI – state anxiety of juniors and seniors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (** significance at p < 0.01)

Over half of the juniors (n = 8) and only 40% of the seniors achieved the foreseen result assumptions. In the group of those reducing body weight, 2 juniors and 5 seniors fulfilled the expectations of the training staff, while in the group of those who did not reduce their body weight, there were 6 juniors and only 1 senior. The participants of the program fought a total of 94 fights in the targeted contests (46 juniors, 48 seniors), in which they won 60 (juniors, 20; seniors, 31). The ju

Figure 5. Average number of winning fights of judoists reducing and non-reducing body weight

The contenders reducing their body weights achieved worse results in fitness tests conducted 1 day before the contest. The greatest differences, p = 0.015 and p = 0.011, respectively, were noted in the power tests of the lower limbs and explosive strength of the upper limbs and torso in the group of those reducing body weight, which fulfilled the training assumptions (Fig. 6 and 7).

Figure 6. Average results of the long jump of judoists, reducing and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who have carried out the coaching plan; ”–“ competitors who have not carried out the coaching plan), (** significance at p < 0.01)

The assessment of psychological conditions indicated greater increase of the STAI point value among contenders reducing body weight (p = 0.01). Analyzing


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Discussion

Although the negative impact of body weight reduction upon the contender’s organism has been proved [7, 8], the reduction of body weight is common in those sports in which competition is divided into weight categories (boxing, kickboxing, wrestling, judo, weight lifting) as well as in those sports where there are no formal weight limits but contender’s body weight is a factor having influence upon competitive results (ski jumping, climb

ing, some track and field competitions). The weight loss problem concerns the majority of the competitive sportsmen in these sports.

In the research group, over half of the contenders reduced body weight before contests. Some of them had been doing that for many years and before every contest. The sportsmen lost average of 4.1 kg, which equals 5.4% of body weight. In comparison, according to research by Kinigham and Gorenflo, 77% of young American wrestlers reduced their body weight by over 2.27 kg [13]; British wrestlers and boxers, by an average of 5–10% [17]. The speed of these reductions varies. For instance, according to Japanese research, among judo contenders it amounts to 2.8 kg a day [18], and among Australian body builders, 1.4 kg a day [19].

Body weight reduction concerns younger and younger contenders. The average age of beginning to practice BWR in the researched group of judoists was 15.5 years. According to Smith et al., British boxers aged 14–16 years reduce their body weight an average of 2.8% [20].

The leading method of reducing body weight is limiting the amount of food [21] or limiting or eliminating some energetic substrates from the diet [22]. Additional methods are limiting the amount of liquids, intensifying physical effort or exercise in warmer, airtight suits. It referred to judoists, kick boxers [11], karatekas, and weightlifters [21].

The majority of contenders feel the negative effects of BWR. The principal reason here is the decrease of glycogen supply, blood buffer capacity, volume of plasma, density of plasma proteins and triacylglycerols, B6 vitamin and magnesium, and the increase of free fat acids and cholesterol in plasma [7, 12, 22, 23]. During the gradual body weight reduction, anaerobic capacity does not diminish; however, the slowed resynthesis of glycogen and the loss of proteins from muscles may influence competitive results. [24]. Ziemlanski proved that rapid loss of 5% of body weight lowers physical capacity even by 30%, no matter which BWR method was used [25]. Physical effort combined with diet restrictions increase plasma activity of keratin kinesis, which indicates damage to muscles, which increases risk of injury [7].

The negative impact of BWR on a contender’s psychological condition was also proved [21]. The psychological factor seems to be of no lesser importance, and in combat sports may be even crucial, as the results of the conducted research seem to suggest.

Figure 7. Average results of medicine ball throw of judoists, reducing and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who have carried out the coaching plan; “–“ competitors who have not carried out the coaching plan), (* significance at p < 0.05; ** significance at p < 0.01)

the results from the point of view of the fulfillment of the initial targets, it turned out that the sportsmen who did not fulfill them achieved significantly higher STAI results than the remaining ones. The differences were: p = 0.05 in the reducing group and p = 0.0076 in the group not reducing the body weight, respectively (Fig. 8).

Figure 8. Average points STAI – state anxiety of judoists reducing and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who have carried out the coaching plan; ”–“ competitors who have not carried out the coaching plan), (* significance at p < 0.05)


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Although the majority of the contenders complained about the negative side effects of body weight reduction, few of them tried to eliminate the acquired ailments. They most often tried to use diet supplements. This refers both to the researched judoists, as well as kick boxers [11]. Few contenders tried to reduce body weight permanently. It might be one of the factors limiting the rapid reduction of body weight before the contest. It is worth trying, even using innovative methods. Oolong in the group of wrestlers has successfully reduced the body weight by even 1,5 kg in two weeks, while maintaining the permanent diet and the unchanged training regime [26].

Conclusions

1. The majority of the researched judo contenders regularly reduce their body weight before contests, and some of them do it before every contest. Most of them feel the negative effects of BWR. Therefore, one should work on the broadening the knowledge of the contenders, coaches (and parents of the ado

lescent contenders) in order to diminish the number of side effects of the eventual body weight reduction.

2. Among the juniors reducing their body weight, only 40% fulfilled the competition target (75% of the contenders not reducing body weight fulfilled the training assumptions). Competing in a lower category does not always increase the chances of a contender for a success, especially if the reduction of body weight is undertaken by young and inexperienced sportsmen. The process of training and eventual BWR should be carefully planned by the training staff.

3. The research proved the significant dependence between body weight reduction and the physical and psychological disposition of the contenders. At the same time, it turned out that the psychological state of the contender has a significant influence on the competitive results. It should mobilize the coaches to deepen their knowledge of psychology and encourage them to use the help of psychologists, particularly before the most important contests of the season.


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[20] SmithMS,DysonR,HaleT,HarrisonJH,McManusP:The effects in humans of rapid loss of body mass on a boxing related task. European Journal ofAppliedPhysiology,2000;83(1):34–39.

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BODY RESPONSE OF HURDLE RUNNERS TO TRAINING LOAD IN MICROCYCLE1

REAKCJE NA OBCIĄŻENIA TRENINGOWE U PŁOTKARZY W MIKROCYKLU OKRESU PRZYGOTOWAWCZEGO

Ivan Čillík*, Darina Kozolková**

** Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Humanities, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia

** PhD, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Humanities, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia

Key words: sprint hurdles, training load, microcycle, body response, explosive power Słowa kłuczowe: bieg przez płotki, obciążenia treningowe, mikrocykl, reakcja organizmu,

skoczność

Introduction. The relationship between response-effect cannot be understood mechanically. Tracking the current response to training load in disciplines of speed and strength character is relatively complicated.

Aim of the study. The main aim of this thesis was to follow the immediate, delayed, and short-term cumula-tive training effect. Two hurdle runners were followed during a specific preparatory period. The training effect is rated according to changes in the level of explosive power of the lower extremities during training units in one training microcycle.

Material and methods. These athletes underwent testing consisting of repeated jumps for 10 seconds on the jump ergometer (FITRO JUMPER) at the beginning of the main part of the training session, after their warm-up, and after general and specific workouts. We repeated this test after the end of the main part of the training unit.

Results. We found differences in the intraindividual and interindividual reactions of runners in individual training: contact time, power in the active phase of the take-off, height of jump, and force of reflection. A re-duction of effectiveness at the end of training sessions focused on speed was recorded in the performance of both athletes. Different immediate and delayed effects were recorded in the performance of both athletes in training sessions focused on strength. Regenerative training focused on endurance brought a slight immediate and also a delayed impact on the increase of effectiveness. Taking both athletes into consideration we recorded a similar body response during the first 2 days of the microcycle in the immediate and delayed effect. In the second part of the microcycle, differences were recorded in intraindividual response to training load.

Conclusion. Both analyzed athletes achieved an increase in jumping explosiveness in the first part of mi-crocycle and a decrease in the second part of the microcycle.

Wstęp. Zależność między obciążeniem treningowym a reakcją organizmu jest czynnikiem złożonym, który wymyka się mechanicznym, z góry założonym schematom. Skomplikowaną czynnością okazuje się zwłaszcza monitorowanie odpowiedzi organizmu zawodnika na obciążenie treningowe w konkurencjach szybkościowo-siłowych.

Cel pracy. Monitorowanie efektów treningowych płotkarzy ukierunkowane na wskazanie bezpośrednich, opóźnionych, a także krótkoterminowych, kumulatywnych efektów treningu. Badaniem objęto nim dwóch plot-

1 The study was supported by grant VEGA 1/0322/10.



Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková

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karzy w kategorii wiekowej seniora, w trakcie mikrocyklu okresu przygotowawczego. Efekt treningowy oceniono na podstawie zmian poziomu skoczności podczas różnego rodzaju treningów oraz w ramach różnych ogniw jednostki treningowej.

Materiał i metody. W zadanym czasie dziesięciu sekund badani wielokrotnie wykonywali skoki pionowe na ergometrze skocznościowym (FITRO JUMPER). Badanie prowadzono podczas różnego rodzaju jednostek treningowych, po dwóch rodzajach rozgrzewki – ogólnym i specjalnym – oraz na początku i pod koniec głównej części jednostki treningowej.

Wyniki. Wykazano różnice w intraindiwidualnej i interindywidualnej odpowiedzi organizmu badanych zawodni-ków podczas różnych jednostek treningowych w następujących monitorowanych zmiennych: czas trwania odbicia, wydajność w aktywnej fazie odbicia, wysokość odbicia i efekt odbicia. U obu płotkarzy stwierdzono zmniejszenie wydajności odbicia pod koniec treningu. W treningach siły zaobserwowano różne – natychmiastowe i opóźnione – reakcje u obu zawodników. Pod wpływem treningu regeneracyjnego o charakterze wytrzymałościowym nieznacznie zwiększyła się efektywność natychmiastowej, jak również opóźnionej reakcji organizmu. W pierwszych dniach mikrocyklu odnotowano bardzo podobnie reakcje u obu badanych płotkarzy, natomiast obciążenia treningowe stosowane w drugiej części mikrocyklu spowodowały wystąpienie różnych reakcji ich organizmów.

Wnioski. Przeprowadzone badania wykazały wzrost skoczności zawodników w pierwszej części mikrocyklu oraz jej obniżenie w drugiej części.

Introduction

Hurdle races are considered to be a specific group of athletic disciplines of the technicalsprinter character. Performance depends on many factors, especially the maximum running speed and hurdle technique. Recently, more authors have been dealing with training for short hurdle races [1, 2, 3, 4] and others emphasizing the complex approach in longterm sport training.

Sport training is based on repetitive training stimulations. It is one of the conditions of achieving expected changes in the level of adapting processes. However, the relationship between responseeffect cannot be understood mechanically. According to different authors [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] the following division of training effects is recognized: immediate training effect, delayed training effect, and cumulative training effect. The cumulative training effect is divided into short (effect of training microcycle), middle (effect of training mesocycle), and long (effect of one or more training macrocycles). The short cumulative training effect is the result of the connection of immediate and delayed training effects. The middle cumulative training effect is the result of the connection of short cumulative effects. The long cumulative training effect is the result of the connection of middle cumulative effects; it is expected to be reached in time for the most important competitions. Long cumulative training effect shows up through the relatively permanent change of the conditions of athletes. Achieving the cumulative effect depends on many factors such as training load (volume and intensity, frequency of stimulations, type of stimulation, variability and others), possibilities of regeneration and also other out of training factors that influence the course of recovering processes. Tracking the current response

to training load in disciplines of speed and strengthen character is relatively complicated. We have already tried to follow the influence of training on immediate training effect during one training in short distance races [10]. In our research we deal with following the body´s response of hurdle runners to training load from different views: immediate training effect, delayed training effect, and short cumulative training effect. Two hurdle runners are followed in developing training microcycle. The aim of the training focused on short distance race in the preparatory period is the development of special conditional abilities and the improvement of technique. During the period of intensified training in which both athletes were analyzed, we focused mainly on the intensive development of the specific speedtechnique and speedendurance abilities [3, 11, 12]. We deal with microcycles because it is considered decisive, according to a number of authors [7, 9] and others, in the practical organization of training and, most importantly, in terms of manipulating training load. Training is generally characterized by high intensity; moreover, a multiphase workout is used. Large supercompensation waves are permitted; it means a frequency of training sessions such that incomplete recovery occurs. Searching for more exact and, individually, the most convenient indicators of supercompensation are difficult. Therefore, experience relies on estimates based on available information. This was written with the support of VEGA 1/0322/10.

Aim of the study

The main purpose of this thesis was to follow the immediate, delayed, and short term cumulative training effect. Two runners who compete in the hurdle race were

Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle

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followed during a specific preparatory period. The training effect is rated according to changes in the level of explosive power of the lower extremities during training units in one training microcycle in analyzed indicators: contact time, performance in the active phase of the takeoff, height of the jump, and efficiency of the takeoff. The immediate training effect is rated according to changes in the level of explosive power at the beginning and at the end of a training unit. The delayed training effect is rated according to changes at the beginning of the next training unit and the short cumulative training effect according to changes at the end of training microcycle.

Scientific questions:

1. What are the interindividual differences in response to training load of athletes of different levels of performance?

2. What is the immediate, delayed, and cumulative training effect of different types of training load?

3. What are the differences in response to training load in 4 indicators of explosive power that were followed?


Characteristics of tested athletes:

R.O., born April 4, 1994, body height 180 cm, body weight 70 kg. Sport specialization: 110m hurdles, personal record: 14.61 s; 400 m hurdles, 54.95 s. The Slovak Champion in his category.

M.B., born 24 February 1993, body height 181cm, body weight 77 kg. Sport specialization: 110m hurdles, personal record: 16.01 sec.

These athletes underwent testing consisting of repeated jumps for 10 seconds on the jump ergometer (FITRO JUMPER) at the beginning of the main part of the training session, after their warmup, and after general and specific workouts. We repeated this test after the end of the main part of the training unit. The measurements were performed during the training sessions of the 2010/2011 season in the microcycle for the specific preparation phase from April 2–6, 2011.

Both an easier microcycle and the way of focus preceded the microcycle that was monitored. After completing the monitored microcycle, there was one day of active rest.

A test of repeated jumps for 10 s is applied for the assessment of the explosive power of the lower extremities [13]. From all 8 indicators which have been detected by the jump ergometer we have included the following parameters in the submitted contribution: contact time – tc (s), power in the active phase of the takeoff – P (W · kg–1), height of the jump – h (cm), efficiency of the takeoff – h · tc–1 (cm.s1). Repeated jumps are the example of exercises with counter motion, in which the cycle of an active stretch and shortening socalled “stretchshortening cycle” is observed [14, 15]. In our results, we state even percentage changes of values; for the basis (100%) we set the first measurement taken at the beginning of microcycle.

Characteristics of analyzed trainings:

April 2 I. phase1 km trot, warmup 15 min., specific running exercises, 8 × 100 m, cool down with running at an easy pace, stretching 10 min.II. phase300 m of cantering, warmup 10 min., 6 × 200 m uphill running, cool down with running at an easy pace

April 3, 2011I. phase90 min. hikingII. phaseBody weight exercises – triceps workouts, bicep workouts, ab workouts, back workouts.

April 4, 2011I. phase1 km of cantering, warmup 10 min., specific running exercises, hurdle run: 2 × 9 (0.76 height), 3 × 9 (0.84 height)II. phase0.5k m of cantering, warmup 10 min., weightlifting: squats 5 × 10 (60 kg), lunges 1 × 10 (40 kg), 2 × 10 (50 kg), triceps workouts, bicep workouts, ab workouts, back workouts, stretching 5 min.

April 5, 2011 I. phase1 km of cantering, warmup (10 min.), specific running exercises running with weights 3 × 40 m (15 kg)frequency rate 2 × 40 m, 2 × 50 m, 2 × 60 m, 1 × 80 m, 1 × 120 m, stretching 5 min.


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II. phase1 km trot, body weight exercises – triceps workouts, bicep workouts, ab workouts, back workouts

April 6, 20111 km trot, stretching 15 min.

Results are evaluated by using basic, logical methods according to intraindividual and interindividual changes in analyzed parameters of explosive power of lower extremities at the beginning and at the end of the main part of a training unit.

Results

Figure 1. Contact time of athlete R.O.

Figure 2. Power in the active phase of the take-off of athlete R.O.


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Figure 3. Height of the jump of athlete R.O.

Figure 4. Efficiency of the take-off of athlete R.O.

Figure 5. Contact time of athlete M.B.


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Figure 6. Power in the active phase of the take-off of athlete M.B.

Figure 7. Height of the jump of athlete M.B.

Figure 8. Efficiency of the take-off of athlete M.B.


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Discussion

During all training sessions of competitor R.O., an extension of the contact time occurred in the I.phase and a reduction of the contact time in II.phase regardless of the training orientation (Figure 1). Therefore, the immediate effect is different during training sessions in the morning and in the afternoon. The delayed effect of the following training session in the same day is shown by an extension of the contact time. The 3–4 hour interval between training sessions turned out to be too short. Thus, the runner started his afternoon training tired and insufficiently recovered. The delayed effect of the following day showed reduction of the contact time. So a short rest between the training sessions on the same day was not enough for the reduction of the contact time, while a longer rest until the following day was sufficient enough for its reduction. The contact time of competitor R.O. was essentially the same at the beginning and at the end of microcycles. The difference between the shortest and the longest contact time was 14%.

Changes in the power during the active phase of the takeoff showed the fluctuation: increasing, decreasing, or maintaining the same level either in individual training sessions or in the following training sessions and days (Figure 2). On the first 2 days of the microcycle the performance during 1 day increased, but during the next 2 days the power in the active phase of the takeoff was the highest at the beginning of the I.phase and slowly declined. Therefore, fatigue showed through a decrease of the performance. Taking part in 2 training sessions focused on speed followed by 24 hours one after another, and moreover, training focused on strength between those 2 trainings, turned out to be very difficult. However, literature sources allow 24 hours between intensive training sessions focused on speed [16]. The power in the active phase of the takeoff was suddenly lower by about 10% at the end of a microcycle than it was at the beginning. The difference between the highest and the lowest level of performance was 20%.

The height of the jump has essentially the same course as the performance in the active phase: the first 2 days it increased and next 2 days it dropped down (Figure 3). The height of the jump decreased by about 12% at the end of the microcycle in comparison with the beginning. The difference between the lowest and the highest jump was 26%.

The efficiency of the takeoff increased during the first day, stagnated the second day, decreased on the

third and the fourth days, and under the influence of fatigue it reached the lowest level on the final day (Figure 4). The efficiency of the takeoff essentially took the same course as the power in the active phase and the height of the jump as well. The microcycle of competitor R.O. is rated as following: graduation of performance during the first day, maintaining the performance at the same level on the second day, decreasing during the third and the fourth days. However, the performance during the fourth day was similar to third day and it significantly decreased during the fifth day. Connection of the immediate and the delayed effects during the training load and the frequency of training sessions led to increasing the performance at the beginning of a microcycle and to a gradual decreasing and to the lowest performance at the end of a microcycle. Fatigue started to significantly show beginning the third day.

The decrease of the efficiency reflection at the end of the microcycle was 12% compared to the beginning of the microcycle, and was 31.3% compared to the highest value of force reflection during the microcycle. Participating in training sessions despite of the insufficient recovery in the second part of microcycle caused a significant reduction of the performance in short cumulative effect. Insufficient recovery and continuing in longterm load may lead to overtraining.

Athlete M.B. got similar rates in the contact time during a microcycle (Figure 5). However, fatigue was the cause of extension of the contact time at the end of a training session. The delayed effect was mostly showed through shortening of the contact time during the first day as well as another day. Marked differences in prolonging the contact time were noted at the end of 2 training sessions focused on the development of speed. The contact time was the same at the beginning and at the end of a microcycle. The biggest difference between the shortest and the longest contact time was 23% in a microcycle.

The power in the active phase of the takeoff increased just at the end of 2 trainings (Figure 6). In other training sessions the performance either decreased or it stayed at the same starting level. The delayed effect was showed mostly through an increasing of the performance in one day as well as in another day. The difference between the highest and lowest rate was 18% in a microcycle. The performance in the active phase of the takeoff was about 2% lower at the end of a microcycle than it was at the beginning.

The height of the jump has a different immediate effect in the first and second part of a microcycle. It


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has been shown that athletes achieved higher height of the jump in the first part and lower height of the jump in the second part of training (Figure 7). The height of the jump has not been shown clearly in a delayed effect: values move up and down. Firstly, the height of the jump has an increasing tendency in a microcycle and then a decreasing tendency. The height of the jump is by about 2.5% lower at the end of a microcycle than at the beginning. The biggest difference in the height of the jump is 16.5% in a microcycle.

The efficiency of the takeoff fluctuates differently within a microcycle in both the immediate, or the delayed, effect (Figure 8). At the end of a microcycle the efficiency of the takeoff is by about 2.9% lower than at the beginning. There is 25% difference between the highest and the lowest value of the efficiency.

Both athletes achieved lower efficiency of the takeoff at the end of speed trainings. These training sessions focused on speed had a significant influence on the explosive power of the lower extremities. In delayed effect we noted an increase of the efficiency during the trainings focused on speed in athlete M.B., whereas athlete R.O achieved different effect. Both athletes M.B. and R.O. achieved a different immediate and delayed effect at the training sessions focused on strength. Both athletes achieved a reasonable immediate and delayed increase of the efficiency of the takeoff during the regeneration focused on the endurance.

In interindividual assessment of response to training load of 2 analyzed runners, we stated that their immediate response to the load was the same during the first day: after the first training reducing of the efficiency of the takeoff and its rising after the second training. However, the response in other 3 analyzed indicators was different. The changes of the efficiency of the takeoff were similar even during the second day in all 4 measuring stages. Equally analogous changes were in other parameters as well. Different changes in the efficiency of the takeoff were found during the third and the fourth day. Runner M.B. was able to regenerate faster to the II.phase in the framework of the day, therefore higher efficiency of the takeoff was achieved at the beginning of the II.phase than at the end of the I.phase. It was a result of the shortening of the contact time and by improving of the performance in the active phase of the takeoff. Higher fatigue of runner R.O. also showed in the efficiency of the takeoff at the end of a microcycle, when efficiency was significantly lower than at the beginning of a microcycle.

Conclusion

Implemented training sessions in a microcycle caused a different immediate and delayed training effect in individual analyzed parameters of intraindividual and interindividual assessment. A similar response of both athletes during the first 2 days of a microcycle was discovered in the immediate and delayed effect. In the second part of the microcycle, we noted the differences in the interindividual response to training load. Higher fatigue of runner R.O. led to the reduction of all indicators of explosive power at the end of microcycle. The training load turned out to be tiring for the athlete even though he managed it. However, continuing the training sessions despite insufficient recovery might have had negative effects on the athlete’s body. There are 2 factors that cause the fluctuating of fatigue: 2 training sessions focused on speed undergone in 24 hours and the short time (3–4 hours) between the training sessions in one day. We recommend extending the interval between training sessions from 3–4 hours to 5–6 hours in 2phase workouts in one day.

In the performance of both athletes we recorded a reduction of effectiveness at the end of training sessions focused on speed in immediate effect and increasing in delayed effect. In trainings focused on strength, mostly positive response in immediate and delayed effect was recorded. Regenerative training focused on endurance brought a slight immediate and delayed increase of the efficiency of the takeoff. The effect of regenerative training sessions was inline with the intention and the theory of sport training as well. Cumulative effect of individual types of load cannot be demonstrated clearly when taking the structure of microcycle, the frequency of training sessions, and the impact of all kinds of training load into consideration.

In the analyzed coefficients – contact time, power in the active phase of the takeoff, height of the jump, and the force of effectiveness – we found fluctuating values in response to load. Therefore, we cannot accept a definite conclusion in which response to a particular type of training load comes in a certain coefficient. The most significant changes in the power of the active phase were logically noted in indicator: efficiency of the takeoff.

Both analyzed athletes achieved an increase of jumping explosiveness in the first part of the microcycle and its reduction in the second part of the microcycle. The reduction in the jumping explosiveness came at


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the end of the analyzed microcycle, which means that the short cumulative effect was expected. This is explained by the fact that both athletes took part in a de

veloping microcycle that was in accordance with the theory of large supercompensational waves and may bring a temporary reduction in performance.

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[15] BoscoC,ViitasaloJT,KomiPV,LuhtanenP:Combined efect of elastic energy and myoelectrical potentiation during stretch-shortening cycle exercise;inActa Physiologica Scandinavica,1982;14,4:557–565.

[16] VanPatotT:Leitfaden für das Mittelstrecken training der Mädchen von 8 –14 Jahren;inLeichtathletik,1982;22:703–710.


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THE INFLUENCE OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION TRANSFER ON THE EFFECTIVENESS

OF LEARNING AND MASTERING SWIMMING ACTIVITIES AMONG STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CRACOW

WPŁYW PRZEKAZU INFORMACJI WIZUALNO-WERBALNEJ NA SKUTECZNOŚĆ UCZENIA SIĘ I NAUCZANIA

ORAZ DOSKONALENIA CZYNNOŚCI PŁYWACKICH STUDENTÓW AKADEMII WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO

W KRAKOWIE

Ewa Dybińska*, Marcin Kaca**, Magdalena Zagórska***

****Dr. Habil., Assoc. Prof., Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland

****PhD, Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland

****MSc, Vocational Schools Complex, Gorlice, Poland

Key words: visual and verbal information, learning and teaching swimming activities,

effectiveness of the teaching method Słowa kluczowe: informacja wizualno-werbalna, uczenie i nauczanie pływania,

skuteczność uczenia się i nauczania

Aim of the study. The study was aimed to determine the significance of visual and verbal information transfer in the process of learning, teaching and improving swimming activities. Before the research it was assumed that the method of learning and teaching swimming activities based on enhancing visual and verbal information transfer had much larger influence on the effectiveness of crawl technique than the standard method.

Material and methods. The study was carried out among the first-year male and female students at the Uni-versity School of Physical Education in Cracow. The research group consisted of 104 participants (50 women and 54 men) divided into two groups: experimental (E) and control (K). The basic research method was pedagogical experiment combined with the technique of parallel groups. Another experimental factor was the method of teaching swimming activities that involved the implementation of visual and verbal information transfer enhanced with additional audio-visual technique and supplemented with self-observation and self-assessment.

Results. Statistically significant changes of the pretest and posttest measurements in the level of mastering crawl technique were noted, evidently higher in experimental (E) than in control (K) group, both of women and men.

Conclusion. A significant correlation between the implemented method of teaching swimming activities and efficiency to master the technique of crawl was observed. The presented results of the study proved the usefulness in the search for didactic methods based on visual and verbal information transfer.



Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska

– 46 –

Cel pracy. Próba określenia znaczenia przekazu informacji wizualno-werbalnej dla skuteczności uczenia się i nauczania oraz doskonalenia czynności pływackich u studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie. Podejmując proces badawczy założono, iż metoda uczenia się i nauczania czynności pływackich, polegająca na wzbogaconym przekazie informacji wizualno-werbalnej, ma znacznie większy wpływ na efektywność opanowania techniki pływania kraulem niż metoda standardowa.

Materiał i metody. Badaniem objęto studentki i studentów pierwszego roku Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie. Ogółem poddano obserwacjom 104 osoby, w tym 50 kobiet i 54 mężczyzn. Podstawową metodą ba-dawczą był naturalny eksperyment pedagogiczny z zastosowaniem techniki grup równoległych: eksperymentalnej (E) i kontrolnej (K). Celem procesu dydaktycznego było opanowanie przez badanych umiejętności pływania kraulem na poziomie standardowym. Czynnikiem eksperymentalnym była metoda nauczania, polegająca na wdrożeniu w grupie eksperymentalnej informacji wizualno-werbalnej wzbogaconej w dodatkowe techniki audiowizualne oraz uzupełnione autoobserwacją i samooceną.

Wyniki badań. Zaznaczyły się istotne statystycznie zmiany poziomu nauczanej techniki pływania kraulem pomiędzy dokonanymi pomiarami pretest-posttest, które w grupie eksperymentalnej (E) były wyraźnie wyższe aniżeli kontrolnej (K) – zarówno wśród kobiet, jak i mężczyzn.

Wnioski. Zaobserwowano istotną zależność pomiędzy wdrożoną metodą nauczania czynności pływackich, polegającą na wzbogaconym przekazie informacji wizualno-werbalnej a efektywnością opanowania techniki pływania kraulem.

Introduction

The issue of how to teach motor skills in a fastest and most efficient way has been always in the centre of scientific research carried out by theoreticians and practitioners working in the field of physical education didactics. The educationalists have been continually penetrating the fundamentals of methodology in search for useful instruments to develop the didactics. The teachers, who have faced this problem, have taken up the efforts to make the teaching process more effective by means of different methods.

The introduction of changes is conceived to make the learning and teaching process more attractive and improving efficiency of the educational process in the area of motor skills. The activities are based on the increase of influence on cognitive sphere of students and the intellectualization of the teaching process [1], which is defined as “a process of education and physical education carried out with the use of mind, intellect, knowledge and intellectual skills of a human being” [2, p. 49]. The process is based on a cooperation with the use of proper forms of conveying information which shows teaching as “a constant flow of information between the teacher and the student which leads to permanent changes of the student’s behaviour” [3, p. 22]. Teaching in this particular perspective is a process thanks to which an individual acquires and processes information in order to make changes in the repertoire of his or her own motor behaviours [4, 5].

The efficiency of teaching motor skills to a large extent depends on mutual understanding of the teacher and the student. That is a key factor in efficient communica

tion considered as “an exchange of information between speaker and recipient. The conveying of information is based on the optic, acoustic and verbal channel; and it is assumed that the conveyed information (the message) is to influence the change of recipient’s behavior” [6, p. 130, 7]. In didactics we attribute the role of the speaker to the teacher and the role of the recipient to the student. In interpersonal communication the speech is the most important system of signs [8, 9, 10]; likewise the abovementioned author differentiates optic and tactic systems. In the world of information communication systems are of great importance. Efficient didactic communication is the key to the progress of didactic process in physical education [3, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14]. In the process of teaching motor skills information affecting the receptors of hearing, sight and touch efficiently influence the effectiveness of learning motor activities [15].

The image as the means of conveying the visual information is applicable mainly to the outer structure of movement [14, 16, 18, 19], and has a significant didactic function in the process of teaching motor skills. In practice, however, this form of conveying information is not appreciated enough by the teachers. Used mainly in the form of display and demonstration, it takes into account only the complexity of a given motor skill being taught, and does not provide the student with almost any possibility of understanding a way in which the movement was done. Thus, in order for the visual information to pose didactic function in the process of teaching, it should contain information (in the form of images) thanks to which the students have an opportunity to precisely recognize a given motor activity. The information should concern not only the aim of teaching, that is

The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming...

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the structure of activity, its components, their order and connections between them, but also a way to approach to the goal, that is getting to know a given algorithm of decision and activities which every student should do. Thanks to abovementioned the student has the opportunity to create a mental plan and program of activities in accordance with a given algorithm. The condition of meeting the criterion is slowing down the image (e.g. film image presented in slow motion) [7, 20].

The basis for improving the educational process is also stimulating for student’s involvement. Consequently one will aim at selfimprovement and selfcorrection, and furthermore would observe one’s skills and objectively would assess them. It will create a sense of responsibility for the progress of education having an impact on active participation in the didactic process of teaching and learning. There is an important part on the side of a teacher, who should do everything that is possible in order to help the student to get to know his or her abilities, the needs for physical activity and to determine behaviors contributing to its realization. The procedure enables mutual creation of didactic behavior in accordance with the needs and individual aims of the student. The information conveyed in order to make the student realize his or her errors in doing a particular activity should be formed in an easy way with the use of the newest methods of transferring the knowledge, such as audiovisual aids [21].

In aim to improve the didactic process there has been done a constant search for efficient methods of learning and teaching motor skills. The majority of publications (in both Polish and foreign literature) on teaching motor skills or patterns of didactic behavior is based on observations without formulating particular conclusions or introducing changes in the process. The lesser part constitutes of publications based on experimental research considered as the basis for improving didactics [8, 9, 17] through making constructive and bold changes in the process. The issue of the search of such improvements inspired the authors of the paper to do research on the importance of transfer of visual and verbal information on the effectiveness of learning and teaching motor skills on the example of swimming.

Aim of the study

The basic aim of the paper was an attempt to determine the importance of the transfer of visual and verbal information on the cognitive sphere in the process of learning and teaching, and improving swimming skills (on the

example of crawl) among the students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow.

On account of the main aim of the thesis, the following research questions were posed:1. What is the level of learning swimming skills (of

crawl) that the students have shown after the end of the training?

2. Is there a connection between the applied method of learning, teaching and mastering swimming skills, based on the increase of visual verbal information, and the effectiveness of mastering the swimming technique by the subjects?

3. Is there a difference in the effectiveness of acquiring swimming skills in relation to a given method of teaching taking into account the factor of gender?

The hypothesis

The method of learning, teaching and mastering swimming skills based on the enhanced transfer of visual and verbal information has a significantly larger influence on the effectiveness of mastering crawl than the standard method.

Material and research methods

The research was done in the academic year 2008/2009 among the firstyear students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow. There were 104 subjects in total, 50 women and 54 men.

Being a part of an extensive project, the presented study was conducted in accordance with the Supervised Postgraduate Research Project, registered as 241/KTiMSW/2008 in the academic year 2008/2009. In this paper the authors presented chosen areas of the research, focusing the readers’ interest on learning and teaching crawl.

In the research the authors used the method of natural pedagogical experiment [22] “In science the term describes a group of activities consisting in examining a given phenomenon or process by causing or changing its course through implementation of some new factor” [23, p. 87]. Pedagogical experiment is a typical form of natural experiment. It is a method which deals with deliberately evoked pedagogical phenomena in controlled conditions in order to get to know them. In experimental research a given situation is caused in order to get to know connections between experimental factor, that is an operand, and changes which occurred under its influence (a dependent variable).


– 48 –

In the research done a technique of parallel groups was used, distinguishing two comparative groups: experimental (E) and control (K).

Before the beginning of the experiment the students were divided by the means of randomization technique [22] on research groups as follows:• experimental group (E) consisted of 54 people, in

cluding 26 women (EK) and 28 men (EM),• control group (K) consisted of 50 people, including

24 women (KK) and 26 men (KM).

The aim of the teaching method and mastering swimming skills was learning crawl methods on a standard level by the students. Taking into account the fact that the students willing to study at the University School of Physical Education had gained basic swimming skills (on the level of swimming 50 meters using any technique), the majority of them did not indicate the starting point “zero”. However in the research concerning mastering crawl the subjects taken into account were the ones with the same (equal) level of starting skills. It formed a dependent variable in the experiment results of mastering the level of crawl in research groups (E, K).

An operand, that is the experimental factor in the research done, was the method of teaching consisting in influencing the cognitive sphere with the use of enhanced transfer of visual and verbal information in experimental group (E) in relation to traditional didactic activities in control group (K).

To assess the results of the influence of experimental factor there were measurements done in both groups (E and K) of size of dependent variables (the level of swimming skills):• in the first research – pretest – at the beginning of

the teaching process,• in the second research – posttest – at the end of the

process.

Conditions of realization of the experiment in both groups (E and K) were the same. The contents of

teaching included the same agenda premises which were accomplished within 6 fortyfive minute lessons (once a week) taught by teachers with the same professional competence and comparable work experience. Throughout the experiment on experimental groups the same students took part in all classes. Furthermore, the process of teaching, which was under constant observation, was accomplished in the form of exercises in the water. The above process was mainly in direct and task form and with the use of different teaching methodology: partial, integrated and partialintegrated.

In the analysis the only subjects taken into account were those (both men and women) whose attendance was over 75%.

Furthermore, in order to eliminate the potential influence of mediating (intervening) variables on the result of the experiment (for the efficiency of the process of learning and teaching motor skills), the level of motor skills and the level of intelligence, the assessment of size of variables among the subjects were under careful observation.

By the means of properly selected tests [24] the authors assessed the level of coordinating motor skills (KZM) such as: the speed of arm movement, static balance, the ability of kinetic diversification, the ability of quick reaction, the ability of rhythmization, the ability of linking movements and the structuralfunctional ability, that is suppleness.

Then, with the use of “Raven” test in the adult version [25] the authors assessed the level of intelligence of the subjects. The interpretation of the test was done by a psychologist and academic of the University School of Physical Education in Cracow.

In the experiment shown (while selecting students to experimental groups) the only people taken into account were both men and women, who presented similar level of mediating variables, that did not show statistically significant differences in the level of motor (coordination) skills and the level of intelligence.

In order to assess the level of crawl skills the authors used “Criterial Test of Skills” [26] focused on scor

Table 1. Basic statistical parameters of pretest results of women and men (KTU pts)

Group x– SD Min Max V %

EM 10.12 2.16 6 13 21.34

KM 10.78 2.11 5 14 19.57

EK 8.62 1.64 5 10 19.02

KK 7.90 1.57 5 10 19.87


– 49 –

ing assessment of sensemotor sequences consisting of onemotion cycle in crawl. “Criterial Test of Skills” was created by means of biomechanical methods. The authors recognized the motor activity being taught and paid special attention to distinguishing fundamental movements occurring in the particular technique of motion – sensemotor sequences [27], and resulting from this effort 28 such sequences were distinguished in crawl.

The test was carried out according to the following premises:• The subject covered a distance of 50 km by crawl

(individually on a separated track) and in that time his or her skills were recorded by means of video camera.

• The recorded material was assessed by scoring done by two independent judgesexperts. A detailed analysis of the assessed motor sequence was done among other things by multiple playing back, freezing the frame or slowing down the video recording at a particular moment which enabled reliable assessment.

• Scoring results of the analysis were recorded in scorecards of “Criterial Test of Skills”.

A proper execution of each individual element of the technique was assessed as follows:• “1” point – proper (flawless) performance of the ele

ment of movement,• “1/2” point – performance of a distinguished sense

motor sequence with deficiencies or deviations of movement,

• “0” point – lack of sequence or its erroneous performance.

The amount of possible score gained in the area of crawl varied from 0 to 28 points. A proper (flawless) performance of the whole motor sequence was expressed by a number equal with the quantity of distinguished components in a given swimming technique. The assessment of the performance of starting and turning technique was omitted.

In the control group (K) in the process of teaching crawl the transfer of information was done by means of:• verbal methods (description, explanation, instruc

tion, commentary),• visual methods (demonstration, display, visual

charts, didactic films),• methods of practical activities (kinesthetic informa

tion).

In experimental group (E), apart from traditional (abovementioned) methods of transferring information, the authors introduced during the classes additional didactic activities, oriented towards the transfer of visual and verbal information, which comprised such important materials, as:• model images with an instruction and commentary

(multimedia presentation) on the structure and trajectory of movements of the taught crawl technique (on a standard level),

• video recordings concerning swimming skills learned by the student in the context of model technique which is described in didactics as parallel demonstration [27] – comprising in confrontation of the model with actual level of student’s skills, which in turn enabled the subject to do selfassessment on the basis of selfobservation (Fig. 1),

Figure 1. Parallel show – pattern and subject (picture on CD)

• technique assessment card which was presented by the subject done according to “Criterial Test of Skills”, filled in by the expert (independent jury). The information included in the card described quantity (points) and quality (description of errors, deficiencies and suggestions of corrective exercises),

• model sets of exercises with description of their use, whose aim is to correct mistakes.


– 50 –

In experimental group the subject during each lesson spent the last 8–10 minutes on individual (or in pairs) execution of exercises or a video recordings study of a taught technique.

Additionally, in the research the authors used “Test of Theoretical Knowledge” (TWT), diagnosing the level of theoretical knowledge of students in the area of knowing the structure and trajectory of crawl technique. The test, consisting of 6 questions, was conducted at the beginning and at the end of the didactic process.

Furthermore, in order to determine the level of anxiety declared by the participants of the experiment the authors posed a question (contained in the questionnaire of “Test of Theoretical Knowledge”):

“Do you feel any anxiety during exercises in the water (for instance, discomfort during exercises in deep water)?”• Iamabsolutelynotafraid.• Iamrathernotafraid.• Iamindifferenttowardsit.• Iamratherafraid.• Iamveryafraid.

The answers gained were examined by the Likert scale [28], whose purpose is to determine attitude and opinion. The analysis was done according to the following criteria:• strong negative attitude – answer “e” – 2 points,• indifferent attitude – answer “c” – 0 points,• strong positive attitude – answer “a” – 2 points

The material gathered was organized and subjected to statistical and descriptive analysis. The results of the research were examined according to the following statistical tools:• Student’s ttest for independent samples – in the

case of determining differences in the level of mastering crawl by the subjects (in groups E and K),

• the MannWhitney Utest [29] in order to determine differences between groups E and K in the case of distribution of data differing from normal,

• Spearman rank correlation in order to determine the relationship between the level of anxiety and swimming skills of subjects.

• optional repeated measures analysis in order to indicate differences (or lack of them) between the results of swimming efficiency of research groups E and K in pretest and posttest and the control of changes in the variable level. The authors used STATISCICA 6.0 software from

StatSoft in order to do statistical calculations.

The results of the research

In order to assess the level of swimming efficiency in research groups, experimental (E) and control (K) “Criterial Test of Skills” was used, whose results were expressed by points. The results of the first research (pretest) and the second research (posttest) in experimental and control group among women and men were presented below.

As it seems from the data presented in Table 2 and Figure 2, the level of swimming efficiency of the subjects was equal at the beginning of the experiment because the results of pretest (Table 2) showed the lack of differences statistically significant between group E and K, among both men and women.

Table 2. Differences between pretest results in group E and K (women and men) – Student’s t-test

GroupPretest

F df P

KM – EM 1.29 1. 52 0.260

KK – EK 1.76 1. 34 0.193

* P < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

0

2

4

6

8

10

1210,12

10,78

8,627,9

EM KM EK KK

Figure 2. Arithmetical average of pretest results: women and men (KTU pts)

During the analysis of the level of crawl in research groups E and K at the end of the experiment (posttest) it may be noted that in the conditions of “Criterial Test of Skills” among men no statistically significant differences were observed (Table 3, Fig. 3), while among women (Table 4) significant differences did occur (p < 0.001).

Then the authors made a comparison of changes which occurred between pretest and posttest in the area of mastering crawl between experimental group


– 51 –

(E) and control group (K). In order to do this, the method of optional repeated measures analysis was used.

The statistical analysis (Table 5, Fig. 4) conducted for the results obtained on the basis of “Criterial Test

of Skills” (KTU) in male research groups (E and K) revealed statistically significant changes (P < 0.001) in the area of the assessed technique of movement between measurements of pretestposttest. The authors also noticed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in the effectiveness of teaching and learning crawl (interaction between factors group x change) to the advantage of experimental group (EM) in the relation to control group (KM). The result enables to see better effects in mastering of the swimming skill in experimental group.

The results of “Criterial Test of Skills” of female students showed significant progress in mastering the motor skill taught. Statistically significant changes (P < 0.01) were observed between the measurements pretestposttest, however they were distinctively higher to the advantage of experimental group. Among women (similarly to men) statistically significant differences emerged (P < 0.01) in the effectiveness of teaching and learning crawl (interaction between factors group x change) to the advantage of experimental group (EM) in relation to control group (KM). Thus, the results obtained showed that the experimental group was much better in mastering crawl among women.

Table 3. Basic statistical parameters of posttest results: women and men (KTU pts)

Group x– SD Min Max V%

EM 17.94 2.86 13 25.5 15.94

KM 16.59 4.53 6 25.5 27.30

EK 17.32 3.26 11 23 18.82

KK 13.43 3.05 8 18.5 22.71

0

5

10

15

20

17,9416,59 17,32

13,43

EM KM EK KK

Figure 3. Arithmetical average of posttest results: women and men (KTU pts)

Table 4. Differences between posttest results in group E and K (women and men) – Student’s t-test

GroupsPosttest

F df P

KM – EM 1.74 1. 52 0.192

KK– EK 13.33** 1. 34 <0.001

* p<0.05, ** p<0.01

Table 5. Comparison of changes of mastering the crawl tech-nique between experimental men group (EM) and control men group (KM)

Factor Latitude degree F (1.52) p

Group (experimental vs. control) 1.52 0.265 0.609

Change (pretest vs. posttest) 1.52 186.79** 0.000

Group x change 1.52 4.078* 0.049

* P < 0.05, **p < 0.01

KK EK

7,90625

13,4375

8,625

17,325

pretest posttest

ZMIANY/ CHANGES

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

KTU

7,90625

13,4375

8,625

17,325

Figure 4. Comparison of changes in mastering the crawl technique: experimental men group (EM) and control men group (KM)


– 52 –

In the experiment presented, apart from the efficiency assessment of the influence of experimental factor (an operand), the analysis was done in the area of intervening variables, which could potentially distort result of the research, and concerning the level of

knowledge on the structure and trajectory of crawl and declared level of anxiety among the subjects.

The results presented in Table 7, which concerned the assessment of the level of knowledge and declared level of anxiety in male groups, indicated lack of statistically significant differences between experimental group (E) and control group (K) in the area of intervening variables concerning measurements:• declared level of anxiety at the beginning (L1) and

the end (L2),• changes observed in declared level of anxiety

throughout the research (L1– L2),• the level of knowledge assessed at the beginning

(w0) and at the end (w1) of the process of teaching and learning crawl,

• changes observed between measurements (w0, w1) in the area of level of knowledge (wz).

The statistical device used (the MannWhitney Utest) to determine differences between female groups E and K in the area of declared level of angle and knowledge (of the distribution different from norm) reveals (Table 8) statistical significance (p < 0.05) only in the case of level of knowledge presented at the end of teaching and learning process, which indicates a higher level of knowledge of the technique in the female experimental group (EK) in relation to female control group (KK).

Discussion

In the available literature one can find opinions that the word includes the most information from among all signs that every human uses [16, 30]. Speech is the

KM EM

10,78846

16,59615

10,125

17,94643

pretest posttest

ZMIANY/ CHANGES

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

KTU

10,78846

16,59615

10,125

17,94643

Figure 5. Comparison of changes in mastering the crawl tech-nique: experimental women group (EK) and control women group (KK)

Table 6. Comparison of changes of mastering the crawl technique between experimental women group (EK) and control women group (KK)

Factor Latitude degree F (1.34) p

Group (experimental vs. control) 1.34 9.58** 0.004

Change (pretest vs. posttest) 1.34 317.25** <0.001

Group x change 1.34 15.72** <0.001

* P < 0.05, **p < 0.01

Table 7. Differences in intervene variables – knowledge and fear, between manipulated men group (layout incompatible with normal)

The Mann-Whitney U-test

The sum of ranksEM

The sum of ranksKM U Corrected Z p N N 2*1s.

Precision P

L1 796.5 688.5 337.5 0.5 0.62 28 26 0.65

L2 699.5 785.5 293.5 –1.34 0.18 28 26 0.22

L1–L2 690 795 284 –1.62 0.11 28 26 0.17

w0 762 723 356 –0.13 0.89 28 26 0.9

w1 846 639 288 1.33 0.18 28 26 0.19

wz 840.5 644.5 293.5 1.23 0.22 28 26 0.22

* P < 0.05


– 53 –

most frequently used means of information by humans in interpersonal relationship as well as in the process of teaching motor skills [7, 8, 9]. However, for the teacher ensuring high efficiency of the transfer of verbal information is in many cases exceptionally difficult and demanding proper knowledge of phrases, using them skillfully and applying them to the level of students. It should be also emphasized that the image in the modern world is a basic technique of conveying information. It is caused on the one hand by the expansion of audiovisual media and development of technology, enabling with greater ease the recording of motion picture and sound (television, film, video recording), on the other hand by willingness to facilitate access to information to those members of a given community who have problems with the understanding of written text. Thus, in the process of teaching motor skills it is significant to convey visual information (next to verbal and kinesthetic), since they express more efficiently than words external structure of movement of an acquired activity and substantially influence effectiveness of the process [13, 17, 18].

The fundamental aim of the paper was an attempt to assess the influence of visual and verbal information on the efficiency of learning and teaching motor skills, on the example of swimming skills. The pedagogical experiment conducted by the authors by means of an operand (as an experimental factor) in the form of implemented teaching method enabled positive verification of the stated research thesis. The method of teaching, learning and mastering swimming skills comprising in enhanced transfer of visual and verbal information turned out to have much larger influence on the effectiveness of learning crawl by the students than standard method

Table 8. Differences in intervene variables – knowledge and fear, between manipulated women group (layout incompatible with normal)

The Mann-Whitney U-test

The sum of ranksEK

The sum of ranksKK U Corrected Z p N N 2*1s.

Precision P

L1 339 327 129 –1.062 0.29 20 16 0.34

L2 335.5 330.5 125.5 –1.181 0.24 20 16 0.28

L1–L2 366 300 156 –0.133 0.89 20 16 0.91

w0 369 297 159 –0.02 0.99 20 16 0.99

w1 434 232 96 2.08 0.04 20 16 0.04*

* P < 0.05

comprising in implementation of standard methods of conveying information.

The results obtained turn out to be a confirmation of the results of research of different authors, who in their experimental efforts [9, 10, 17, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] empirically proved that the method, including implementation of varied verbal and visual information, had significant influence on the improvement of the results of learning and teaching motor skills.

Conclusions

On the basis of analysis concerning the influence of visual and verbal information on the efficiency of learning and mastering swimming activities following conclusions may be formulated:1. At the end of the experiment concerning the pro

cess of teaching and learning swimming skills the students from the experimental group (E) – men and women – obtained higher level of mastering crawl than the participants from the control group (K).

2. Statistically significant changes of the level of technique taught (crawl) occurred between the measurements done in pretestposttest, which were significantly higher in experimental group, among both men and women.

3. It was also observed the relation between the method of teaching and learning swimming skills (experimental factor) applied and the effectiveness of mastering crawl.

4. The applied transfer of visual and verbal information concerning the technique taught caused the increase of effectiveness in the didactic process in both experimental groups (men and women), how


– 54 –

ever among female students the effectiveness of learning the swimming skill turned out to be higher than among male students.

5. The level of knowledge and declared level of anxiety reached no statistical significance in the efficiency of learned swimming activity in either of the research groups.

6. It seems that abovepresented results of the research aimed at implementing varied visual and verbal information, confirmed its importance in improving didactic communication and the search of new and efficient methods of learning and teaching motor skills.

LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] DybińskaE: Intellectualizing in teaching and learning

swimming activities as seen by students of the AWF. RozprawyNaukowe,Wrocław,AWF,2009;28:322–328.

[2] KoszczycM,KoszczycT: Intellectualization process of physical education. A new paradigm of physical education [inPolish]; in:MynarskiW,ŚlężyńskiJ(eds):Learning and Education Outcomes in Physical Culture [Efekty kształcenia w kulturze fizycznej]. Katowice,PTNKF–AWF,2005:49–57.

[3] Czabański B:Learning motor skills and regulation of behavior [inPolish];in CzabańskiB,KoszczycT:Didactic Communication in the Process of Physical Education. Conference Materials,Wrocław,AWF,1995.

[4] DybińskaE:The importance of the image as an information medium in the learning process and teaching motor activity [inPolish];inUmiastowskaD(ed.):Motion Activity of People of All Ages [Aktywność ruchowa ludzi w różnym wieku].Szczecin,UniwersytetSzczeciński–Wydawnic-twoPromocyjneAlbatros,2007:204–211.

[5] DybińskaE:Teaching motor functions as a system of teaching communication between a teacher and a student [inPolish]; inActivity and Security in the Aquatic Environment [Aktywność i bezpieczeństwo w środowisku wodnym].Kraków,WITKM,2007:11–19.

[6] OkońW:New Pedagogic Dictionary [inPolish],Warszawa,WydawnictwoAkademickie„Żak”,1995:130.

[7] CzabańskiB:Psychomotor Learning[inPolish].Wrocław,AWF,2000.

[8] ZatońK:The efficiency of verbal information in teaching motor activities in swimming[inPolish].RozprawyNau-kowe,Wrocław,AWF,1981;XVI:218–282.

[9] ZatońK:Verbal Communication at Physical Training Lessons [inPolish].StudiaiMonografie,Wrocław,AWF,1995.

[10] ZatońK:The importance of verbal information in teaching and mastering swimming technique [inPolish].SportyWodneiRatownictwo,2008;1:42–47.

[11] CzabańskiB:Elements of General Teaching[inPolish].NaukiHumanistyczne,SeriaB,AWF,Wrocław,1994.

[12] DybińskaE:Optimization of visual teaching methods of motor activities;inBio-psycho-socialne aspekty telesnej a sportovej vychovy na univerzitach.Bratislava,Sloven-skaTechnickaUniverzitavBratislavie,2004:40–45.

[13] DybińskaE:Meaning of visual information in learning and teaching sport techniques[inPolish].Antromopotoryka,2006;vol.16,no.36:35–48.

[14] DybińskaE:Transfer of visual information in teaching swimming performance as criterion of efficiency of didactic

process[inPolish];inDidactics of Physical Education in the Context of Contemporary Educational Needs [Dydaktyka wychowania fizycznego w świetle współczesnych potrzeb eduklacyjnych].Wrocław,WydawnictwoAWF,2005:407–416.

[15] DybińskaE:Teaching and Learning Swimming.Selected Issues [inPolish].Podręczniki iSkrypty,Kraków,AWF,2009;32.

[16] JagodzinskaM:Memory images[inPolish].PsychologiaEdukacyjna,1988;2:142–156.

[17] DybińskaE:Optimization of Visual Information as the Factor Facilitating Learning and Teaching Swimming Activities of 10-year-old Children[inPolish].StudiaiMonografie,Kraków,AWF,2004;25.

[18] DybińskaE:The content of visual information communication and its role for creation of mental programmed during teaching of motor activities.HumanMovement,Wrocław,2005;vol.6,no.2:85–92.

[19] DybińskaE:Intellectualization in the process of learning and teaching swimming skills[inPolish].SportyWodneiRatownictwo,2007;1:43–48.

[20] CzabańskiB:A Model for Learning and Teaching Motor Sports Activities[inPolish].StudiaiMonografie,Wrocław,AWF,1980.

[21] DybińskaE,KacaM: Effectiveness of learning and teaching swimming activities in the light of self-assessment. Antropomotoryka,2006;vol.16,no.36:63–70.

[22] RygułaI:The Research Process in the Sciences, Sports [inPolish],Katowice,AWF,2003.

[23] GrabowskiH(ed.):Empirical Methods in Physical Education Science[inPolish].WydawnictwaSkryptowe,Kraków,AWF,1996;136.

[24] RaczekJ,MynarskiW,LjachW:Creation and Diagnosing Coordinating Motor Skills[inPolish].Katowice,AWF,2002.

[25] StrelauJ(ed.):Psychology[inPolish].Gdańsk,Wydaw-nictwoPsychologiczne,2000;1–3.

[26] DybińskaE.Scoring assessment techniques for swimming as a tool for measuring students’ swimming skills AWF [in Polish].AnnalesUMCS.Medicine.SectioC,2007;vol.LXII,suppl.XVIII,no.2:144–150.

[27] CzabańskiB,FiłonM,ZatońK:Elements of Swimming Theory[inPolish].AWF,Wrocław,2003.

[28] BrzezińskiJ:Elements of Psychological Research Methodology[inPolish].Warszawa–Poznań,PWN,1985.

[29] FergusonGA,TakaneY:StatisticalAnalysis in Psychology and Pedagogy[inPolish].Warszawa,PWN,2003.


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[30] CooperLA,ShepardRN:Transformations of representations of objects in space; inCarteretteEC,FriedmanM(eds):Handbook of Perception.Vol.VII:Space and Object Perception,NewYork,AcademicPress,1978.

[31] Guła-KubiszewskaH:The Shortage of visual and verbal information and the efficiency of learning motor skills [inPolish]; inKoszczycT (ed.):Didactics of Physical Education – Learning and Teaching in Difficult Situations [Uczenie się i nauczanie w sytuacjach trudnych. 3. Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowa „Dydaktyka wychowania fizycznego”].Wrocław,AWF1997:127–139.

[32] ChrobotM.The role of visual and verbal information in teaching motor skills (on the example of swimming) [in Polish].Doctoralthesis,Wrocław,AWF2010.

[33] Zysiak-ChristB:The efficiency of different methods of teaching motor skills[inPolish].Doctoralthesis, Wrocław,AWF,2008.

[34] CzabańskiB:Direct instruction – prescriptive instruction, problem-based instruction – connective learning – cognitive learning[inPolish].HumanMovement,2003;2(8):41–44.

[35] DybińskaE,KacaM:The importance of quality visual and verbal information transfer in teaching swimming processes among students from the University School of Physical Education in Cracow [inPolish].Antropomo-toryka,2009;vol.19,no.47:49–58.

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ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REHABILITATION PERIOD

ON PHYSICAL FITNESS AND EXERCISE TOLERANCE IN ELDERLY PEOPLE

OCENA EFEKTYWNOŚCI TURNUSU REHABILITACYJNEGO NA SPRAWNOŚĆ

FIZYCZNĄ I TOLERANCJĘ WYSIŁKU OSÓB W WIEKU STARSZYM

Krystyna Rożek*, Jerzy Piechura**, Anna Skrzek*, Tomasz Ignasiak***, Monika Bartczyszyn****, Marta Majewska*****

***** Dr. Habil., Assoc. Prof., Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland***** PhD, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland***** PhD, Institute of Physiotherapy, Karkonosze State Higher School in Jelenia Gora, Poland***** MSc, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland***** MSc, Faculty of Health Science, Wroclaw Medical University, Poland

Key words: physiotherapy, physical fitness, exercises tolerance, ageingSłowa kluczowe: fizjoterapia, sprawność fizyczna, tolerancja wysiłku, wiek starszy

Aim of the study. The study was intended to evaluate the effectiveness of a two-week program, developed at rehabilitation camp, to improve physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people.

Material and methods. The 10-day training program, which consisted of a 30-minute morning gymnastics and 1-hour water exercise a day, was attended by 50 people aged between 60 and 70 years. In all these pa-tients standard somatic features were measured. To assess the level of physical fitness and physical ability the Fullerton Functional Fitness Test was carried out. Assessment of body balance, upper body strength, flexibility and lower body exercise tolerance was also carried out in all patients.

Results. Normal body mass index BMI was reported only by 22% of participants. The results of the 6-minute corridor walk test showed a significant improvement in covering the above distance for both women and men. In the group with normal and abnormal BMI the improvement of results in the walk test was also reported. In terms of physical fitness the group of female patients similar in age range as the test group of men obtained better results in individual trials of the above test.

Conclusions. 1. Performed set of tests has shown that the exercises conducted in the framework of reha-bilitation period significantly improved physical fitness and exercise tolerance in older adults. 2. The results achieved before and after the treatment in the Fullerton Test were significantly different in terms of gender. 3. In terms of exercise tolerance with regard to BMI no statistically significant differences were observed.

Cel pracy. Ocena skuteczności wpływu dwutygodniowego turnusu rehabilitacyjnego na poprawę sprawności fizycznej i tolerancję wysiłku u osób w starszym wieku.



Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska

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Materiał i metody. W 10-dniowym cyklu treningowym, składającym się z 30 minut gimnastyki porannej oraz 1 godziny ćwiczeń dziennie w wodzie, wzięło udział 50 osób w wieku 60–70 lat. U wszystkich badanych wyko-nano pomiary podstawowych cech somatycznych. Do oceny sprawności i wydolności fizycznej badanej grupy posłużył Senior Fitness Test. U wszystkich pacjentów przeprowadzono ocenę zwinności/dynamicznej równowagi, siły górnej części ciała, gibkości dolnej części ciała oraz tolerancji wysiłku.

Wyniki. Prawidłową masę ciała według wskaźnika BMI odnotowano tylko u 22% badanych. Analiza wyników 6-minutowego testu korytarzowego wykazała istotną poprawę przebytego dystansu marszu zarówno u kobiet, jak i mężczyzn. W grupie z prawidłową i nieprawidłową wartością BMI również odnotowano poprawę wyników w te-ście marszowym. W odniesieniu do sprawności fizycznej grupa kobiet uzyskała lepsze wyniki w poszczególnych próbach testu w porównaniu do objętej badaniem grupy mężczyzn w identycznym przedziale wieku.

Wnioski. 1. Ćwiczenia prowadzone w ramach turnusu rehabilitacyjnego w istotny sposób poprawiły sprawność fizyczną i tolerancję wysiłku u osób starszych. 2. Wyniki zmierzone przed i po okresie terapii za pomocą testu Fullerton różniły się istotnie statystycznie u obu płci. 3. Tolerancja wysiłkowa z uwzględnieniem wskaźnika BMI u badanych nie zmieniła się istotnie po zastosowanych ćwiczeniach.

Introduction

The human aging processes may proceed differently. Years of lived life are not always adequate to the biological age. The speed and pace of aging are to a large extent affected by the genetic factor in determining life expectancy, as well as such external factors as past diseases, injuries, improper diet, wrong lifestyle, environmental pollution. A lot of people remain physically or mentally active often until the old age [1]. These processes are often affected by additional longterm diseases, usually progressive in manner. A series of structural changes may occur and remain irreversible. According to Żak and Gryglewski the reduction in the strength of the lower limbs in 37% of men and 60% of women aged 55 to 74 enables them to maintain their body in a standing position, with knees bent to an angle of approximately 90 degrees [2].

Binder et al. regard low physical fitness as one of the reasons of frailty among the elderly. They have proved that physical training of moderate intensity may enhance physical performance and reduce the frailty in healthy elderly people leading low active lifestyle [3]. Physical fitness in older people can be assessed by functional tests, such as the Fullerton Functional Fitness Test [4] or the Tinetti test; questionnaires are also available for this purpose [5].

Rehabilitation for patients over 60 years of age is difficult due to the physiological and pathophysiological changes, often connected with chronic diseases. A considerable number of people need rehabilitation because of the diseases to which they suffer and to restore their functional activity, tending to decrease with age. Regular physical activity is a procedure which has beneficial influence on health in ageing people. It is among the most important factors mitigating the effect of age.

Rehabilitation leads to the restoration and maintenance of the maximum potential for independent living in the family and community, ability to work, social and creative activity. Medical rehabilitation is a fundamental part of the wider process of rehabilitation [6].

Aim of the study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a twoweek rehabilitation program on improving physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people.Research questions:1. Do the exercises carried out during the rehabilita

tion camp significantly improve the physical fitness and exercise tolerance after the rehabilitation cycle, and to what extent?

2. Does gender affect the performance in the Senior Fitness Test?

3. Do the weight categories in terms of BMI have a significant impact on improving exercise tolerance measured by 6minute walk test?


A research group included 50 people aged 60–70 years (Table 1), qualified for the rehabilitation camp at the Rehabilitation and Recreation Centre “Wielspin” in Wągrowiec. This group was formed of 22 men aged 64.8 years ± 4.3 and 28 women aged 66.6 years ± 3.9. Recruitment of participants was made based on deliberate choice. The criteria that allowed the elderly to be included into the test were: calendar age over 60 years, no impediments to conduct training in water, the patient’s consent to the study and the doctor’s consent.

Assessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people

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Table 1. General characteristics of a study group

Trait MenN = 22

WomenN = 28

Age 64.8 ±4.3 66.6 ±3.9

BMI 29.0 ± 5.8 29.0 ±4.6

All patients actively participated in the 10day rehabilitation cycle including: a 30minute morning gymnastics and onehour water exercise per day. Measurements of basic somatic traits, such as height and weight, were carried out in the whole group, and after that BMI level was calculated. To assess the accuracy of body weight the WHO criteria were implemented.

Physical activity and physical fitness were assessed by means of the group functional test. The above test, designed by Roberta Rikli and Jessie Jones in Lifespan Wellness Clinic at California State University in Fullerton, with a questionnaire, is currently known as the Senior Fitness Test [4]. It provides a reliable assessment of physical activity parameters of the elderly. Six motor tasks are used to asses: oxygen efficiency, flexibility, strength endurance, agility and dynamic balance [7].

In presented study six fitness tests were performed in all patients, which were: get up and go (up and go)

– assessment of agility / dynamic balance, getting up from a chair in 30 seconds (a 30second chair stand) – assessment of lower body strength, bending arms (arm curl) – evaluation of upper body strength, sit on a chair and reach (chair sit and reach test) – evaluation of the lower body flexibility (primarily – hamstring), join hands (back scratch) – evaluation of the upper body flexibility, a 6minute walk (the 6minute walk test) – assessment of exercise tolerance.

After that the results were statistically analyzed with the help of basic descriptive statistics, such as arithmetic mean (x

_) and standard deviation (SD). To demonstrate the differences between parameters before and after the rehabilitation program, Student’s ttest for dependent groups was used. Calculations were performed by means of the Statistica 2007 package.

Results

Assessment of the accuracy of body weight, carried out on the basis of BMI, revealed that only 22% of patients were characterized by a normal weight, while 36% were overweight, 30% obese grade I and in 12% obese grade II (Fig. 1).

Implemented rehabilitation program significantly improved all parameters of physical fitness assessed by the Senior Fitness Test (Table 2).

Figure 1. Percentage distribution of BMI according to WHO classification of respondents


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Table 2. Changes in the results of the Senior Fitness Test before and after the rehabilitation program applied to the entire group

Fitness test Before After t-values

Test 1 [s] 9.33 ± 3.75 8.58 ± 3.38 9.1022

Test 2 [number of repetitions] 13.16 ± 5.00 14.38 ± 4.94 –9.4795

Test 3 [number of repetitions] 15.92 ± 5.28 17.10 ± 5.34 –7.3365

Test 4 [cm] –5.09 –2.22 –8.4834

Test 5 [cm] –9.35 –6.86 –8.5510

Test 6 [m] 412.3 ± 96.1 448.9 ± 100.7 –14.2299

p < 0.05

Walking test illustrated the exercise tolerance. Comparing the results before and after the treatment there was a significant improvement in the distance travelled by walking for both women and men (Table 3).

When assessing the effects of this 2week rehabilitation in terms of genderbased physical fitness, it should be stressed that female participants obtained better results in individual tests than men at the same age.

The study also assessed the impact of BMI on the results achieved in the walk test (Table 4, Fig. 2).

Table 3. Mean values, standard deviation and significant differences in results of the Senior Fitness Test

Fitness tests Groups Before After p

Test 1 [s]Men 8.4 ± 3.4 7.9 ± 3.1 0.05

Women 10.0 ± 3.9 9.1 ± 3.6 0.042

Test 2 [number of repetitions]Men 14.0 ± 5.7 14.6 ± 5.4 0.05

Women 12.5 ± 4.4 14.2 ± 4.6 0.021

Test 3 [number of repetitions]Men 17.7 ± 4.2 18.4 ±4.1 0.046

Women 14.5 ± 5.7 16.1 ± 6.0 0.012

Test 4 [cm]Men –3.4 –0.9 0.01

Women –6.5 –3.3 0.01

Test 5 [cm]Men –11.8 –9.4 0.035

Women –7.5 –4.9 0.022

Test 6 [m]Men 472.7 ± 75.2 508.6 ± 75.4 0.045

Women 364.9 ± 84.0 401.9 ± 93.7 0.01

Table 4. Progress after the rehabilitation in patients of two groups, different in terms of BMI, measured by means of the walking corridor test

BMI < 25n = 11

BMI > 25n = 39 p

Walking test m] 41 ± 26 35 ± 15 0.43

Classification criterion for the groups was the value in the range from 18.9 to 24.9 (correct value). The second group consisted of individuals whose BMI exceeded the value 25 (invalid value). The results of both groups differed significantly. The first group improved the scores by 41 ± 26 and the second – by 35 ± 15.

Discussion

The tests for assessing the level of physical fitness in the elderly have been in use more and more frequently these years. The search for effective methods for improving physical fitness has been carried out as well. It was found that a large number of diseases could be avoided by regular exercise based on effective system of training [8]. The most effective and having the most spectacular impact on daily activities are balance exercises. For considerable number of elderly people

Assessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people

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imbalance and associated falls are the most disturbing symptoms of aging, triggering fear of injury and loss of independence. Both, the significant prolongation of human life and the constant increase in number of older people, have an impact on the need to develop and implement effective rehabilitation programs that would contribute to mitigating the adverse agerelated changes, and above all develop the balance of the body of an elderly person, thereby reducing the risk of falls [9, 10].

Pain occurring in old age can significantly affect the efficiency and level of activities of daily living. It can also distort the results of functional tests. Commonly used pain relief medications, however reduce pain, have an adverse effect on the body. Physiotherapy is the alternative, particularly therapeutic exercises and exercises in water. There is a belief about the beneficial effects of the aquatic environment on many diseases. Patient can do a lot more in unloaded conditions. Kaczor et al. assessed the use of a twoweek therapy based on water exercises, observing a reduction in pain which lowered the consumption of analgesics in this research group [11].

The researchers in numerous studies have proved that kinesitherapy not only contributes to the reduction of disability and increases range of joint motion, but also modifies cardiovascular efficiency, and acts positively in the case of coexisting diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes and obesity [8].

Our findings have confirmed the beneficial effect of an exercise program developed at rehabilitation camp

on all the components of physical fitness as well as the speed of walking. The importance of the improvement of walking speed, and what’s involved, the improvement of balance outlined Żak, who used physiotherapy program including free active exercises, active exercises with resistance and balance exercises in high positions. He stressed that these exercises should be a regular part of rehabilitation programs [12].

The results of rehabilitation in “Get up and go” test obtained in this research after the rehabilitation cycle were highly significant. Podsiadlo and Richardson [13] in their article also highlighted that the elderly, able to perform this test in 20 seconds or less, were the persons who could operate without help, keeping a balance in static and dynamic positions and reaching a good walking pace.

Based on the research conducted by the authors of the test, standards for healthy elderly people were established. The study involved people between 60–94 years of age. In Europe these norms have not been established yet. The above study, conducted on the population of southeastern provinces of Poland, showed that these residents got a significantly worse test results comparing to American population. The authors suggested that a sedentary lifestyle could have affected these results [14].

Comparative test results covering two populations, American and Polish, have clearly proved that Poles in the same age ranges achieved significantly worse

Figure 2. Comparison of the progress in the 6-minute walk test achieved by the participants with BMI < 25 and BMI > 25


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performance, and thus a lower fitness level. The differences in the results of the 6minute corridor walk test [15] should be highlighted.

The results obtained by male and female participants of this research are worse than those observed in the corresponding age group, according to the American standards. Only attempt to get up from a chair in 30 seconds and oxygen efficiency measured by 6minute corridor walk test before and after the treatment were comparable with American standards for both men and women.

Botarro et al. evaluated the effects of the 10week training, strengthening the muscles in men aged 60 to 76 years [17]. The study was conducted before and after the therapy. The results clearly showed a significant improvement in physical function after the training pro

gram. Own results confirm this hypothesis and show that regular physical activity, although practiced in a short period of time, can significantly improve physical fitness and mobility of older adults.

Conclusions

1. Exercises used during the rehabilitation camp significantly improved physical fitness and exercise tolerance in older adults.

2. Gender differentiates the scores obtained in the Senior Fitness Test before and after the implemented therapy.

3. Weight categories in terms of BMI do not affect the exercise tolerance of patients.

[1] MatsuoM, Nagasawa J, YoshinoA, Hiramatsu K,KurashikiK:Effects of activity participation of the elderly on quality of life.YonagoActaMedica,2003;46:17–24.

[2] ŻakM,GryglewskiB:Evaluation of rehabilitation results in patients after 85 years of age with impaired functional capacity[inPolish].RehabilitacjaMedyczna,2006;10(2):20–24.

[3] BinderEF,SchechtmanKB,EhsaniAA,etal.:Effects of exercise training on frailty in community-dwelling older adults: results of a randomized, controlled trial. JAmGeriatrSoc, 2002;50:1921–1928.

[4] JonesCJ,RikliRE:Assessing physical performance of older adults in a community setting; inBaileyS (ed.):Physical Activity and Ageing.Oxford,Meyer&MeyerSport(UK)Ltd.,2001:127–47.

[5] TinettiME:Performance-oriented assessment of mobility problems in elderly patients.J.Am.Geriatr.Soc.,1986;34(2):119–126.

[6] KabschA:Disability accompanying the aging processes as a challenge for physiotherapy [inPolish].Fizjoterapia,2001;9:3–8.

[7] RikliRE,JonesCJ:Development and validation of functional test for community residing older adults. J.Aig.Phys.Act.,1999;7:129–161

[8] RikliRE:Reliability, validity and methodological issues in assessing physical activity in older adults.ResExereSport,2000;71(2Suppl):89–96

[9] ŻakM,MelcherU:Rehabilitation as part of a program to prevent falls in older people[inPolish].PrzeglądLekarski,2002;59:4–5.


[10] MętelS,Jasiak-TyrkalskaB:Effect of physical training performed on unstable surfaces with the use of elastic bands for resistance exercise on functional performance and quality of life of older people [inPolish]. RehabilitacjaMedyczna,2006;10,3:35–46.

[11] KaczorR,ŁypM,CabakA,ZdrodowskaA:The use of aquatic exercises for the rehabilitation of patients with osteoarthritis of the hipjoint [inPolish].FizjoterapiaPolska,2007;2(4):155–164.

[12] ŻakM:Effect of kinesitherapy on gait speed in elderly patients [inPolish].Fizjoterapia,2004;12(4):44–49.

[13] PodsiadloD,RichardsonS:The Timed “Up & Go”: A test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons.JAmGeriatrSoc,1991;39:142–148.

[14] WiącekM, Zubrzycki I: The level of functional fitness of elderly in Southeastern Region of Poland.JHumanKinetics,2006;16:91–96

[15] NazarK,Kaciuba-UściłkoH:The importance of physical activity in the prevention of lifestyle diseases;inGórskiJ(ed.):Physiological Basis for Physical Exercise[inPolish].Warszawa,PZWL,2001:532.

[16] WongKY,CheungSY:Functional fitness level of older women in Hong Kong.HumanDevelopment,2000;50(4),319–328.

[17] BottaroM.,MachadoN.,NogueiraW.,ScalesR.,VelosoJ.:Effect of high versus low-velocity resistance training on muscular fitness and functional performance in older men;EurJApplPhysiol,2007;99:257–264.

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WALKING AS A TOOL OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND BODY COMPOSITION INFLUENCE 1

WPŁYW MARSZU NA SPRAWNOŚĆ FIZYCZNĄ ORAZ SKŁAD CIAŁA

PRZEDSTAWICIELI RÓŻNYCH GRUP WIEKOWYCH

Václav Bunc*

* Prof. Ing., Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Key words: walking, movement intervention, physical fitness, body composition, children, adult men, seniors

Słowa kluczowe: marsz, interwencja ruchowa, aktywność fizyczna, skład ciała, dzieci, dorośli mężczyźni, seniorzy

Aim of the study. Summarizing the possibilities of walking as a tool influencing health, fitness, body com-position, well-being and other physiological variables.

Material and methods. Following the five-month weight loss intervention program with a 1000 kcal energy intensity in seniors, 1500 kcal in middle-aged men and 2000 kcal in children, which was composed of at least 80% walking, pointing to significant changes in fitness and body composition parameters.

Results and conclusions. Together with positive changes in examined variables significant improvement in predispositions for physical endurance and workload was observed. It may be concluded that walking in the range of about 10,000 steps per day helps to remove the motion deficit, which is due to present lifestyle and may be used to improve both health predispositions and physical fitness state in the majority of population.

Cel pracy. Wskazanie wpływu marszów na zdrowie, sprawność fizyczną i dobrostan zdrowotny, a także na inne parametry fizjologiczne człowieka.

Materiał i metody. Uczestników badań objęto pięciomiesięcznym programem redukcji wagi o energochłon-ności 1000 kcal u seniorów, 1500 kcal u mężczyzn w średnim wieku, 2000 kcal u dzieci, który w 80 procentach składał się z marszów, i wskazano na tej podstawie istotne statystycznie zmiany sprawności fizycznej oraz para-metrów składu ciała.

Wyniki i wnioski. Wraz z korzystnymi dla dobrostanu zdrowotnego zmianami analizowanych parametrów odnotowano u badanych osób istotną statystycznie poprawę wydolności fizycznej i wysiłkowej. Można zatem uznać, iż u większości populacji marsz długości około 10000 kroków dziennie zaspokaja deficyt ruchu wywołany sedenteryjnym trybem życia i może być z powodzeniem zastosowany w profilaktyce zdrowotnej i w podnoszeniu sprawności fizycznej.

1 The study was supported by grant of the Czech Ministry of Education. Grant number: MSM 0021620864.



Václav Bunc

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Introduction

Physical activity oriented towards promoting active lifestyle can improve the health state and predispositions for working and leisure time activities in subjects. Unfortunately, despite these potential health benefits, the majority of current population does not exercise regularly [1].

Among the people, who do exercise, walking is the most popular physical activity. Being a weight-bearing form of aerobic exercise that can be easily integrated into one’s daily routine, it is frequently recommended as a good protection against health problems, low working and leisure capacity [2].

Major advantage of walking over running is lower frequency of injuries and lesser probability of exceeding the security level in examined patients. The strain on ligaments and joints caused by walking is significantly lower than for comparable running exercises. In the walking group it is very important that the participants

are able to communicate during the exercise, what can contribute to their wellness. Walking differs from a run-ning gait in a number of ways. The most obvious dif-ference is that in walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. There is a typically ballistic phase in running, during which the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals) [3–5].

The course of energy cost coefficient c is presented in Figure 1. In the range of intensities lower than 7 km.h–1

the dependence of the coefficient c on the speed of walking has a minimum value at a ground speed about 4 km.h–1, increasing exponentially at speeds slower, and at speed greater than 7 km.h–1 the coefficient of walking energy cost grows practically linearly with the increase of moving speed. In the same Figure 1 the coefficient c for running is presented. In the range from 4 to 12 km.h–1 this coefficient is practically constant [3].

Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called t h e d o u b l e p e n d u l u m . During forward motion the leg that leaves the ground swings forward

Figure 1. Dependence of walking and running energy cost coefficient c in dependence on speed of movement

Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence

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from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty percent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force [5–8].

Another important difference concerns the move-ment of the center of mass of the body. In walking the body “vaults” over the leg on the ground, raising the center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart [7].

Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is con-stantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running, where the center of mass is at its lowest point as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy [8].

There is an absolute limit on an individual’s speed of walking (without special techniques employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center of mass during a stride. If it is greater than the accelera-tion due to gravity, the person will become airborne as his/her body vaults over the leg on the ground. Typically however, animals switch into a run at lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies [5].

Considerable number of people walk as a hobby, and in our post-industrial times walking is recognized as one of the best forms of exercising. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight-walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths [4]. Some people prefer to walk indoors using a treadmill. In certain countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (this term is typical for North American people), rambling (a some-what old-fashioned British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on spe-cially designated routes or trails, as opposed to those in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure expressions of walking are: “to go by Marrow-bone stage”, “to take one‘s daily constitutional”, “to ride Shanks’ pony”, “to ride Shanks’ mare”, or “to go by Walker’s bus”. Search and rescue responders, who prefer walking to riding, driv-

ing, flying, climbing or sitting in a communications trail-er, are known as “ground pounders” [4]. Professionals, who work on encouraging people to walk, come from six sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport and recreation and urban design.

Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confi-dence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and reduce stress. It can also minimalize the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind, as it improves memory skills, learning ability, concentra-tion and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress and uplifting one’s spirits [9]. Health benefits of physi-cal activity are well-documented in relation to weight management and the prevention of chronic illnesses; it is also an important factor in the process of improving mental health and cognitive function [10].

In spite of above-mentioned, our knowledge of the benefits of physical activity does not go hand in hand with our understanding of how to get people active and maintain activity level. There is an urgent need to de-velop and test strategies for non-trained subjects to include physical activity into their lifestyle. These in-terventions need to be systematic, robust, and longer- -term, incorporating different methods of engaging spe-cific demands of intervened population groups [11].

A large number of factors influence physical ac-tivity behavior, yet there is limited evidence of the ef-fectiveness of strategies to increase physical activity. This is the case particularly in regard to booster pro-grams, even though the little specific data available on physical activity booster programs is generally positive. Interestingly, lessons may be learned from the obesity treatment area, which has made significant gains in terms of promoting and improving long-term behavior change [9, 12].

The 10,000 steps per day is a physical activity pre-scription that has been suggested to meet the minimum recommendation for physical activity. Despite some research, that supports walking regularly and complet-ing 10,000 steps a day as enough activity to produce positive changes in lifestyle and certain aspects of fit-ness and cardiovascular health, numerous researchers have shown limited effectiveness of walking programs, having questioned long-term durability of observed changes [13–15].

Walking is among such forms of physical activity which have proved their unique usefulness from both

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physical and psychosocial standpoints in the health improvement program of the elderly people. However, there are many barriers to physical activity for the el-derly, including safety issues, access, support, and health concerns. Community mall walking programs have the potential to remove several of these barriers, particularly safety and social support needs [6].

Effects of walking

Recent position statements have reaffirmed the benefits of an active lifestyle [9, 10]. The current physical activity recommendation for adults, aged between 18–65 years, to promote and maintain health is to accumulate at least 30 minutes of moderately intense physical activity on at least five days of the week. Promoting accumulative, lifestyle physical activity is an ideal approach to combat the high levels of inactivity evident in global populations [16, 17].

Brisk walking has been suggested as the mode of physical activity most likely to increase physical activity at a population level [18] and is the most commonly re-ported mode of exercise amongst adults in many popula-tions [11, 16]. It is available to almost all individuals with little risk of injury, as a no-cost activity it can be incor-porated into people’s daily routines [19]. Researchers have identified that self-determined brisk walking, even in short bouts of 10 minutes, for 30 minutes a day (includ-ing simple everyday walking activities such as walking a dog) produce moderate physical activity at the intensity required to achieve health benefits [20, 21].

Walking interventions can be effective in reducing body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumference, body fat, blood pressure and the cho-lesterol high density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio [20–27], and may be effective in improving mood, affect [25, 28, 30] and quality of life [31]. Conversely, some studies have demonstrated that walking intervention as such is not sufficient to affect any of these health-related out-comes [32–36]. The reasons for such equivocal results are unclear, therefore determining the potential health benefits that can be achieved through walking is crucial to the public health message.

Whilst several meta-analytical and systematic reviews exist that examine how best to promote physical activity [37, 38], there is comparatively limited evidence on the most effective methods to specifically promote walking.

A recent systematic review from Ogilvie et al. [6] exam-ined the effectiveness of interventions aimed to increase walking at both the individual and population levels. The

review concluded that the strongest evidence existed for tailored interventions that were targeted at individuals most motivated to change. The authors suggested that future studies should also attempt to examine whether walking interventions “are sufficiently frequent, intense, or sustained to produce measurable outcomes in anthropo-metric, physiological, biochemical or clinical outcomes”.

A recent systematic review examined the associa-tion between pedometer use, physical activity levels and a variety of health-related outcomes [39]. The authors concluded that the use of pedometer was significantly associated with increased physical activity levels and reductions in BMI and systolic blood pressure. In 2006 the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the United Kingdom produced a review of pedometer-based intervention studies between 1990 and 2005 [40]. Due to stringent incorporation criteria, conclusions from this review were drawn from only four studies. Both reviews provide support for the suggestion that pedometers may be useful motivational tools for in-creasing walking. However, there are several limitations, considering the volume of published studies in this area, highlighted in these reviews. Studies were predominantly of short duration (< 12 weeks) and based in the USA with small samples consisting mostly of clinical sub-pop-ulations. The evidence seemed to be limited regarding their effectiveness in non-clinical samples or in countries other than the USA. Additionally, few studies reported more than one outcome variable of interest. There was a need for cross-cultural, sufficiently powered random-ized controlled trials to further examine the effectiveness of pedometers in a community setting.

In practice, a provider’s ability to promote physical activity has been limited by time constraints, lack of training in exercise prescription, concerns over monitor-ing patient safety, and lack of access to cost-effective resources that help patients remain active.

The goal of this study was to assess an effect of intervention program based on walking on physical fit-ness and body composition in groups without of regular physical training differing in age.


Three age groups: children (139 with normal mass, 95 overweight and 65 with diagnosed obesity; mean age 12.2 ± 2.1 years), middle age men (68 individuals; mean age 45.7 ± 3.6 years) and 53 healthy senior women (53 individuals; mean age 68.7 ± 5.0 years) participated in the study that was among a set of physical


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activity programs carried out by the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Charles University in Prague. The research was performed on subjects residing in the area of Prague, without objective internal limitation. Before the participation in this study, all researched individuals were subjected to the medical evaluation and dynamical assessment of ECG and blood pressure that was conducted by a physician one week before the start of the program.

Selected anthropometrical and maximal functional variables are collected in Tables 1–3.

Before the beginning of each movement diagnostics it was necessary to verify the movement ability of sub-

jects (whether the particular subject was able to perform the movement activity that would be under assessment). This process could be divided in two parts [41]:– s k i l l s : the level of movements decisive for diagnos-

tics evaluation and resulted from absolved training,– m u s c l e s s t a t e (morphological, strength,

etc.): strongly dependent on genetic predispositions but under the influence of imposed training.

The maximal functional variables were determined on a treadmill with the slope of 5% during a progres-sive walking test until subjective exhaustion. The initial

Table 1. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in adults

Variables Before After

BM (kg) BM (%)

79.1 ± 7.9100

75.6 ± 7.8* 95.6 ± 4.6*

FFM (kg) FFM (%)

64.0 ± 3.8100

65.4 ± 6.7*102.0 ± 5.2*

BFabs (%) BFrel (%)

19.1 ± 3.1100

15.9 ± 2.8** 83.2 ± 3.1**

BCM (kg) BCM (%)

35.2 ± 3.7100

37.0 ± 2.8*105.1 ± 2.7**

ECM/BCMECM/BCM (%)

0.82 ± 0.03100

0.78 ± 0.02** 95.2 ± 3.2**

HRmax (b · min–1) 178 ± 7 176 ± 6

VO2max · kg–1 (ml) VO2max · kg–1 (%)

33.1 ± 5.3100

38.7 ± 4.8**117.0 ± 3.3**

vmax (5%) (km · h–1) Vmax (5%) (%)

6.8 ± 1.1100

7.8 ± 0.9**115.0 ± 1.5**

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

Table 2. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in seniors


BM (kg)BM (%)

69.9 ± 7.9100

70.4 ± 7.8100.7 ± 5.9

FFM (kg) FFM (%)

43.7 ± 6.8100

45.9 ± 6.7*105.0 ± 5.2*

Fatabs (%) Fatrel (%)

37.5 ± 5.1100

36.9 ± 4.8 98.4 ± 3.9

BCM (kg) BCM (%)

22.8 ± 5.0100

25.1 ± 4.8**110.0 ± 2.7**

ECM/BCMECM/BCM (%)

0.92 ± 0.03100

0.82 ± 0.02** 89.2 ± 3.6**

HRmax (b · min–1) 134 ± 6 133 ± 5

VO2max · kg–1 (ml) VO2max · kg–1 (%) %VO2max · kg–1 (%)

17.5 ± 3.0100

67.4 ± 3.2

19.0 ± 3.2**108.6 ± 3.7** 67.8 ± 3.0**

vmax (5%) (km · h–1) vmax (5%) (%)%vmax (%)

4.4 ± 3.1100

73.3 ± 2.9

4.7 ± 3.4**106.8 ± 3.3 72.3 ± 3.0

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01

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speed on the treadmill was in range of 3–5 km · h–1 (in dependence on physical fitness state) and was in-creased each minute by 1 km · h–1. The cardiorespirato-ry variables were measured in an open system using an on-line method by TEEM 100 (Aerosport). All analyzers were checked before and after each test by a calibra-tion gas of known concentration.

Time duration of intervention was 5 months. The program was realized in spring or autumn.

The energy outputs were on the level of 1000 kcal (4180 kJ) per week in seniors, 1500 kcal (6270 kJ) in adults and 2000 kcal (8360 kJ) in children in accord with the construction of individual moving programs [42].

Age-related changes in body composition (BC) have implications for physical function and health. The redistribution and increase of fat and the loss of muscle mass result in substantial decrease in functional capac-ity. Although BC, as well as the age-related changes in it, has a strong genetic component, it is also influenced by environmental factors. The primary influences are nutrition, disease and physical activity [43].

Clinically, BC is viewed in terms of two compart-ments: fat and fat-free mass [43, 44]. Fat mass (FM) plus fat-free mass (FFM) are made of proteins, water, and minerals, equal to the total body mass.

Beginning in middle adulthood, FFM tends to decline gradually both in men and women, primarily due to the wasting of muscle tissue [43]. Similarly the amount of FFM decreases with age the body cell mass (BCM) in subjects without of systematically physical training. This similarity is confirmed by a high signifi-cant positive correlation between these both variables

[44]. The BCM is the sum of oxygen-using, calcium rich, glucose-oxidising cells. This variable may in-directly characterize the ability of human to sustain a mechanical work.

Numerous tools and methodologies have been developed to measure various BC parameters. The bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) seems to be among the most used methods in the field of conditions [45]. Regardless of instrument chosen to assess BC, the method happens to be as good as the measure-ment technique and prediction or conversion formula applied. To remain valid, the conversion formulas and prediction equations selected must be restricted to the populations from which they were derived [43–45].

One of the basic themes in exercise science re-search has focused on the relation of exercise on improvement of physical fitness, usually measured as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Physical fitness is a broad concept, encompassing several specific types of fitness including strength, flexibility and balance [46]. The actual physical fitness state of subjects is not only the predisposition of better physical performance but also the significant basis of their working capacity and (especially in seniors) of independency.

When evaluating the influence of physical activity in humans it is important to know the energy requirements [47]. Positive influence is exerted only by physical ac-tivities, which guarantee that a minimal threshold is ex-ceeded. The level depends on the purpose for which these activities are performed.

The body cell mass is calculated using the FFM and phase angle between whole impedance vector and resistance α [44]. The extra cellular mass (ECM)

Table 3. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass state


BM (kg) (N) BM (%) BFabs (%) BFrel (%)

44.0 ± 3.8100

19.7 ± 3.9100

45.4 ± 3.7*103.2 ± 5.2* 17.0 ± 3.0** 86.3 ± 3.6**

BM (kg) (OV) BM (%) BFabs (%) BFrel (%)

52.6 ± 3.0100

24.6 ± 3.1100

48.4 ± 2.3**92.1 ± 2.0** 20.8 ± 2.5**84.6 ± 2.4**

BM (kg) (OB) BM (%) BFabs (%) BFrel (%)

63.2 ± 3.6100

28.3 ± 3.1100

54.3 ± 2.8**98.4 ± 3.923.9 ± 2.9**84.4 ± 3.1**

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity


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is the difference between FFM and BCM – ECM = FFM – BCM. The FFM was calculated according to modified formula of Deurenberg et al. [47].

Resistance and reactance were measured at four frequencies – 1, 5, 50 and 100 kHz (B.I.A. 2000M, Data Input, Germany) on the right side of the body by tetrapolar electrode configuration in accordance with manufacturer’s specification. For the calculation of body fat content we used the prediction equation that was validated in senior women by DEXA method. The energy demand of physical exercise was collected accordingly to Caltrac accelerometer readings together with the assessment of the energy cost of exercise from general relationship between the exercise intensity and energy that he/she needs to cover this activity [47]. The differences between both methods were lower than 12%.

According to our measurements, made in children (n = 320), adult men (n = 154), adult women (n = 86), and senior women (n = 106), the general dependence of oxygen consumption on walking speed on flat sur-face in range of intensities 3–9 km · h–1 was established in the below form:

VO2 · kg–1(ml · kg–1 · min–1) =

=5.7488* v (km · h–1) – 6.0561

r = 0.872, p < 0.005, SEE == 1.49 ml · kg–1 · min–1, TEE = 1.74 ml · kg–1 · min–1

For calculation of energy cost from oxygen uptake mean energy equivalent for oxygen 4.83 kcal · min · l–1

(20.2 kJ · min · l–1) was used, neglecting the contribu-tion of protein (about 15%) to the total metabolism [42].

Results and discussion

All participants were able to perform the recommended content of intervention. The minimal volume of walking ranged from 82% in children to 88% in seniors.

Basic data on the implemented intervention pro-gram:• the amount of time spent on exercising at intensity

range of 80–90% HRmax in weekly volume ranged between 90–250 min; walking time ranged between 80 and 220 min:

• the amount of time spent on performing other form of physical activity ranged between 10 and 30 min; rest exercises: home gymnastics, swimming, jogging, cycling, etc.;

• the mean volume of daily steps ranged from 9 700 ± 310 steps/day in seniors to 11 250 ± 408 steps/day in children with normal body mass.

Mean values of selected anthropometrical and functional variables are presented in Tables 1–4. The initially values of BC and aerobic fitness were practi-cally identical with the Czech population standards for this age. After the 5-month aerobic training, both values of aerobic fitness and BC were significantly better than the Czech population standards [46].

The energy output of performed moving activities in seniors ranged from 650 kcal (2675 kJ) to 1780 kcal (7740 kJ); mean: 950 ± 230 kcal (3970 ± 960 kJ). The

Table 4. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass state


Vmax (km · h–1) (N) Vmax (%) VO2max · kg–1 (ml) VO2max · kg–1 (%)

12.5 ± 1.8100

44.6 ± 3.9100

13.9 ± 1.7*111.2 ± 4.2** 51.2 ± 3.0**114.8 ± 3.6**

Vmax (km · h–1) (OV) Vmax (%) VO2max · kg–1 (ml) VO2max · kg–1 (%)

11.8 ± 1.1100

33.1 ± 5.3100

12.8 ± 0.9*108.5 ± 0.9* 38.7 ± 4.8**116.9 ± 1.5**

Vmax (km · h–1) (OB) Vmax (%) VO2max · kg–1 (ml) VO2max · kg–1 (%)

9.8 ± 0.3100

24.5 ± 3.2100

10.4 ± 0.4*106.1 ± 2.2* 27.7 ± 3.3**113.1 ± 3.6**

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity

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energy output in adults ranged from 1020 kcal (4264 kJ) to 2250 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 1500 ± 290 kcal (6270 ± 1212 kJ).

Results of the intervention with this energy content were presented in Tables 1–2. Majority of followed variables were better after the intervention programme than at the start of evaluation.

In children we assess the effect of walking interven-tion in subjects differing in body mass state. Movement program developed among children with normal body mass concerned energy content ranged from 1360 kcal (5685 kJ) to 2620 kcal (10952 kJ); mean: 1980 ± 310 kcal (8276 ± 1296 kJ).

In overweight children energy content ranged from 1650 kcal (6897 kJ) to 2310 kcal (9656 kJ); mean: 1920 ± 230 kcal (8026 ± 960 kJ), and in children with obesity energy content ranged from 1940 kcal (8109 kJ) to 2550 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 2260 ± 290 kcal (9447 ± 1212 kJ).

Results of these interventions are inserted in Tables 3–4. The changes of majority variables are presented in relative description non-dependent on body mass state, which means that the walking program causes practically the same changes in BC and in physical fit-ness state. Of course the above values, recalculated suitably to body mass, were worse in subjects with higher body mass.

The proportion between the ECM and BCM ratio may be used to identify fluid imbalance or malnutrition and/or to assess the predispositions for muscular work. The term “malnutrition” refers to the loss of structural body components, which is most accurately reflected by the BCM and an increase of the ECM [44].

The use of ECM/BCM for evaluation of physical ex-ercise predispositions was confirmed by the significant dependence of VO2max on this variable. The relationship between VO2max and physical performance was often presented in literature [e.g. 41]. In our group of subjects this dependence was significant too (ranged from r = 0.792, p < 0.01 in seniors to r = 0.720, p < 0.01 in chil-dren). In practice this coefficient could be used as one of important criterions for exercise program efficiency.

The significant positive ECM/BCM dependence on age could be helpful for assessment of actual develop-ment state – biological age in seniors. In actual case we compare real value of ECM/BCM with value that was calculated according to general relationship that is true for senior women.

In normal subjects of middle age, ECM/BCM ratios are recorded between 0.75 and 1.00. Deviations from

such figures toward higher values are due either to the erosion of BCM (catabolism) or to fluid expansion in ex-tracellular spaces (edema). In the case of dehydration, we can observe the opposite phenomenon where the ECM/BCM ratio is reduced [44]. Because the diet of fol-lowed subject remained practically without any signifi-cant alterations during the whole 6-month period, the significant increase in both FFM and BCM was prob-ably caused by imposed training program.

The changes in VO2max induced by endurance walk-ing program were practically consistent with those registered by Proper et al. [49], who found in group of senior men and women of similar age a 14% increase in aerobic fitness, and significant increase in FFM, and significant decrease in BF and total body mass. These results were confirmed by our data but the changes in BC variables were not so high.

There was clear evidence to show that the magni-tude of the increase in VO2max was dependent on total energy expenditure of exercise, and thus on frequency, and duration of exercise. As previous investigations have shown, the improvement is in direct proportion to the number of weekly sessions [42, 49]. According to the results of previous studies, VO2max as measured ei-ther in laboratory or in field was generally improved dur-ing the first months of conscription among non-trained subjects [46].

The minimum training energy expenditure, required to maintain an elevated VO2max, was not clearly estab-lished. For example the most recent ACSM prescrip-tion guidelines [50] recommended minimal energy ex-penditure of 300 kcal per exercise session performed three days a week or 200 kcal per exercise session performed four days per week.

Adequate energy output had its effect both on the presence and on the absence of other influences, and the beneficial relationship continues with advancing age.

Conclusion

Physical activities based on walking could be implemented without having to visit special sports facilities and often expensive equipment. A major advantage is that it could be implemented in virtually any weather at the time acceptable by the individual. Walking could be realized either as an individual activity or as a group activity [51]. It is also essential that walking could be realized within the family as a joint activity of children, parents and grandparents. It should be also noted that


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walking at speeds higher than 6 km/h is already significant burden on the body and therefore it is necessary to precede all intensive intervention programs by the medical examination of participants.

The condition required daily volume of physical ac-tivity about 10,000 steps as a means to move in fulfilling everyday tasks such as working, leisure time activities, regeneration. Another success is the regularity (at least

three times a week, at least 30 minutes and more), 10 to 20 minutes daily is preferable.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that walking in energy expenditure ranged from 1000 kcal in seniors to 2000 kcal in children per week may significantly im-prove the state of physical fitness, body composition and motor performance (speed of running) in non- -trained groups of subject differing in age.


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FUNCTIONAL AND DYNAMIC ASYMMETRY IN BOYS AGED 10–12 YEARS(CONTINUOUS RESEARCH)

ASYMETRIA FUNKCJONALNA I DYNAMICZNA CHŁOPCÓW W WIEKU 10–12 LAT

(BADANIA CIĄGŁE)

Marta Wieczorek*

* PhD, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland

Key words: functional asymmetry, dynamic asymmetry, boysSłowa kluczowe: asymetria funkcjonalna, asymetria dynamiczna, chłopcy

Introduction. Significant changes in motor and psychophysical development are observed during school years. Lateralization is one of the developmental regularities. A lateralization evaluation is essential in cases of diagnostics in children with speech dysfunctions, motor clumsiness, and problems with reading and writing.

Aim of the study. The cognitive aim is to observe and compare the functional and dynamic lateralization in boys aged 10 to 12 years during research carried out on the same group of subjects. The practical aim of this paper is to expand the teachers’ knowledge on lateralization, which is important for normal development of human beings.

Material and methods. The research was carried out on a group of 30 boys and was carried out for 3 con-secutive years. The first phase of the research was carried out when children were 10 years old (2006). The next tests were carried out in 2007 and 2008. The Wroclaw Asymmetry Test, by Koszczyc and Sekita, was used during the research.

Results. When we observed changes in functional and dynamic lateralization that occurred during the two years, we can state that there were changes in functions of tested motor and sense organs and the same changes in determined profiles. Changes in dynamic lateralization of motor capabilities were not observed.

Conclusions. Showing that the lateralization process in the investigated group of boys aged 10 to 12 years takes place enables us to observe it, to diagnose it, and to employ a therapy, if necessary, to avoid develop-mental abnormalities. Physical education teachers are very important, since they can stimulate this process through suitably selected exercises and games involving physical movement.

Wstęp. W okresie nauki szkolnej obserwuje się u dzieci znaczące zmiany w rozwoju fizyczno-psychiczno-motorycznym. Do prawidłowości tego okresu rozwoju zalicza się lateralizacja, której ocena jest niezbędna zwłaszcza do właściwego zdiagnozowania uczniów wykazujących zaburzenia mowy, zaburzenia motoryki czy też trudności w uczeniu się czytania i pisania.

Cel pracy. Celem poznawczym było rozpoznanie, jakie zmiany zachodzą w asymetrii funkcjonalnej i dyna-micznej u chłopców między dziesiątym a dwunastym rokiem życia w aspekcie badań ciągłych tej samej grupy. Celem praktycznym pracy było wzbogacenie stanu wiedzy na temat znaczenia lateralizacji w prawidłowym rozwoju człowieka.

Materiał i metody. Badanie, którym objęto trzydziestoosobową grupę chłopców, było prowadzone przez trzy lata. Pierwszy etap zrealizowano, gdy dzieci miały dziesięć lat (w 2006 roku). Kolejne etapy badania przeprowa-



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dzono w 2007 i 2008 roku. Do ich realizacji posłużono się Wrocławskim Testem Asymetrii autorstwa Koszczyca i Sekity.

Wyniki. W opisie zmian asymetrii funkcjonalnej i dynamicznej, jakie stwierdzono u badanych chłopców ciągu dwu lat, wykazano zmiany w zakresie ukierunkowania badanych narządów ruchu i zmysłu i tym samym w zakresie występowania profili ustalonych. Nie stwierdzono natomiast zmian poziomu asymetrii dynamicznej badanych zdolności motorycznych.

Wnioski. U osób w wieku 10–12 lat proces lateralizacji jest w toku, co umożliwia jego obserwację, szczegółową diagnozę i w razie konieczności – wdrożenie terapii, zapobiegającej utrwalaniu się nieprawidłowości rozwojowych. Ważną rolę mają w tej profilaktyce do spełnienia także nauczyciele wychowania fizycznego, którzy przez za pomocą odpowiednio dobranych ćwiczeń i zadań ruchowych mogą skutecznie stymulować ten proces.

Introduction

The notions of symmetry and asymmetry are inherent to human existence. They seem to be inseparable, yet at the same time they are mutually opposing concepts. Since ancient times symmetry has been present in the artistic work of primitive peoples and in early historical painting; it was also a vital element of Egyptian, ancient and medieval art, as well as religious painting. Though asymmetry was less frequently used in arts, to more outstanding individuals it seemed to be mysterious, disparate, engaging, and curious. In modern times, however, the issues of symmetry and asymmetry arouse interest not merely in terms of aesthetics. As for man, we know that asymmetry in the human, body both morphologically and functionally, is considered a developmental regularity; the process leading to its emergence, defined as lateralization, is one of the aspects and at the same time factors in the normal motor development in children [1, 2, 3]. Lateralization refers to the properties of the human body situated between morphology and function. This is a process closely linked with the predominance of one cerebral hemisphere in control of certain human activities, and it is the outcome of anatomical and physiological brain asymmetry. Its development depends on the maturation of brain tissue and neural pathways and takes place parallel with maturation of the central nervous system [4]. The first symptoms of predominance, which pertain to the hand, may already be observed in infants beginning from the ages of 6 to 7 months. Predominance of one hand over the other becomes clear in many children about 4 years old. As a rule, however, lateralization of motor activities in hands becomes established between the ages of 6 to 7 years, to finally becoming developed at the age of 12 years. Concurrently, and parallel to development of lateralization of motor activities, lateralization in visual and auditory perception is also developed. After the age of 12, the majority of children present determined lateralization in relation to the hand, eye, and foot, which is

connected with the level of CNS development, and thus cerebral hemispheric specialization. With respect to these facts, undetermined asymmetry is not considered to be a developmental pathology in children who are 12 years old. Only its diagnosis after this age indicates retardation or developmental disorders [4, 5]

To evaluate lateralization, when this process is finished or when we assess its status at a given developmental stage, we refer to the notion of asymmetry, predominance, or sidedness. Body asymmetry in humans may be seen in many aspects, yet in physical culture sciences it is primarily presented as morphological (diversification in body build), functional (diversification in function), and dynamic (size diversification).

Lateralization is an extremely important process in children’s development. A defined level of lateralization determines efficient operation. Delayed lateralization leads to disorders in motor and mental fitness. Children representing a low level of lateralization usually present a low level of physical fitness and dexterity; they have poorer motor coordination than their peers with clear lateralization. Disorders of coordination cause decreased velocity and precision of movements, which translates into a lack of economy and harmony of activities. Poorly lateralized children display difficulties in learning to read, write, and count; in spatial orientation; and in recognizing the sides of the body. Also their spatial orientation is disturbed: such children have problems with recognizing the right and left sides of the body and difficulties in reproducing geometrical shapes. These factors render activities, including both intellectual and motor learning, less effective. Yet a high level of lateralization affects cognitive processes, determines efficient action, and conditions the course of the learning process itself [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. At the initial stage of research on lateralization, the disorders came down to the problem of lefthandedness. Today, views have changed, and its course and status are investigated in terms of model, pace of development in ontogenesis, and its neurophysiologic background. Models of homo

Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years

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geneous lateralization are considered to be normal [4]. A look at a crosslateralization model remains a moot point. Spionek [5] finds that nonhomogeneity in the eye and hand causes poorer visuomotor coordination and translates into difficulties in learning to read and write. Subsequent studies show, however, that approximately onethird of the adult population is lefteyed and juxtaposition with approximately 90% of the population of the righthanded people, makes the existence of the crossmodel pertaining to the eye and hand quite common [4]. Therefore, it may not be assumed that crosslateralization is a developmental pathology or a cause of difficulties at school, as it may only accompany them. We may talk explicitly about disorders of lateralization in relation to the presence of an undetermined model. At this point, our attention should be drawn to the notion of socalled ambidextrousness. The view that ambidextrous children use one hand and the other equally well is erroneous. A comparative study on manual motor fitness in children that represented various degrees and models of lateralization showed that dexterity of hands in originally ambidextrous children comes close to the dexterity shown by hands in “worse” children who were lateralized early and strongly [5].

The information presented above indicates the importance of lateralization for normal psychomotor development in humans. From these theoretical considerations follows the aim of the research carried out for the purposes of the present work. The cognitive aim was to identify the changes present in functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys between the ages of 10 and 12 years as part of continuous research on the same study group.

To define the empirical procedure, the following research questions have been posed:1. What were the changes concerning the direction

and profile of functional asymmetry in investigated boys?

2. What were the status and changes relating to motor abilities of the right and left sides of the bodies in the investigated boys?

3. What were the changes in the level of dynamic asymmetry of motor abilities in investigated boys?


A group of 30 boys were selected for the purposes of the study. For 3 years, the tests were carried out at the end of September and the beginning of October. The first study took place when children were 10 years old

(fourth grade), the last tests when they were 12 years old (sixth grade), respectively. The tests were performed in a large town (more than 500,000 inhabitants) in southern Poland. The selection of research material was dependent on several factors. First, children at this age undergo appropriate didactic and educational procedures, and it seems interesting to observe physical development in children connected both with the natural process of growing as well as that development induced by specific didactic activities. Secondly, the selected school age is a period of certain stabilization in a child’s development, particularly in boys, before adolescence [8]. Thirdly, according to the literature on the subject, at about the age of 12 years, the direction of asymmetry in children’s bodies is finally established [4].

The Wrocław Asymmetry Direction and Size Test, developed by Koszczyc and Sekita [9], was used for the purposes of the study. It consists of two parts. First, functional asymmetry is evaluated (qualitative assessment of sidedness). Assessment is based on observation of unrestricted choice made by a subject of hand, eye and foot to perform a given motor task. According to the assumptions made by the authors of the test, the credibility of the study is higher the more the subject’s attention is focused on the performance of the task and not on the choice of the limb or eye for its completion. Thus, the description of trials and the manner of conducting them was presented in the form of tasks. This test is comprised of 10 tasks. Two test trials (the first and the last) pertain to an activity subject to social control; three of them are connected with handedness; three with footedness; and two with eyedness, respectively. On the basis of the qualitative analysis of performed trials, the sidedness of subjects in terms of the hand, foot, and eye is specified. Lateralization is determined (right or left) when in all tasks pertaining to the same organ or sense, a subject uses the same side of the body. Sidedness is undetermined when, in trials connected with a given organ, a subject uses the left and right side of the body interchangeably. Subsequently, on the basis of data concerning sidedness, the direction and profile of asymmetry was determined. The direction is defined as the percentage of individuals in a given population characterized by specific sidedness regarding the investigated sense or motor organ. A profile may be defined as a system of sidedness in the eyehandfoot arrangement. The profile may be determined as homogenous when the predominance of all organs on one side of the body occurs (e.g., right

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eyedness – righthandedness – rightfootedness). It also may be determined to be nonhomogeneous, or in other words defined as a cross profile, when specific side predominance is present, but on different sides of the body (e.g., lefteyedness – righthandedness – leftfootedness) and undetermined when in at least one of the organs unspecified direction of asymmetry takes place (e.g., lefteyedness – righthandedness – unspecified footedness) [4].

In the second part of the test, the degree of dynamic asymmetry (quantitative evaluation of sidedness) is assessed based on the difference in the results of tasks performed by means of the right and left upper and lower limbs. The evaluation refers to two motor abilities: strength and velocity. The entire test encompasses four tasks: 1 Speed of movement: upper limbs [number]: the tap

ping on the circles test [quantity].2 Speed of movement: lower limbs [number]: the tap

ping test by Fleishman [quantity].3 Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]: throwing

a medicine ball (1 kg) in a sitting position [cm].4 Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]: a onelegged

jump test from the spot [cm].

Analysis of obtained results was made with Statistica program version 9.0 PL for Windows and the Excel spreadsheet program. Analysis of functional asymmetry was performed with the use of percentage values. Analysis of results concerning motor skills in the right and left side of the body was made using parametric techniques. Basic statistical values (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, and variation coefficient) for analyzed variables in relevant age groups were calculated. The value of Student’s t test

was calculated for dependent variables (result obtained for the right and left side of the body). Statistical significance indicated presence of a substantial level of asymmetry and the value of the test pertained to its size.

Functional asymmetry in the examined group of 10–12-year-old boys

In the examined group of 10yearold boys, a rightward direction prevails in terms of eyedness (40%) and footedness (43%). As for handedness, unspecified direction (53%) predominates. In 11yearolds in all examined motor and sense organs, the right direction is dominant. This is most vividly seen in handedness (72%) and footedness (61%). No subject displays an unspecified direction of asymmetry. In 12yearold boys in all examined motor and sense organs the right direction predominates, which is very clearly marked in handedness (75%) and footedness (72%). None of the boys undergoing tests presented an unspecified direction.

A comparison of the subjects in terms of changes in the direction of handedness showed that changes were revealed in the decreasing number of examined boys with undetermined handedness in favor of right and lefthandedness, that is, determined handedness. Interestingly, a high percentage of ambidextrous subjects are found among 10yearolds, who become lateralized to one side of the body a year later, although with a substantial proportion of lefthandedness (Fig.1).

The analysis of changes in direction of eyedness in the examined group of boys shows that only among those aged 10 years with unspecified direction of eyedness are present. Among 11 and 12yearolds only right and lefteyedness was observed (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Comparison of handedness direction in researched group of boys


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A comparison of examined boys with regard to changes of direction in footedness showed changes in a decreasing proportion of subjects with undetermined footedness and leftfootedness in favor of rightfooted subjects (Fig. 3).

All things considered, it seems that in the investigated group of boys, the biggest changes pertaining to settling the direction of asymmetry took place between the ages of 10 and 11 years. Among 11yearolds there were no subjects that represented an unspecified direction of asymmetry in all examined organs. Changes which appeared between the ages of 11 and 12 years turned out to be only a few and related to an increasing number of individuals with rightdirection in the examined motor and sense organs.

What followed was an analysis of the status and changes in the area of the profile of functional asymme

try. In the examined group of 10yearold boys, a determined heterogeneous profile (51%) predominates. Yet 19 % of them represent still an undetermined profile. Among 11yearold boys, a still determined heterogeneous profile (61%) prevails; there are, however, no subjects of undetermined profile, and 39 % of the examined group represents a determined homogeneous profile. In the group of 12yearold boys, a determined homogeneous profile predominates (65%). In this connection, we can easily observe that with regard to the profile of asymmetry, similar to its direction, the biggest changes took place between the ages of 10 and 11 years. However, between the ages of 11 and 12 years, minor changes occurred pertaining to the increase in the number of individuals with a determined homogeneous profile (Fig. 4).

To sum up the changes in functional asymmetry in the period of two years, in the examined boys, it should

Figure 2. Comparison of eyedness direction in researched group of boys

Figure 3. Comparison of footedness direction in researched group of boys

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be noted that they were observable both in the direction as well as profile of asymmetry. This fact shows that in the group of subjects aged 10 to 12 years, the process of lateralization takes place and leads to occurrence of normal, determined directions and determined profiles of functional asymmetry in an increasing proportion of subjects.

Dynamic asymmetry in the examined group of boys aged 10–12 years

With regard to all investigated motor skills, boys obtained better results using the right side of the body then the left one. With age, the results increased both

Figure 4. Comparison of functional asymmetry profiles in researched group of boys

Table 1. Results of motor fitness of right and left body side in tested 10-year-old boys

Feature Body side x– s Min. Max.

Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]R 52.40 9.43 38.00 69.00

L 45.57 6.91 36.00 58.00

Speed of movements: lower limbs [number]R 46.30 6.38 35.00 59.00L 44.20 6.31 34.00 55.00

Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]R 370.52 52.48 211.00 449.00L 344.33 45.05 278.00 410.00

Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]R 111.34 12.01 97.00 145.00L 105.71 8.93 89.00 126.00

R – Right side L – Left side x– – arithmetic mean s – standard deviation Min. – minimal value Max. – maximum value



Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]R 54.30 8.73 40.00 71.00

L 46.23 7.33 35.00 57.00


Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]R 388.43 46.35 242.00 461.00

L 364.76 41.18 302.00 441.00



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in relation to the right and left side of the body (Tables 1, 2, 3). In every examined age group, with regard to the speed of upper and lower limb movements and upper limb muscle strength, significant dynamic asymmetry occurred at comparable levels. Only for lower limb muscle strength did the difference in results between the right and left side of the body occur to be statistically insignificant during all stages of the study. Analysis of changes in the asymmetry level in the period of two years, as expressed by means of the Student’s t test value, demonstrates that its level increases with age; however these changes are inconsequential. Lower limb muscle strength did not reveal any substantial level of asymmetry during the entire period of our study (Table 4).

Discussion

In the literature many titles on diagnosing body lateralization in children and adolescents in various age groups may be found. The employed research methods are, however, quite diversified, thus preventing direct reference of the results to those of author’s own study. When diagnosing children and adolescents we may face substantial diversification in the lateralization system [4]. The upper limbs undergo the earliest and most intense lateralization. The study carried out by Koszczyc and Surynt [10] proved that manual func



Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]R 56.13 7.54 41.00 69.00L 47.80 4.94 39.00 57.00


Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]R 402.13 41.31 270.00 459.00L 379.56 38.70 305.00 452.00


Table 4. Size of dynamic asymmetry and its changes among researched boys

FeatureStatistical significance

10 years 11 years 12 years

Speed of movements: upper limbs [number] 2.3456* 2.4879* 2.5467*Speed of movements: lower limbs [number] 2.7423* 2.8873* 2.9789*Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm] 2.1257* 2.2345* 2.4436*Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm] 0.8734 0.9135 0.9812

* – statistically significant values (number of asterisks accounts for the degree of statistical significance)

tion asymmetry is already completed in 7yearolds and subsequent changes pertain only to the size of dynamic asymmetry. These results are not consistent with those obtained in this paper, as more than 50% of the examined 10yearold boys had an unspecified direction of handedness, whereas the level of dynamic asymmetry pertaining to motor skills, although significant, did not reveal any noticeable progression. Such a state in terms of knowledge on development of lateralization in ontogenesis seems to be very alarming, yet according to Bogdanowicz [4], the process of lateralization is completed at about the age of 12 years, and only then its abnormalities may be interpreted as developmental disorders. Also, interesting data were obtained in relation to the number of lefthanded boys. As many as 28% of the 11yearolds presented this direction of sidedness in hand. Upon having reviewed the results connected with the level of lefthandedness, Bogdanowicz [4] demonstrated their considerable diversity – scatter in evaluation of the lefthanded individuals percentage is included in the 1–30% population range. Figures showing a mean of 10% of lefthanders in society prevail. In relation to the above data, the examined boys present a high percentage of lefthandedness. Continuous research connected with changes in body lateralization was conducted by: Koszczyc [3], Drabik [11], Wolański i Siniarska [12], Wokroj [13], Stokłosa [14], Wieczorek and Hradzki [15], Rzepa, Wójcik [16]. In an investiga

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tion on children aged 7 to 10 years in terms of dynamic asymmetry, Koszczyc [3] finds that fitness shown by the right side of the body is better than in the left side and the difference in fitness of the right and left side increased with age. Similar results were obtained by Wolański and Siniarska [12] in a study performed on Polish population aged 2–80 years. Drabik [11] points out substantial reversal in the direction of functional asymmetry from undetermined to determined in children aged 9–13 years. Stokłosa [14] in an investigation on girls and boys aged 7 to 15 years with regard to development of functional asymmetry claims that with age the number of individuals representing determined lateralization with predominance of rightward lateralization, both relating to the hand, eye and foot, and thus the number of persons with a homogeneous rightward profile increases. Similar results were obtained by Wokroj [13] in her research on individuals aged 4 to 80 years. Wieczorek and Hradzki [15] in their study on boys aged 14 to 16 years discovered that in terms of functional asymmetry changes in settling of the profile are still present, and that significant changes of the size of dynamic asymmetry take place, even though the subjects were examined at an age in which, based on literature, the process of lateralization should be completed. Bogdanowicz reported, however, that in males the process of lateralization is completed much later, which is connected with delayed adolescent processes, as compared with girls and their nervous system that only reaches full anatomical and physiological maturity at the age of 20 years [4]. Rzepa and Wójcik [17] conducted research among 6 to 10yearolds in the area of changes in functional asymmetry in relation to its stimulation through motor activities with educational balls. The results indicate that determined directions of hand, eye and foot asymmetry becoming established with age, and these processes were more vivid in the experimental group exposed to the appropriate factor developing lateralization with the use of a specific tool.

The comparison of results of the present study to those found in the literature on the subject shows similar tendencies. The results confirm that in 10 to 12yearolds the process of lateralization takes place, which seems to be in line with the results obtained by other authors presented above. The percentage of subjects presenting determined directions and profiles of functional asymmetry increases with age. In 10 to 12yearolds, significant dynamic asymmetry occurred to be particularly noticeable in terms of move

ment velocity and muscle strength of the upper limbs but in the period of two years, no significant changes pertaining to its level took place. Having analyzed these results it may be said that functional asymmetry develops faster and more intensely, yet dynamic asymmetry presents a significant level; however, its size is not substantially modified between the age of 10 and 12 years in the examined boys. With regard to the normality in nervous system development [4] and figures obtained by Wieczorek and Hradzki in adolescents aged 14 to 16 years [15] we may believe that in subsequent years of life the level of dynamic asymmetry of strength and velocity of the right and left side of the body increase.

Conclusions

The biggest transformations in physical, mental, and motor development take place in the scholastic period of children and adolescents. Thus, a teacher should be aware of functional changes in a child’s development occurring at different stages of life. Depending on a student’s age, motor experiences, as well as status of motor maturity and health, a teacher should apply adequate means and methods to determine the state and changes of development. Lateralization is among the regularities of development. Evaluation of lateralization is particularly indispensable for diagnosing students who show speech disorders, motricity disorders, or difficulties in learning to read and write. When diagnosing lateralization, teachers should bear in mind the child’s age, sex, evaluation of manual motricity, and orientation of the right and left side of the body.

The study and analysis of obtained results enabled the achievement of the objective of the present paper. Changes taking place in functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10 to 12 years in the aspect of continuous research on the same study group have been identified. On the basis of the analysis of obtained results, the following conclusions may be formulated: during a 2year period in the group of examined boys, significant changes occurred pertaining to the orientation of motor and sense organs and thus in terms of determined profiles of functional asymmetry. An increase in the size of functional diversity of limbs in velocity and strength took place; however, changes in the level of dynamic asymmetry in these motor skills occurred to be statistically insignificant. Taking the longer view, a postulate may be formulated that the observation and diagnosing of lateralization seems to be an extremely


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important area of operation for teachers. Physical education teachers play a substantial role at this point, as they may effectively stimulate this process by means

of adequately selected exercises and motor tasks, thus preventing developmental abnormalities from becoming established.


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[2] BergmanP:The development and manifestations of asymmetry in human being; in JezierskiA,OgorzałekA (eds.):Symmetries in science [inPolish],Wrocław,UniwersytetWrocławski,1993;vol.II:317–329.

[3] KoszczycT:Morphological and dynamic asymmetry and the possibility of its shaping in children of school age [in Polish].Wrocław,StudiaiMonografieAWFweWrocławiu,1991;27.

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[6] WieczorekM:The speed of learning complex motor actions and functional and dynamic asymmetry in 10-year-old children [inPolish].WychowanieFizyczne iSport,2001;1:105–114.

[7] DellatolasG,AgostiniM,CurtF,KreminH,LetierceA,MaccarisJ,LellouchJ:Manual skill, hand skill asymmetry, and cognitive performances in young children.Laterality:AsymmetriesofBody,BrainandCognition,2003;8(4):317–338.

[8] PrzewędaR:Determinants of physical fitness level of Polish schoolchildren. Research workshop [inPolish].Warszawa,AWF,1985.

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[16] RzepaT.,WójcikA.Making use of educational balls in improving the functional asymmetry of children completing early school education[inPolish].Antropomotoryka,2009;vol.19,no.48:61–72.

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KNOWLEDGE OF DOWNHILL SKIING SAFETY PRINCIPLES AMONG STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY

OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PARTICIPATING IN AN OBLIGATORY WINTER CAMP. PART II1

ZNAJOMOŚĆ ZASAD BEZPIECZEŃSTWA WŚRÓD STUDENTÓW AKADEMII WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO

UCZESTNICZĄCYCH W PROGRAMOWYM OBOZIE ZIMOWYM. CZĘŚĆ II

Beata Wojtyczek*, Małgorzata Pasławska**

***PhD, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland***PhD, School of Tourism and Hotel Management in Warsaw, Poland

Key words: skiing, security, health risks, coursesSłowa kluczowe: narciarstwo zjazdowe, bezpieczeństwo, zagrożenia zdrowotne,

szkolenie

Introduction. The appropriate training of future instructors and teachers of children practicing downhill skiing is extremely important to improve and ensure the safety of participants in this form of recreation. The evaluation of the effects students participating in an obligatory winter camp received through the training process included theoretical knowledge. The proper evaluation of factors ensuring safety and the limitation of risky behavior is the basis for the appropriate education of future teachers.

Aim of the study. This work is aimed at the evaluation of the level of theoretical knowledge about safe down-hill skiing obtained by students who graduated from downhill skiing training camp with positive results.

Conclusion. In the future we should put even greater stress on requiring knowledge of the theory of safe skiing, that is, taking care of ski clothes and boots, health risks connected with mountain climates in winter and with altitude sickness. This is especially true of pedagogy students, who are expected to guarantee the security of children and youth at, among other places, ski slopes. At the same time it should be emphasized that skiing is, according to the majority of the training camp participants, an exceptionally attractive form of physical activity.

Wprowadzenie. Właściwe kształcenie przyszłych instruktorów i opiekunów dzieci oraz młodzieży zainteresowa-nej nauką jazdy na nartach zjazdowych jest niezwykle istotnym elementem poprawy bezpieczeństwa uczestników tej formy rekreacji. Ocena efektów kształcenia studentów uczestniczących w obowiązkowym obozie narciarskim obejmuje również ich wiedzę teoretyczną. Poprawna ocena czynników gwarantujących bezpieczeństwo i ograni-czenie zachowań ryzykownych leży u podstaw prawidłowego kształcenia przyszłych nauczycieli.

Cel pracy. Ocena poziomu wiedzy studentów, którzy z pozytywnym wynikiem ukończyli obóz szkoleniowy z narciarstwa zjazdowego, w zakresie teorii bezpieczeństwa narciarstwa zjazdowego.

1 Work financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education as a part of the I36 research project of the University of Physical Education in Warsaw.



Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska

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Wnioski. W przyszłości należy położyć jeszcze większy nacisk na egzekwowanie wiedzy z zakresu teorii bezpieczeństwa w narciarstwie, w tym na właściwy dobór ubioru i obuwia narciarskiego, a także profilaktykę zagrożeń zdrowia w środowisku górskim. Dotyczy to szczególnie studentów kierunków pedagogicznych, którzy w przyszłości będą zapewniać bezpieczeństwo (m.in. na stokach narciarskich) dzieciom i młodzieży. Równocześnie należy podkreślić, że w opinii większości uczestników kursu narciarstwo jest wyjątkowo atrakcyjną formą

INTRODUCTION

The correct training of future instructors and teachers of children and youth and in the field of downhill skiing is an important element of safety while staying in the mountains. The ability to eliminate and limit health risks requires one to have definitive knowledge, including that which concerns the specific environmental and climatic conditions in the mountains [1, 2]. The attractiveness of the mountains, their inaccessibility, and undisputable value of the landscape are those things which attract the majority of skiers, but are also those things which constitute a significant health risk for people staying in such areas [3, 4, 5]. It refers both to phenomena that are typically connected with severe mountain climates during winter – that is, the possibility of hypothermia, frostbite, mountain sickness, or snow blindness – as well as basic principles of hygiene concerning sleep, nutrition, and the proper selection and conservation of clothes and equipment. Optimal knowledge in this field should constitute one of aims of full education of the future instructors and teachers of juvenile skiers [6, 7].

RESULTS OF RESEARCH2

Recreational downhill skiing in light of the opinions of physical education (PE) students of Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw (barriers, values, dangers)

The researched students were asked to define barriers and values connected with the discussed form of physical activity. As many as 90% of them proclaimed that skiing is an activity which requires huge financial outlays, as ski equipment and ski passes are very expensive. It is the reason which explains the fact that as many as 53% of the researched students do not have their own skis. Regarding the value of skiing, the most numerous group of the researched (43%) students proclaimed that the most attractive element of the sport is the speed achieved while skiing down a slope. Such an

2 Research methods and characteristics of the researched persons are presented in Part 1 (Antropomotoryka, 20011; vol. 21, no. 53: 69–78).

answer arouses some fear that it can be connected with an inclination for taking risks and orientation for strong emotional experiences rather than for the improvement of skiing techniques. For 28% of the persons the most attractive aspect of skiing is the very fact of practicing that kind of physical activity – that is, skiing is perceived as an aim in itself. Of all the researched, 22% declared that the main value of skiing is the possibility of staying in the mountain environment, in the bosom of nature. The last two standpoints are confirmed by an answer to the next question, which asked the respondents to define what skiing is connected with for them first of all: 88% of the persons declared that it is the pleasure of staying in the mountains and an attractive form of physical activity. From answers to the following question it comes that as many as 77% of the women and 65% of the men would apply just those arguments in order to persuade other people to take up downhill skiing. Unfortunately, a portion of the researched men – 15% – would try to encourage potential skiers by talking about night parties and opportunities for daring demonstrations of one’s own skills on a slope. In this respect there appeared to be significant differences between men’s attitudes and the women’s attitudes, because none of the latter gave such an answer. The last analyzed question from that group concerned the willingness to continue skiing in future seasons. The majority of the persons – 51% – proclaimed that they were going to ski if only they had an opportunity, while 38% of the persons declared that they would organize annual ski holidays by themselves.

Afterwards, the students’ knowledge about health risks resulting from staying in the mountains was evaluated. They were asked about dangers connected with mountain climates. In this regard, 38% of the researched students chose the proper set of dangers, which included hypothermia, frostbite, and snow blindness. As many as 57% of the respondents marked the answers sunstroke and muscle ache (Fig. 1).

Sunstroke as an effect of staying in the mountains during winter is a relatively rare phenomenon, and muscle aches are not the main danger for life and health if we compare them with much more serious effects of contact with extreme mountain climates. The

Knowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education...

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57%

38%

5%

0%

0% 20% 40% 60%

SUNSTOKE, MUSCLE PAIN

SNOW BLINDNESS, HYPOTHERMIA

ANGINA, DIARRHEA

DEPRESSION, HEADACHES

WOMEN AND MEN

Figure 1. Health risks connected with winter mountains climate

researched students were then asked about information about socalled mountain sickness. They were to indicate from which height above sea level its symptoms should be expected to appear. The correct answer – over 2,000 meters above sea level – was given by 32% of the respondents. The most numerous group (44%) thought that the risk of going down with mountain

sickness appears at the much greater height of 4,000 meters above sea level (Fig. 2).

Regarding symptoms of that disease the majority of the respondents – 66% – marked the correct answer, which mentions dizziness and headaches, general fatigue, quickened breathing, and sleep disorders. The rest of the researched students could not point out to

Figure 2. Medium height of getting mountain sickness

SUNSTROKE,


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real symptoms of mountain sickness. The next question concerned the positive health effects of a longterm stay in mountain climates. In that case, only 34% of the respondents gave the correct answer that a long stay in the mountains exerts an alwayspositive infl uence on one’s health provided that the lifestyle is proper and there are no medical contraindications

against practicing downhill skiing. The respondents were to say whether it is necessary to consult a doctor before skiing. The correct answer, which said that medical consultation is necessary, especially if skiing for the fi rst time in one’s life, was given by 24% of the respondents. The majority of the students proclaimed that such a move is unnecessary, especially if one feels

Figure 3. Illnesses that are contraindications against practicing downhill skiing

Figure 4. Care of ski clothes and boots as a precondition for remaining healthy

Knowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education...

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healthy. It is a false conclusion, because you can be unaware of some ailments, and the effort required to ski is demanding, specific, and intense to such a degree that it requires certainty about one’s own state of health. Before starting to learn to ski it is advisable to get a basic medical examination. In a similar vein the respondents were asked about illnesses that exclude the possibility of practicing skiing in a safe way. The final decision rests, of course, with a physician and that is why medical consultation is so important. Such an assumption was made by 50% of the respondents. Cardiovascular diseases were pointed out by 47% of the students as an excluding element. This is not a fully correct opinion, because not all diseases of the cardiovascular system (it refers, e.g., to controlled arterial hypertension) exclude one from participation in recreational forms of downhill skiing (Fig. 3).

Nutrition during ski holidays is a significant healthprotecting factor. Out of all the respondents, 84% correctly proclaimed that it is a very important issue in conditions of increased physical effort, and 45 wholesome meals should be eaten per day. According to 8% of the respondents, one should eat only when one feels hungry and the quality of a meal is not important. The last question, connected with lifestyle and hygiene, concerned care about clothing worn while skiing. The overwhelming majority of the students – 83% – maintained that ski clothes and boots must be dried every time after skiing. Unfortunately, 10% of the respondents thought that that activity should be done only once in a while. It is, of course, an assumption contradictory with a hygienic lifestyle, and wet ski boots and clothes are an excellent shortcut to getting cold and frostbitten (Fig. 4).

DISCUSSION

Downhill skiing is commonly regarded as a very attractive and fashionable sport. The researched students see it in a similar vein. The possibility to stay in wintertime natural environment is regarded to be its greatest value. However, a portion of the researched students perceive that form of recreation as a chance for testing oneself and demonstrating one’s own bravado and speed (43%), which – especially in the case of future teachers and instructors – is a worrisome phenomena. Similar values and dangers of skiing are noticed also by other authors, who observe various groups of skiers [8].

What seems a positive phenomenon is care for respecting the basic hygienic principles connected with attention to optimal relaxation, a model of nutrition, and

maintaining equipment in a proper, safetyensuring state. Unfortunately, the majority of the participants of the training camp (53%) did not have their own skis. They used skis that are often selected in a random way, which is, of course, a negative phenomenon. Having one’s own equipment, which has been selected according to individual needs and is properly serviced, increases safety on a ski slope [9, 10, 11].

Nor did the majority of them (67%) have proper knowledge about common dangers resulting from the specifics of the mountain environment, which are connected with low temperatures, increased ultraviolet radiation, and low atmospheric pressure resulting from high altitude above sea level. It refers especially to various kinds of function disorders of the human organism that are connected with altitude (mountain) sickness. Fortyfour percent of the respondents did not know at what altitude its appearance should be taken into account, although the instructor, when responsible for skiers or other tourists, should be well aware of the possibility of the appearance of the phenomenon. The correct answer about the medium height of its appearance (2,000 meters above sea level) [12] was only given by 32% of the researched students. Results concerning snow blindness, frostbite, or hypothermia were similar [3, 4].

A mountain climate, especially in wintertime, demands a lot from the human organism: factors that are connected with the process of adaptation to changeable external conditions and require increased thermoregulation processes [3]. The organism is additionally burdened with specific physical effort connected with difficulties with coordination. Hence skiing cannot be practiced by everybody and in all conditions included at every ski infrastructure (some ski tracks are even 4,000 meters above sea level) without risking one’s own health or life. Hence, it seems reasonable to take a physician’s advice, especially before the first ski holidays. The majority of the questioned students – 76% – neglects that fact, or tries to solve health problems of potential skiers on their own. It should be emphasized that a skier’s insufficient psychophysical conditions is a potential factor that causes injuries and other types of undesirable events, which then endanger health and life [7, 13].

CONCLUSIONS

1. For the majority of participants of the training camp, skiing is a form of recreation that is especially attractive, as it takes place in natural environment in winter. Some of them, however, perceive its value in


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displays of speed and bravado and in social attractions off the slope.

2. In the academic curriculum, greater stress should be put on requiring knowledge about climate and the environmental dangers connected with staying in the mountains in winter.

3. The majority of the researched students have the correct attitude towards basic principles concerning the hygiene of sleep, nutrition, and proper selection and conservation of clothes and equipment during ski holidays.

[1] ChojnackiK,KusionŁ:Analysis of ski injuries in the leading Polish alpine skiers (1987–2000) [inPolish],SportWyczynowy,2001;9–10:441–442.

[2] SennerV:Equipment development and research for more performance and safety;inMüllerE,LindingerS,StögglT,FastenbauerV(eds.):4th International Congress on Science and skiing. Book of abstracts.Salzburg,UniversityofSalzburg,2007.

[3] WojtyczekB:Selected aspects of hygiene procedures for sports and recreation classes in environmental conditions;inK.Klukowski(ed.):Physicalexercisemedicinewiththeelementsofpsychologyandpedagogy.AcademicHandbook[inPolish].Warszawa,WydawnictwaDydaktyczne,2010.

[4] LeachR.:Alpine skiing. Boston, Blackwell ScientificPublications,1994.

[5] PasławskaM, WojtyczekB:Personal injury and fatal accidents among child downhill skiers ; in Konieczny J (ed.): Safety of children in emergency health [inPolish].Inowrocław–Poznań,GarmondOficynaWydawnicza,2009:165–185.

[6] BlachuraB:The role and tasks of downhill ski teaching in


the process of motor rehabilitation and social integration from the perspective of visually impaired people[inPolish]Antropomotoryka,2008;43:59–65.

[7] SabatU:The value of mental training components introduced into the programme of downhill ski teaching [in Polish].Antropomotoryka,2008;44,49–53.

[8] NeuhornS,SadowskiG:Winter camps – a guide to teaching[inPolish].Warszawa,AWF,2006.

[9] LangranM.,Selvaraj S.: Increased injury risk among first-time skiers, snowboarders and skiboarders.AmericanJournalofSportsMedicine,2004;32,1:96–103.

[10] ČillíkI,KrálL:Effectiveness of teaching downhill skiing to beginners depending on ski length[inPolish].Antro-pomotoryka,2008;43:43–49.

[11] WojtyczekB.:Selection and the importance of clothing for skiers and snowboarders [inPolish].MedicalTribune,2006;12,22–23.

[12] KlukowskiK:Things the skier should remember [inPolish].MedicalTribune,2006;4:22–24.

[13] Prange-Barczyński T:Skiing [in Polish].Warszawa,WiedzaiŻycie,2005.

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LONG-TERM TRENDS IN CHANGES OF PHYSICAL FITNESS DEFINED IN THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH

(H-RF) IN LIGHT OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS ASSESSMENT USING T-SCORES

DŁUGOOKRESOWE TENDENCJE ZMIAN SPRAWNOŚCI FIZYCZNEJ UJĘTEJ W KONWENCJI ZDROWIA W ŚWIETLE

WYNIKÓW ICH EWALUACJI Z WYKORZYSTANIEM SKALI TENOWEJ

Jerzy Januszewski*, Edward Mleczko**

** Prof. Dr. Habil. (emer.), University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland** Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Theory and Methodology of Athletics at the University School of Physical Education

in Cracow, Poland

Key words: health-related fitness (H-RF), evaluation, ten scale, inter-generational variation (secular trends), scoring tables for a ten scale

Słowa kluczowe: sprawność fizyczna ukierunkowana na zdrowie (H-RF), ocena, skala tenowa T, zmienność międzypokoleniowa (trendy sekularne), tabele punktacji w skali T

Aim of the study. The goal of the research was to assess the scope and direction of inter-generational changes (secular trends) of physical fitness components studied in the health convention (Health-Related Fit-ness), and using the authors’ point scales.

Materials and methods. The comparative analysis was based on the research results collected from 1993 to 2002 (a total of 23,600 people, including 10,600 girls and 13,000 boys) and on observations made from 2002 to 2011 (a total of 11,520 people, including 5,390 girls and 6,130 boys). The subjects were students at primary and secondary schools in southeast Poland. Statistical analysis was conducted on both the raw measurements and the scores converted into points on a T-scale. New point tables were developed using the materials col-lected at the beginning of the 21st century.

Results and conclusions. The proposed method of scoring on a T-scale, which consisted of calculating a normalized ten scale jointly for girls and boys of all age groups, proved to be a good tool to capture both the comprehensive dynamics of morphological, functional and motor development, as well as long-term trends of changes in the components of health-related fitness. The results have provided evidence challenging cur-rent views on the existence of “opening scissors phenomenon” in the biological development of young Polish generations. In the last decade, there has been a tendency for the desired inter-generational changes in com-ponents such as cardio-respiratory, musculoskeletal, morphological, and motor – all of which can be regarded as positive indicators of health. Their scope has been so significant that it justified the need to update existing point tables of physical fitness. Therefore, on the basis of the latest materials, new scoring scales have been developed that utilize the authors’ calculations.



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Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko

Cel pracy. Podjęto się zadania oceny zakresu i kierunku zmian międzypokoleniowych (trendów sekularnych) komponentów sprawności fizycznej badanej w konwencji zdrowia (Health-Related Fitness), posługując się autor-skimi skalami punktowymi.

Materiał i metody. W analizie porównawczej wykorzystano wyniki badań zebrane w latach 1993–2002 (któ-rymi objęto łącznie 23600 osób, w tym 10600 dziewcząt i 13000 chłopców) oraz pochodzące z obserwacji prze-prowadzonych w latach 2002–2011 (na 11520 osobach, w tym na 5390 dziewczętach i 6130 chłopcach). Badani byli uczniami szkół podstawowych i średnich z Polski Południowo-Wschodniej. Analizie statystycznej poddano „surowe wyniki” oraz przeliczone na punkty w skali T. Opracowano nowe tabele punktacyjne z wykorzystaniem materiałów zebranych na początku XXI wieku.

Wyniki i wnioski. Zaproponowana metoda punktacji w skali T, polegająca na obliczeniu łącznie dla wszyst-kich grup wiekowych dziewcząt i chłopców znormalizowanej skali T (tenowej), okazała się dobrym narzędziem do uchwycenia zarówno wszechstronnej dynamiki rozwoju morfologicznego, funkcjonalnego i motorycznego, jak i tendencji długookresowych zmian komponentów sprawności fizycznej ukierunkowanej na zdrowie (Health-Related Fitness). Wyniki badań dostarczyły dowodów podważających dotychczasowy pogląd na temat istnienia „zjawiska rozwartych nożyc” w rozwoju biologicznym młodego polskiego pokolenia. W ostatnim dziesięcioleciu stwierdzono tendencję do pożądanych zmian międzypokoleniowych takich komponentów, jak: krążeniowo-od-dechowe, mięśniowo-szkieletowe, morfologiczne i motoryczne, które można zaliczyć do pozytywnych mierników zdrowia. Ich zakres był na tyle znaczący, że uzasadniał konieczność uaktualnienia istniejących dotąd tabel punk-towych sprawności fizycznej. W związku z tym na podstawie najnowszych materiałów opracowano nowe skale punktacyjne, posługując się autorską metodą ich wyliczania.

Introduction

The work published in 2005 [1] proposed an original way to analyze the norms of physical fitness development presented in the health convention (HealthRelated Fitness), and how to calculate on this basis a normalized ten scale, known in Poland mostly as a Tscale. The reasons for undertaking the research were the results of previous studies by Januszewski [2]. These results showed that the commonly recommended statistical procedure, which consists of determining the relations between the measurements of indices of biological development and the arithmetic means of the results that are collected in a sufficiently large normalization sample in the consecutive classes of calendar age [3], has a limited application. For example, the point values calculated in this way allow for the assessment of the level of biological development only in a certain age category of biological development [4 –7]. Thus, an innovative methodological approach was proposed [2]. It consists of the use of other reference points in the conversion of raw test measurements to standard results. It is assumed that the reference points would be the arithmetic means of the results calculated from the measurements made in the considered period of ontogeny, not in a particular calendar age, as has been done thus far.

The paper mentioned above [1] verified the validity of this research approach. It turned out that the point values calculated in the recommended manner on a normalized ten scale (T-scale) extended the scope of

interpretation of the motor development of children and adolescents. First of all, the designed point scales al-lowed for the characterization of the quantitative aspect of somatic, functional, and motor development of chil-dren and adolescents in a particular period of ontogeny. It was observed that using the proposed evaluation tool of physical fitness in its American concept did not di-minish the possibilities of interpreting the research re-sults at a particular calendar age, but another there was another possibility that appeared to also easily charac-terize the pace of development of different features and somatic indices, functional features and motor abilities, as well as their differentiation between males and fe-males. A reduction of the number of point tables used to evaluate physical fitness in a traditional way was also of great importance, as it facilitated the research. Several dozen separate versions of point scales for girls and boys aged 8–18 years were replaced with only two versions regarding the specificity of both male and female development.

Based on the fundamental assumption of auxology that says that human biological development is vari-able in time and space [8], the subsequent research of children and adolescents from Malopolska attempted to assess the scope and direction of changes in inter-generational components of physical fitness, studied in the health convention (Health-Related Fitness), using the previously proposed point scales [1].

The paper included the research materials collected between 1993 and 2002 whose results were published

Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (H-RF) in light of results...

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in two articles in “Antropomotoryka” [1, 9]. The first ar-ticle presented a T-scale developed separately for girls and boys attending primary and secondary schools in three voivodeships, Malopolska, Podkarpackie and Świętokrzyskie, with no division into the categories of place of residence, while the second paper included the preliminary observations regarding the influence of urban conditions on the development and fitness of children and adolescents.

In clarifying the studied problems of this research, it should be noted that on the basis of the collected ma-terials, and by utilizing suitable tools and techniques, the following research questions were attempted to be answered by using a sufficiently large normalization sample:1. Can the proposed development of a ten scale

(Tscale) be a good tool for studying the specificity of longterm trends of changes in the components of physical fitness, studied in the health convention?

2. Does the scope of intergenerational changes in the population of children and adolescents from southeast Poland create a premise for updating the tables of the Tscale?

Materials and methods

According to research methodology, a researcher who intends to prepare the development norms and point scales while performing the measurements with a certain tool is obliged to take into account results obtained in a sufficiently large normalization sample that is derived from a population from which the people using the results originate. The percentage composition of the normalization sample in our study reflected the structure of the studied population with regards to sex, age, place of residence, and education. In this paper as well as the 2005 publication [1], it was sought to maximize the number of assessed girls and boys when selecting the research materials. Therefore, the results of the studies of the girls and boys aged 8–18 years that were collected from 2002 to 2011 were compared with the materials collected from 1993 to 2002. Observations included students in southeastern Poland attending

primary and secondary schools and living in villages and cities found in the Malopolska, Podkarpackie and Świętokrzyskie voivodeships. In the past decade, a total of 11,520 research cards – 5,390 for girls and 6,130 for boys – were collected (see Table 1).

The collected materials were divided into 11 age groups, separately for both sexes. Chronological age was an indicator of division: for example, girls around 10 years and 6 months old and girls around 11 years and 5 months old were classified into a group of 11-year-olds.

The study considered the results of the evaluation of basic somatic features, morphological and func-tional indices, and motor abilities that were proposed in 2005 [1] according to suggestions connected with the popularization of the concept of heath-related fitness (H-RF), linking physical activity to health [10, 11], which has taken place in Poland.

A. Morphological fitness

• HEIGHT – Body height.• MASS – Body mass.• BMI – Body Mass Index (Quetelet Index) [12].

B. Musculoskeletal fitness

• LBM – Lean body mass (difference between the total body weight and the content of the “passive” body fat, calculated from the percentage of fat in the body mass); this content can be estimated by using the following:

• ∑ T+S – Sum of 2 skin folds on triceps muscle of arm and subscapular muscle [13].

• PF – Percentage of fat. The calculations were based on the regression equations of Slaughter et al. [14]

• FLEXIBILITY – A forward bend test according to Eurofit [15] IB.

C. Metabolic fitness

• VO2 max · kg–1 – Maximum oxygen consumption As modified by Januszewski [16], the Margaria test

[17] was applied in the assessment.

Table 1. The number of students studied each year divided into girls (♀) and boys (♂)

Age 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Sex ♀ 250 290 614 723 718 583 535 670 424 397 186

Sex ♂ 255 405 550 749 842 781 738 736 417 501 156

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D. Motor fitness

• JUMP – Dynamic strength of muscular contraction in lower extremities. Standing board jump using both feet test according to Eurofit [15].

• THROW – A backward overhead 1 kg medicine ball throw test. A test to assess dynamic strength of muscular contraction in upper extremities and trunk according to Eurofit [6,7].

• R-50 – Time of 50 m run from a standing start position (running speed).

• TAPPING – Frequency of upper extremity movement. Plate tapping test. Time of 15 cycles in Eurofit test [15] modified by Szopa et al. [18].

• ORIENTATION – Space orientation. Duration of 49 tasks recorded in “free” series on AKN102 cross device.

E. Cardio-respiratory fitness

• R-1000 – Time of 1,000 m run. A trial evaluating running endurance according to the rules of run play by Mleczko called “Punctual train,” i.e., running ten times along the perimeter of a square with sides measuring 25 m [19,20].

The material collected in the course of the measure-ments and tests has been developed using the basic statistical methods [21]. The following were calculated for the age groups (aged 8 to 18 years) of both sexes and for each variable:− arithmetic mean (Me), standard deviation (SD), co

efficient of variation (V) and extreme values (minmax);

− weighted arithmetic means and dispersion indices for the whole material, regardless of the age of the subjects, separately for girls and boys, were calculated from the obtained data;

− the above findings of the last decade (2002–2011) were contrasted with the results of similar observations from 1993–2002, which are presented in Table 2. The highlighted differences between the compared weighted means were evaluated using the previously developed Tscale [1];

− as a result of this comparison, the discrepancies (especially among boys) were revealed, which contributed to modification of the Tscale in existence since 2005 (according to the rules: Me ± 5 SD; Me = 50 points; 1 point = 0.1 SD) [14]. These data were summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Using the data from

these tables allows for the absolute results measured on different scales (in: kg, cm, ml and s) to be calculated, and then expressed in points from 0 to 100, thus normalizing and comparing them.

The resulting differences between the weighted means after verification at 0 and 1, and also with the T-scores on the 2005 scale, were considered statisti-cally significant with a significance level of at least 5% (p ≤ .05) [22].

Results

The comparison of the arithmetic means of both sexes from 1993–2002 (A) and 2002–2011 (B), as seen in Table 2, allows the size of differences and their direction expressed in different units of measurement to be shown. In assessing the development – possibly either regression or stabilization – of the various components of fitness, which we assigned to the idea of HRF, it should be emphasized that with a few exceptions there was a smaller or larger increase in the weighted means in favor of the studies of the last decade. They concern the small values of the Quetelet Index (R = –0.31 kg/m2) and the 50 m run (–0.32 s) by 1 and 3 points on Tscale, respectively, and the stabilization of body mass (–0.01 kg) in girls and flexibility (–0.24 cm) and oxygen consumption (–0.16 ml/kg) in boys.

Moreover, it was observed that parallel, decreasing standard deviation values (SD) and dispersion indices (V) did not exceed 20% Me in almost all kinds of fitness reductions, with two exceptions: the overhead 2 kg med-icine ball throw and spatial orientation (ORIENTATION) in girls and boys in both study periods.

These development trends (in assessing the T-scores on the 2005 scale) indicate the significant in-creases in morphological fitness: body height (HIGHT), mass (MASS), and active tissue (LBM) in musculosk-eletal fitness (for boys only) – by 4 points respectively, and (for both sexes) in 1000 m run – 6 points ♀ and 11 points ♂ in cardio-pulmonary fitness and spatial orien-tation (ORIENTATION) – 10 points ♀ and 7 points ♂ in motor fitness of a coordinating nature. Other variables are less progressive (by three and two points). For girls, they include: TAPPING, LBM, HEIGHT, FLEXIBILITY and JUMP; for boys: TAPPING, THROW and JUMP only with a rating 2.

Thanks to the above findings, it was decided to de-velop a revised T-scale, the figures of which are given in Tables 3 and 4. Based on the presented values and


– 93 –

Table 2. A comparison of weighted arithmetic means of both sexes for all the collected materials

Girls

Parameters Me SD V MIN MAX R T-SCORE R

HEIGHT (cm) A 151.02 6.78 4.50 120.00 181.00 1.67 50 2 B 152.69 5.70 3.73 124.40 180.50 52MASS (kg) A 43.73 7.70 17.60 15.00 79.00 –0.01 50 0 B 43.72 6.35 14.52 18.40 84.00 50BMI (kg/m2) A 18.73 2.57 13.70 8.60 30.60 –0.31 50 -1 B 18.42 2.19 11.89 10.59 32.19 49LBM (kg) A 34.71 5.81 16.70 10.30 63.20 1.48 50 3 B 36.19 4.41 12.19 15.90 55.10 53FLEXIBILITY (cm) A 56.21 6.42 11.40 30.00 80.00 0.94 50 2 B 57.15 5.95 10.41 28.00 84.00 52V02 max/kg (ml/kg) A 44.28 8.50 19.20 24.40 77.80 0.19 50 0 B 44.47 6.83 15.36 30.60 77.09 50JUMP (cm) A 150.10 20.64 13.80 70.00 250.00 4.13 50 2 B 154.23 18.45 11.97 67.00 225.00 52THROW (m) A 5.69 1.42 25.00 1.30 12.50 0.18 50 1 B 5.87 1.53 26.00 1.30 13.20 51R-50 (s) A 9.29 0.93 10.00 14.00 7.20 –0.32 51 -3 B 9.61 0.92 9.62 13.90 6.90 48R-1000 (s) A 349.24 47.12 13.50 540.00 200.00 28.24 51 6 B 321.00 45.29 14.11 479.52 170.00 57TAPPING (s) A 8.04 1.59 19.80 14.00 5.00 0.50 51 3 B 7.54 1.07 14.21 12.87 4.26 54ORIENTATION (s) A 95.77 24.32 25.40 215.00 43.00 24.16 51 10 B 71.61 16.28 22.74 160.00 39.00 61

Boys

Parameters Me SD V MIN MAX R T-SCORE R

HEIGHT (cm) A 153.26 7.28 4.80 123.00 188.00 2.87 50 4 B 156.13 7.07 4.53 125.20 198.00 54MASS (kg) A 45.03 8.28 18.40 18.00 83.00 2.03 50 4 B 47.06 8.04 17.09 18.00 87.00 54BMI (kg/m2) A 18.57 2.51 13.50 11.00 29.90 0.29 50 1 B 18.86 2.42 12.83 11.33 30.90 51LBM (kg) A 37.94 6.26 16.50 11.10 68.00 2.24 50 4 B 40.18 5.63 14.02 17.10 68.22 54FLEXIBILITY (cm) A 53.80 6.49 12.10 24.00 76.00 –0.24 50 0 B 53.56 6.48 12.10 23.00 85.90 50V02 max/kg (ml/kg) A 51.51 9.53 18.50 23.00 81.50 –0.16 50 0 B 51.35 9.14 17.81 23.00 80.46 50JUMP (cm) A 166.66 21.75 13.10 73.00 270.00 5.26 50 2 B 171.92 20.24 11.77 77.00 270.00 52THROW (m) A 7.08 1.77 25.00 2.00 15.40 0.44 50 2 B 7.52 1.72 22.89 2.00 15.50 52R-50 (s) A 8.84 0.84 9.50 13.00 7.00 0.07 50 1 B 8.77 0.86 9.86 12.88 6.10 51R-1000 (s) A 309.84 44.24 14.30 500.00 180.00 46.57 51 11 B 263.27 30.94 11.75 409.00 198.00 62TAPPING (s) A 7.83 1.36 17.40 13.50 5.00 0.22 51 2 B 7.61 1.20 15.82 13.40 4.17 53ORIENTATION (s) A 94.99 25.88 27.20 216.00 40.00 17.97 51 7 B 77.02 18.73 24.31 168.80 39.00 58

A – research in the years 1993–2002B – research in the years 2002–2011Commentary – see Methods and Materials

– 94 –


Table 3. The T-score for evaluation of the morph-functional features of girls

Poin

t

Body

hei

ght

Body

mas

s

BMI

Body

mas

s in

dex

LBM

Le

an b

ody

mas

s

Fle

xibi

lity

VO2 m

ax . k

g–1

Max

oxy

gen

co

nsum

ptio

n

Stan

ding

boa

rd

jum

p

Back

war

d

med

icin

e ba

ll

thro

w

50m

shu

ttle

run

Shu

ttle

run

1000

m

Plat

e ta

ppin

g te

st

Spac

e or

ient

atio

n

Poin

t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 121 124.8 28.0 12.8 151.4 12 125.3 28.6 65.7 12.7 149.8 23 125.9 29.2 67.5 13.9 12.6 148.1 34 126.5 15.9 29.8 69.4 13.8 12.5 146.5 45 127.0 16.3 30.4 71.2 13.8 12.4 144.9 56 127.6 16.8 31.0 73.1 13.7 12.2 143.2 67 128.2 17.2 31.6 74.9 13.6 12.1 141.6 78 128.8 17.7 32.2 76.7 13.5 12.0 140.0 89 129.3 18.1 32.8 78.6 13.4 11.9 138.4 910 129.9 18.3 18.6 33.4 80.4 13.3 11.8 136.7 1011 130.5 19.0 19.0 33.9 82.3 13.2 11.7 135.1 1112 131.0 19.6 19.4 34.5 84.1 13.1 11.6 133.5 1213 131.6 20.2 19.9 35.1 86.0 13.0 11.5 131.8 1314 132.2 20.9 10.5 20.3 35.7 87.8 12.9 11.4 130.2 1415 132.7 21.5 10.8 20.8 36.3 89.7 12.8 479.5 11.3 128.6 1516 133.3 22.1 11.0 21.2 36.9 91.5 12.7 475.0 11.2 127.0 1617 133.9 22.8 11.2 21.6 37.5 93.3 12.6 470.5 11.1 125.3 1718 134.5 23.4 11.4 22.1 38.1 95.2 12.6 465.9 11.0 123.7 1819 135.0 24.0 11.6 22.5 38.7 97.0 12.5 461.4 10.9 122.1 1920 135.6 24.7 11.9 23.0 39.3 98.9 1.3 12.4 456.9 10.8 120.5 2021 136.2 25.3 12.1 23.4 39.9 100.7 1.4 12.3 452.3 10.6 118.8 2122 136.7 25.9 12.3 23.8 40.5 102.6 1.6 12.2 447.8 10.5 117.2 2223 137.3 26.6 12.5 24.3 41.1 104.4 1.7 12.1 443.3 10.4 115.6 2324 137.9 27.2 12.7 24.7 41.7 106.3 1.9 12.0 438.8 10.3 113.9 2425 138.4 27.8 12.9 25.2 42.3 108.1 2.0 11.9 434.2 10.2 112.3 2526 139.0 28.5 13.2 25.6 42.9 110.0 2.2 11.8 429.7 10.1 110.7 2627 139.6 29.1 13.4 26.0 43.5 111.8 2.4 11.7 425.2 10.0 109.1 2728 140.2 29.8 13.6 26.5 44.1 113.6 2.5 11.6 420.6 9.9 107.4 2829 140.7 30.4 13.8 26.9 44.7 30.1 115.5 2.7 11.5 416.1 9.8 105.8 2930 141.3 31.0 14.0 27.4 45.3 30.8 117.3 2.8 11.5 411.6 9.7 104.2 3031 141.9 31.7 14.3 27.8 45.8 31.5 119.2 3.0 11.4 407.1 9.6 102.5 3132 142.4 32.3 14.5 28.3 46.4 32.2 121.0 3.1 11.3 402.5 9.5 100.9 3233 143.0 32.9 14.7 28.7 47.0 32.9 122.9 3.3 11.2 398.0 9.4 99.3 3334 143.6 33.6 14.9 29.1 47.6 33.5 124.7 3.4 11.1 393.5 9.3 97.7 3435 144.1 34.2 15.1 29.6 48.2 34.2 126.6 3.6 11.0 388.9 9.1 96.0 3536 144.7 34.8 15.4 30.0 48.8 34.9 128.4 3.7 10.9 384.4 9.0 94.4 3637 145.3 35.5 15.6 30.5 49.4 35.6 130.2 3.9 10.8 379.9 8.9 92.8 3738 145.9 36.1 15.8 30.9 50.0 36.3 132.1 4.0 10.7 375.3 8.8 91.1 3839 146.4 36.7 16.0 31.3 50.6 37.0 133.9 4.2 10.6 370.8 8.7 89.5 3940 147.0 37.4 16.2 31.8 51.2 37.6 135.8 4.3 10.5 366.3 8.6 87.9 4041 147.6 38.0 16.4 32.2 51.8 38.3 137.6 4.5 10.4 361.8 8.5 86.3 4142 148.1 38.6 16.7 32.7 52.4 39.0 139.5 4.6 10.3 357.2 8.4 84.6 4243 148.7 39.3 16.9 33.1 53.0 39.7 141.3 4.8 10.3 352.7 8.3 83.0 4344 149.3 39.9 17.1 33.5 53.6 40.4 143.2 5.0 10.2 348.2 8.2 81.4 4445 149.8 40.5 17.3 34.0 54.2 41.1 145.0 5.1 10.1 343.6 8.1 79.8 4546 150.4 41.2 17.5 34.4 54.8 41.7 146.9 5.3 10.0 339.1 8.0 78.1 4647 151.0 41.8 17.8 34.9 55.4 42.4 148.7 5.4 9.9 334.6 7.9 76.5 4748 151.6 42.5 18.0 35.3 56.0 43.1 150.5 5.6 9.8 330.1 7.8 74.9 4849 152.1 43.1 18.2 35.7 56.6 43.8 152.4 5.7 9.7 325.5 7.6 73.2 49


– 95 –

Poin

t

Body

hei

ght

Body

mas

s

BMI

Body

mas

s in

dex

LBM

Le

an b

ody

mas

s

Fle

xibi

lity

VO2 m

ax . k

g–1

Max

oxy

gen

co

nsum

ptio

n

Stan

ding

boa

rd

jum

p

Back

war

d

med

icin

e ba

ll th

row

50m

shu

ttle

run

Shut

tle ru

n10

00 m

Plat

e ta

ppin

g te

st

Spac

e or

ient

atio

n

Poin

t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

50 152.7 43.7 18.4 36.2 57.2 44.5 154.2 5.9 9.6 321.0 7.5 71.6 5051 153.3 44.4 18.6 36.6 57.8 45.2 156.1 6.0 9.5 316.5 7.4 70.0 5152 153.8 45.0 18.9 37.1 58.3 45.8 157.9 6.2 9.4 311.9 7.3 68.4 5253 154.4 45.6 19.1 37.5 58.9 46.5 159.8 6.3 9.3 307.4 7.2 66.7 5354 155.0 46.3 19.3 38.0 59.5 47.2 161.6 6.5 9.2 302.9 7.1 65.1 5455 155.5 46.9 19.5 38.4 60.1 47.9 163.5 6.6 9.2 298.4 7.0 63.5 5556 156.1 47.5 19.7 38.8 60.7 48.6 165.3 6.8 9.1 293.8 6.9 61.8 5657 156.7 48.2 20.0 39.3 61.3 49.3 167.2 6.9 9.0 289.3 6.8 60.2 5758 157.3 48.8 20.2 39.7 61.9 49.9 169.0 7.1 8.9 284.8 6.7 58.6 5859 157.8 49.4 20.4 40.2 62.5 50.6 170.8 7.3 8.8 280.2 6.6 57.0 5960 158.4 50.1 20.6 40.6 63.1 51.3 172.7 7.4 8.7 275.7 6.5 55.3 6061 159.0 50.7 20.8 41.0 63.7 52.0 174.5 7.6 8.6 271.2 6.4 53.7 6162 159.5 51.3 21.1 41.5 64.3 52.7 176.4 7.7 8.5 266.7 6.3 52.1 6263 160.1 52.0 21.3 41.9 64.9 53.4 178.2 7.9 8.4 262.1 6.2 50.5 6364 160.7 52.6 21.5 42.4 65.5 54.0 180.1 8.0 8.3 257.6 6.0 48.8 6465 161.2 53.3 21.7 42.8 66.1 54.7 181.9 8.2 8.2 253.1 5.9 47.2 6566 161.8 53.9 21.9 43.3 66.7 55.4 183.8 8.3 8.1 248.5 5.8 45.6 6667 162.4 54.5 22.1 43.7 67.3 56.1 185.6 8.5 8.1 244.0 5.7 43.9 6768 163.0 55.2 22.4 44.1 67.9 56.8 187.4 8.6 8.0 239.5 5.6 42.3 6869 163.5 55.8 22.6 44.6 68.5 57.5 189.3 8.8 7.9 235.0 5.5 40.7 6970 164.1 56.4 22.8 45.0 69.1 58.1 191.1 8.9 7.8 230.4 5.4 39.1 7071 164.7 57.1 23.0 45.45 69.7 58.8 193.0 9.1 7.7 225.9 5.3 37.4 7172 165.2 57.7 23.2 45.9 70.2 59.5 194.8 9.2 7.6 221.4 5.2 7273 165.8 58.3 23.5 46.3 70.8 60.2 196.7 9.4 7.5 216.8 5.1 7374 166.4 59.0 23.7 46.8 71.4 60.9 198.5 9.5 7.4 212.3 5.0 7475 166.9 59.6 23.9 47.2 72.0 61.6 200.4 9.7 7.3 207.8 4.9 7576 167.5 60.2 24.1 47.7 72.6 62.2 202.2 9.9 7.2 203.3 4.8 7677 168.1 60.9 24.3 48.1 73.2 62.9 204.1 10.0 7.1 198.7 4.7 7778 168.7 61.5 24.6 48.5 73.8 63.6 205.9 10.2 7.0 194.2 4.5 7879 169.2 62.1 24.8 49.0 74.4 64.3 207.7 10.3 6.9 189.7 4.4 7980 169.8 62.8 25.0 49.4 75.0 65.0 209.6 10.5 6.9 185.1 4.3 8081 170.4 63.4 25.2 49.9 75.6 65.6 211.4 10.6 180.6 4.2 8182 170.9 64.0 25.4 50.3 76.2 66.3 213.3 10.8 176.1 8283 171.5 64.7 25.7 50.7 76.8 67.0 215.1 10.9 171.5 8384 172.1 65.3 25.9 51.2 77.4 67.7 217.0 11.1 167.0 8485 172.6 66.0 26.1 51.6 78.0 68.4 218.8 11.2 8586 173.2 66.6 26.3 52.1 78.6 69.1 220.7 11.4 8687 173. 8 67.2 26.5 52.5 79.2 69.7 222.5 11.5 8788 174.4 67.9 26.7 53.0 79.8 70.4 224.3 11.7 8889 174.9 68.5 27.0 53.4 80.4 71.1 226.2 11.8 8990 175.5 69.1 27.2 53.8 81.0 71.8 12.0 9091 176.1 69.8 27.4 54.3 81.6 72.5 12.1 9192 176.6 70.4 27.6 54.7 82.1 73.2 12.3 9293 177.2 71.0 27.8 55.2 82.7 73.8 12.5 9394 177.8 71.7 28.1 83.3 74.5 12.6 9495 178.3 72.3 28.3 83.9 75.2 12.8 9596 178.9 72.9 28.5 84.5 75.9 12.9 9697 179.5 73.6 28.7 76.6 13.1 9798 180.1 74.2 28.9 77.3 13.2 9899 180.6 74.8 29.2 100 75.5 29.4

– 96 –


Table 4. The Tscore for evaluation of the morphfunctional features of boys

Poin

t

Body

hei

ght

Body

mas

s

BMI

Body

mas

s in

dex

LBM

Le

an b

ody

mas

s

Fle

xibi

lity

VO2 m

ax . k

g–1

Max

oxy

gen

co

nsum

ptio

n

Stan

ding

boa

rd

jum

p

Back

war

d

med

icin

e ba

ll th

row

50m

shu

ttle

run

Shut

tle ru

n10

00 m

Plat

e ta

ppin

g te

st

Spac

e or

ient

atio

n

Poin

t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 13.0 13.5 168.8 12 22.5 12.9 411.8 13.4 166.9 23 23.1 76.8 12.8 408.7 13.3 165.1 34 23.8 78.8 12.7 405.6 13.1 163.2 45 24.4 80.8 12.6 402.5 13.0 161.3 56 125.0 25.0 82.9 12.6 399.4 12.9 159.4 67 125.7 25.7 84.9 12.5 396.3 12.8 157.6 78 126.4 26.3 86.9 12.4 393.2 12.7 155.7 89 127.1 17.1 27.0 88.9 12.3 390.1 12.5 153.8 910 127.9 17.7 27.6 91.0 12.2 387.0 12.4 151.9 1011 128.6 18.2 28.3 93.0 12.1 383.9 12.3 150.1 1112 129.3 18.8 28.9 95.0 12.0 380.8 12.2 148.2 1213 130.0 17.3 19.3 29.6 97.0 12.0 377.7 12.1 146.3 1314 130.7 18.1 19.9 30.2 99.1 11.9 374.7 11.9 144.4 1415 131.4 18.9 20.5 30.9 101.1 11.8 371.6 11.8 142.6 1516 132.1 19.7 21.0 31.5 103.1 11.7 368.5 11.7 140.7 1617 132.8 20.5 21.6 32.2 105.1 1.8 11.6 365.4 11.6 138.8 1718 133.5 21.3 11.1 22.2 32.8 22.1 107.2 2.0 11.5 362.3 11.5 137.0 1819 134.2 22.1 11.4 22.7 33.5 23.0 109.2 2.2 11.4 359.2 11.3 135.1 1920 134.9 22.9 11.6 23.3 34.1 23.9 111.2 2.4 11.4 356.1 11.2 133.2 2021 135.6 23.7 11.8 23.9 34.8 24.8 113.2 2.5 11.3 353.0 11.1 131.3 2122 136.3 24.5 12.1 24.4 35.4 25.8 115.2 2.7 11.2 349.9 11.0 129.5 2223 137.0 25.4 12.3 25.0 36.1 26.7 117.3 2.9 11.1 346.8 10.9 127.6 2324 137.7 26.2 12.6 25.5 36.7 27.6 119.3 3.0 11.0 343.7 10.7 125.7 2425 138.5 27.0 12.8 26.1 37.4 28.5 121.3 3.2 10.9 340.6 10.6 123.8 2526 139.2 27.8 13.1 26.7 38.0 29.4 123.3 3.4 10.8 337.5 10.5 122.0 2627 139.9 28.6 13.3 27.2 38.7 30.3 125.4 3.6 10.7 334.4 10.4 120.1 2728 140.6 29.4 13.5 27.8 39.3 31.2 127.4 3.7 10.7 331.3 10.3 118.2 2829 141.3 30.2 13.8 28.4 40.0 32.2 129.4 3.9 10.6 328.2 10.1 116.4 2930 142.0 31.0 14.0 28.9 40.6 33.1 131.4 4.1 10.5 325.2 10.0 114.5 3031 142.7 31.8 14.3 29.5 41.2 34.0 133.5 4.3 10.4 322.1 9.9 112.6 3132 143.4 32.6 14.5 30.0 41.9 34.9 135.5 4.4 10.3 319.0 9.8 110.7 3233 144.1 33.4 14.7 30.6 42.5 35.8 137.5 4.6 10.2 315.9 9.6 108.9 3334 144.8 34.2 15.0 31.2 43.2 36.7 139.5 4.8 10.1 312.8 9.5 107.0 3435 145.5 35.0 15.2 31.7 43.8 37.6 141.6 4.9 10.1 309.7 9.4 105.1 3536 146.2 35.8 15.5 32.3 44.5 38.6 143.6 5.1 10.0 306.6 9.3 103.2 3637 146.9 36.6 15.7 32.9 45.1 39.5 145.6 5.3 9.9 303.5 9.2 101.4 3738 147.6 37.4 16.0 33.4 45.8 40.4 147.6 5.5 9.8 300.4 9.0 99.5 3839 148.4 38.2 16.2 34.0 46.4 41.3 149.7 5.6 9.7 297.3 8.9 97.6 3940 149.1 39.0 16.4 34.6 47.1 42.2 151.7 5.8 9.6 294.2 8.8 95.8 4041 149.8 39.8 16.7 35.1 47.7 43.1 153.7 6.0 9.5 291.1 8.7 93.9 4142 150.5 40.6 16.9 35.7 48.4 44.0 155.7 6.1 9.5 288.0 8.6 92.0 4243 151.2 41.4 17.2 36.2 49.0 45.0 157.8 6.3 9.4 284.9 8.5 90.1 4344 151.9 42.2 17.4 36.8 49.7 45.9 159.8 6.5 9.3 281.8 8.3 88.3 4445 152.6 43.0 17.7 37.4 50.3 46.8 161.8 6.7 9.2 278.7 8.2 86.4 4546 153.3 43.8 17.9 37.9 51.0 47.7 163.8 6.8 9.1 275.6 8.1 84.5 4647 154.0 44.6 18.1 38.5 51.6 48.6 165.8 7.0 9.0 272.6 8.0 82.6 4748 154.7 45.5 18.4 39.1 52.3 49.5 167.9 7.2 8.9 269.5 7.9 80.8 4849 155.4 46.3 18.6 39.6 52.9 50.4 169.9 7.3 8.9 266.4 7.7 78.9 49


– 97 –

Poin

t

Body

hei

ght

Body

mas

s

BMI

Body

mas

s in

dex

LBM

Le

an b

ody

mas

s

Fle

xibi

lity

VO2 m

ax . k

g–1

Max

oxy

gen

cons

umpt

ion

Stan

ding

boa

rd

jum

p

Back

war

d

med

icin

e ba

ll th

row

50 m

shu

ttle

run

Shut

tle ru

n10

00 m

Plat

e ta

ppin

g te

st

Spac

e or

ient

atio

n

Poin

t

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

50 156.1 47.1 18.9 40.2 53.6 51.4 171.9 7.5 8.77 263.3 7.6 77.0 5051 156.8 47.9 19.1 40.7 54.2 52.3 173.9 7.7 8.7 260.2 7.5 75.1 5152 157.5 48.7 19.3 41.3 54.9 53.2 176.0 7.9 8.6 257.1 7.4 73.3 5253 158.3 49.5 19.6 41.9 55.5 54.1 178.0 8.0 8.5 254.0 7.3 71.4 5354 159.0 50.3 19.8 42.4 56.2 55.0 180.0 8.2 8.4 250.9 7.1 69.5 5455 159.7 51.1 20.1 43.0 56.8 55.9 182.0 8.4 8.3 247.8 7.0 67.7 5556 160.4 51.9 20.3 43.6 57.4 56.8 184.1 8.6 8.3 244.7 6.9 65.8 5657 161.1 52.7 20.6 44.1 58.1 57.7 186.1 8.7 8.2 241.6 6.8 63.9 5758 161.8 53.5 20.8 44.7 58.7 58.7 188.1 8.9 8.1 238.5 6.7 62.0 5859 162.5 54.3 21.0 45.2 59.4 59.6 190.1 9.1 8.0 235.4 6.5 60.2 5960 163.2 55.1 21.3 45.8 60.0 60.5 192.2 9.2 7.9 232.3 6.4 58.3 6061 163.9 55.9 21.5 46.4 60.7 61.4 194.2 9.4 7.8 229.2 6.3 56.4 6162 164.6 56.7 21.8 46.9 61.3 62.3 196.2 9.6 7.7 226.1 6.2 54.5 6263 165.3 57.5 22.0 47.5 62.0 63.2 198.2 9.8 7.7 223.0 6.1 52.7 6364 166.0 58.3 22.2 48.1 62.6 64.1 200.3 9.9 7.6 220.0 5.9 50.8 6465 166.7 59.1 22.5 48.6 63.3 65.1 202.3 10.1 7.5 216.9 5.8 48.9 6566 167.4 59.9 22.7 49.2 63.9 66.0 204.3 10.3 7.4 213.8 5.7 47.1 6667 168.1 60.7 23.0 49.8 64.6 66.9 206.3 10.4 7.3 210.7 5.6 45.2 6768 168.9 61.5 23.2 50.3 65.2 67.8 208.4 10.6 7.2 207.6 5.5 43.3 6869 169.6 62.3 23.5 50.9 65.9 68.7 210.4 10.8 7.1 204.5 5.3 41.4 6970 170.3 63.1 23.7 51.4 66.5 69.6 212.4 11.0 7.0 201.4 5.2 39.6 7071 171.0 63.9 23.9 52.0 67.2 70.5 214.4 11.1 7.0 198.3 5.1 37.7 7172 171.7 64.7 24.2 52.6 67.8 71.5 216.4 11.3 6.9 195.2 5.0 7273 172.4 65.6 24.4 53.1 68.5 72.4 218.5 11.5 6.8 4.9 7374 173.1 66.4 24.7 53.7 69.1 73.3 220.5 11.6 6.7 4.7 7475 173.8 67.2 24.9 54.3 69.8 74.2 222.5 11.8 6.6 4.6 7576 174.5 68.0 25.2 54.8 70.4 75.1 224.5 12.0 6.5 4.5 7677 175.2 68.8 25.4 55.4 71.1 76.0 226.6 12.2 6.4 4.4 7778 175.9 69.6 25.6 55.9 71.7 76.9 228.6 12.3 6.4 4.3 7879 176.6 70.4 25.9 56.5 72.4 77.9 230.6 12.5 6.3 4.1 7980 177.3 71.2 26.1 57.1 73.0 78.8 232.6 12.7 6.2 8081 178.0 72.0 26.4 57.6 73.6 79.7 234.7 12.9 6.1 8182 178.8 72.8 26.6 58.2 74.3 80.6 236.7 13.0 6.0 8283 179.5 73.6 26.8 58.8 74.9 238.7 13.2 8384 180.2 74.4 27.1 59.3 75.6 240.7 13.4 8485 180.9 75.2 27.3 59.9 76.2 242.8 13.5 8586 181.6 76.0 27.6 60.4 76.9 244.8 13.7 8687 182.3 76.8 27.8 61.0 77.5 246.8 13.9 8788 183.0 77.6 28.1 61.6 78.2 248.8 14.1 8889 183.7 78.4 28.3 62.1 78.8 250.9 14.2 8990 184.4 79.2 28.5 62.7 79.5 252.9 14.4 9091 185.1 80.0 28.8 63.3 80.1 254.9 14.6 9192 185.8 80.8 29.0 63.8 80.8 256.9 14.7 9293 186.5 81.6 29.3 64.4 81.4 259.0 14.9 9394 187.2 82.4 29.5 65.0 82.1 261.0 15.1 9495 187.9 83.2 29.8 65.5 82.7 263.0 15.3 9596 188.7 84.0 30.0 66.1 83.4 265.0 15.4 9697 189.4 84.8 30.2 66.6 84.0 267.0 15.6 9798 190.1 85.7 30.5 67.2 84.7 269.1 9899 190.8 86.5 30.7 67.8 85.3 271.1 99100 191.5 87.3 31.0 68.3 86.0 100

– 98 –

Jerzy Januszewski, Edward MleczkoTa

ble

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T-sc

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No.

Para

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Sex

Age

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♀38

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5960

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♀19

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5056

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64.0

865

.75


– 99 –

previously obtained arithmetic means for the 11 age groups (from 8 to 18 years old) of both sexes and 12 components studied during 2002–2011, the data of Table 5 were compiled. The range of all 12 parameters,

restricted by the extreme values (min-max from Table 2), observed in both decades for girls is shown as an example in Figure 1. Logically, this kind of restriction of the T-scale range should be stochastic, regardless

Badania 1993-2002/ 1993-2002 research

Badania 2002-2011/ 2001-2011 research

60

70

80

90

100

0

10

20

30

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Zmienne (patrz: Materiał i Metodyka) / Variables see Materials and Methods

Skal

a T

(pkt

) / T

-sco

res

(poi

nt)

Figure 1. The example of a comparison of the range of T-scores, limited by the extreme values of the variables, in both decades of the studied girls

Figure 2. The example of a comparison of dynamics of annual increases of the means of all variables in both series of studies of boys at the points of T-scale

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18Wiek / Age

Ska

la T

(pkt

)/ T-

scor

es (p

oint

)

Badania II 2002-2011 / 2002-2011 research Badania I 1993-2002 / 1993-2002 research

– 100 –


of the fact that the dispersion of individual data for the analyzed variables is similar to the Gauss curve (see Table 5), in which the mean of the following parameters oscillate around 50 points and are based on a significant number of studied girls and boys (Table 1). However, it exposes the shift on the scale from 0 to 100 points.

The image of curves on Figure 1 illustrating the span between the lowest and the highest points on the scale is similar (in spite of intersections) in the case of the girls examined during 1993-2002 to the case of the girls assessed in the last decade (2002-2011), which in some sense undermines the logic of considerations on the randomness of the aforementioned restrictions.

Body height marked with number (1) is characterized by the greatest range (on the sketch), and the “group” of the variables evaluated with seconds: 50 m run (9), 1,000 m run (10), and movement speed of a more dex-trous arm – TAPPING (11) as well as spatial orientation (12) in both decades of the study, is characterized by the smallest range.

The modified T-scale, calculated separately for boys and girls, also allows (in the same units of measure-ment) for the assessment of fitness development over the years: morphological, musculoskeletal, metabolic, cardio-pulmonary, including many motor skills and their dynamics. It also allows for the comparison between the observed girls and boys. These procedures are espe-cially facilitated by the data in Table 5 and an example comparison of the dynamics of boys’ development over two decades of observation, as illustrated in Figure 2.

In analyzing the data presented in the aforemen-tioned Table, it can be actually observed that the mean values (Me) of the 12 analyzed variables (from 8 to 18 years old) of both studied sexes from 2002 to 2011 have a characteristic form. In the early school years, i.e., students aged 8 to 10 years, there is no clear dif-ferentiation between the values of evaluation, but from 11 to 14 years old, it is mostly girls that dominate – thus indicating the accelerated pubescent process – and af-ter leveling with boys at the age of 15 years, boys are clearly ahead of them one year later. Of course, similar analysis can be also performed on all variables.

It is also interesting to compare the dynamics of an-nual increases in mean values of all the assessed kinds of fitness of boys in both series of tests (Figure 2). In the last 10 years (2002–2011), the acceleration shaped a jumpy downward curve, with three distinct trends to increase between the ages of 9 and 10 years, 13 and 14 years, 15 and 16 years, and two distinct declines (aged 10 and 11 years, 14 and 15 years). The last low-

est rise of 1.7 T-scores indicates that the inhibition of development has not happened yet for the observed subjects. The acceleration curve and curve of the previ-ous findings (1993–2002) look like a sinusoid that ends with a dynamic regression that manifests the cessation of growth.

In both cases, the greatest increases are noted in the early years of the research and between 12 and 16 years old, which can prove – after all – the same effects of development.

Summary

The presented materials and their analysis allowed two of the formulated research questions to be answered. First, it is assumed that the proposed method to develop a ten scale (Tscale) can be a good tool for studying the specificity of longterm trends of changes in the components of physical fitness, studied in the health convention. The results of a comparative analysis of the arithmetic means of components of physical fitness in the health convention of girls and boys aged 8–18 years from small towns and villages in southeast Poland, studied between the years 1993–2002 and 2002–2011, showed the size and direction of differences, expressed in different units of measurement. The observed development trends (using the Tscores in 2005 scale) indicate the significant increases in psychomotor and cardiopulmonary fitness, and a smaller, but statistically significant differentiation in favor of the research in the components of morphological fitness conducted in the decade of the 21st century. The following rank order can be created:10 points (♀ and ♂) – spatial orientation (ORIEN

TATION); 6 points (♀) and 11 points (♂) – cardiorespiratory fit

ness (VO2 • kg–1 );

7 points (♀ and ♂) – visualmotor coordination; 6 points (♀ and ♂) – 1000 m run (R1000); 4 points (♀): height (HEIGHT) and body mass (MASS)

and active tissue (LBM), musculoskeletal fitness (THROW), (♂): musculoskeletal fitness (THROW);

3–2 points – (♀): TAPPING and LBM, (♂): HEIGHT, FLEXIBILITY and JUMP, TAPPING, THROW;

2 points – JUMP (♂).

Such a trend has not confirmed the previous view that the phenomenon (“opening scissors phenom-enon”), which consists of a significant improvement of the level of somatic development and decrease of the


– 101 –

functional and motor development indices [23, 24], can be observed in the inter-generational variation of physi-cal fitness of children and adolescents. This is an opti-mistic observation, although it may only have a regional range. The smaller or larger increases in the weighted means in favor of the research from the last 10 years may also provide proof of the non-accidental nature of the observed trend.

The presented differences between the “develop-mental” arithmetic means of the particular components of physical fitness, which occurred at an interval of

ten years, were statistically significant in most cases. Therefore, there were grounds for considering the sug-gestions expressed in the second question to develop a new scale, building on the results of the research car-ried out at the turn of the century. Such an application form was completed and supported by the attached current point tables, based on the ten scale and the authors’ approach to the concept of reference points in the conversion of raw measurements to the standard results.


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[2] Januszewski J:Propozycja nowego podejścia do relatywnej oceny sprawności motorycznej.Antropomotoryka,1998;17:163-173.

[3] HornowskaE:Testy psychologiczne : teoria i praktyka. Warszawa,Scholar,2007.

[4] ŻakS:Tabele punktacji Międzynarodowego Testu Sprawności Fizycznej (ICSPFT) dla młodzieży w wieku 12–18 lat.Wyd.Skryptowe,Kraków,AWF,1977;32.

[5] Żak S:Zdolności kondycyjne i koordynacyjne dzieci i młodzieży z populacji wielkomiejskiej na tle wybranych uwarunkowań somatycznych i aktywności ruchowej.Wyd.Monograficzne,Vol.II,Kraków,AWF,1991;43.

[6] PiliczS,PrzewędaR,TrześniowskiR:Skale punktowe do oceny sprawności fizycznej polskiej młodzieży (Wartości wyników Testu Międzynarodowego, aktualne do roku 2000).StudiaiMonografie,Warszawa,AWF,1993.

[7] PiliczS,PrzewędaR,Dobosz J,Nowacka-DoboszS:Punktacja sprawności fizycznej młodzieży polskiej wg Międzynarodowego Testu Sprawności Fizycznej. Kryteria pomiaru wydolności organizmu testem Coopera.Warsza-wa,AWF,2004.

[8] MalinowskiA:Norma biologiczna a rozwój somatyczny człowieka.Warszawa,IWZZ,1987.

[9] JanuszewskiJ,MleczkoE:The sharpness of social gradients at the turn of the century in Małopolska (Galicia) in light of the physical fitness assessment, a test on the concept of health (H-RF) using scale of the T-scores. Antropomotoryka,2011;56:

[10] OsińskiW:Tendencje w tworzeniu testów sprawności fizycznej w ramach koncepcji “Heath-Related Fitness”. Antropomotoryka,1998;17:155–193.

[11] OsińskiW:Sprawność fizyczna a badanie nad motorycznością człowieka: sporu o konstrukt podstawowy wcale nie ciąg dalszy.Antropomotoryka,2004;28:103–107.

[12] GołąbS,ChrzanowskaM(eds):Przewodnik do ćwiczeń z antropologii.PodręcznikiiSkrypty,Kraków,AWF,2002;2:22.

[13] Pařrizkowa J:Mereni podium aktivni hmotu a tuku v lidskem tele a jeho wyznam ve sportovni praxi.TeorieaPraxeTel.Vych.,1962;5:273-279.

[14] SlaughterM,LohmanG,BoileauRA,HiorswillSA,SillmanRJ,VanBembenDA:Skin Fold Equation for Estimation of Body Fitness in Children and Youth Human Biology,1988;60(5):709–723.

[15] Eurofit.Europejski test sprawności fizycznej (translated from English language by H. Grabowski and J.Szopa) Wyd.Skryptowe,Kraków,AWF,1991;103.

[16] Januszewski J:Pomiar zdolności wysiłkowej dziew- cząt i chłopców w wieku szkolnym zmodyfikowanym testem Margarii.WychowanieFizyczneiSport.1981;1:3–12.

[17] MargariaR.etal.:Indirect determination of maximal O2

consumption in man.J.AppliedPhysiology,1965;20(5):1070.

[18] SzopaJ.,MleczkoE.,ŻakS.Podstawy antropomotoryki. WydII,Kraków–Warszawa,PWN,2000.

[19] MleczkoE:Gry i zabawy bieżne, wytrzymałościowe. Szkolenie i Trening; 114. Lekkoatletyka, 1983; 8:16–17.

[20] MleczkoE:Metodyka nauczania biegów średnich i długich; inMleczkoE (ed.):Lekkoatletyka. PodręcznikiiSkrypty,Kraków,AWF,2007;30:71-73.

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– 103 –

ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS

ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSICAL FITNESS OF RURAL BOYS FROM LUBLIN REGION

ANTROPOLOGICZNA OCENA WPŁYWU CZYNNIKÓW SOCJOEKONOMICZNYCH NA ROZWÓJ I SPRAWNOŚĆ

FIZYCZNĄ CHŁOPCÓW WIEJSKICH Z LUBELSZCZYZNY

Helena Popławska*, Krystyna Buchta*, Agnieszka Dmitruk*

* PhD, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska; Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland

Key words: boys, socio-economic conditions, body height, body mass, BMI, motor abilities, time changes

Słowa kluczowe: chłopcy, warunki socjoekonomiczne, wysokość ciała, masa ciała, BMI, zdolności motoryczne, zmiany czasowe

Aim of the study. The aim of the work was to evaluate changes of the influence of family socio-economic factors on the level of the somatic development and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years 1998–2007.

Material and methods. The research included 547 boys in 1998 and 484 boys in 2007 in selected categories of boys aged 10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years. Physical development of the subjects was evaluated on the basis of body height and mass measurements, which were then used to calculate BMI. Motor fitness was defined with the use of Eurofit tests. Taking into consideration the level of education of parents and the number of children in families both in 1998 and in 2007, two groups were distinguished according to socio-economic stratification (SES), i.e., with a high and low SES status. The values of somatic parameters and the results of motor abilities tests were normalized for the arithmetic mean and standard deviation in particular age categories.

Results. In both 1998 and in 2007, higher normalized values of body height, mass, and BMI were noted in subjects belonging to the group with a high SES status. Only in 17–18-year-olds from 2007 were higher values of body height and mass observed in the group with a low SES status. As far as physical fitness was concerned in the categories of those aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years, higher normalized values of the majority of the analyzed motor tests occurred in boys from families with a low SES status, both in the research from 1998 and from 2007. However, in the age group of 14–15-year-olds, in the majority of the analyzed motor tests higher normalized values were observed in boys from the group with a high SES status.

Conclusions. No substantial changes in the influence of socio-economic variables on the somatic develop-ment and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years 1998–2007 were observed.

Cel pracy. Celem pracy była ocena zmian w oddziaływaniu czynników socjoekonomicznych rodziny na poziom rozwoju somatycznego i sprawności motorycznej chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998 – 2007.

Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 547 chłopców w 1998 roku i 484 w 2007 roku w wybranych kategoriach wieku 10–11, 14–15 i 17–18 lat. Rozwój fizyczny badanych oceniono na podstawie pomiarów wysokości i masy



Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk

– 104 –

ciała, na podstawie których obliczono wskaźnik BMI. Sprawność motoryczną określono za pomocą prób wcho-dzących w skład testu Eurofit. Biorąc pod uwagę wykształcenie rodziców i dzietność rodzin, zarówno w 1998 jak i w 2007 roku, wydzielono dwie grupy, tj. o wysokim i niskim SES. Wartości parametrów somatycznych i wyniki prób motorycznych znormalizowano na średnią arytmetyczną i odchylenie standardowe w poszczególnych ka-tegoriach wieku.

Wyniki. W 1998, jak i w 2007 roku wyższymi wartościami unormowanymi wysokości, masy ciała i BMI cha-rakteryzowali się badani zaliczeni do grupy o wysokim SES. Jedynie u 17–18-latków z 2007 roku wyższe wartości wysokości i masy ciała zaobserwowano w grupie o niskim SES. W przypadku sprawności fizycznej w katego-riach wieku 10–11 oraz 17–18 lat wyższe wartości unormowane większości analizowanych prób motorycznych wystąpiły u chłopców z rodzin o niskim SES, zarówno w badaniach z 1998, jak i z 2007 roku. Natomiast w grupie wieku 14–15 lat w większości analizowanych prób motorycznych wyższe wartości unormowane zaobserwowano u chłopców z grupy o wysokim SES.

Wnioski. Nie zaobserwowano wyraźnych zmian w oddziaływaniu zmiennych socjoekonomicznych na rozwój somatyczny i sprawność motoryczną chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998–2007.

Introduction

Society’s changing living standards stimulate the need for multivariate analysis of physical and motor development in children, adolescents, and adults. Typically, socioeconomic, ecological, and cultural factors are listed amongst environmental determinants of development. In the case of anthropological studies, the size and character of social environment, parental education level and profession, as well as the number of children per family are usually taken into account [1, 2, 3]. All of these factors can be identified objectively; furthermore, the results of a study based on the aforementioned criteria can be assessed in view of other findings. In some cases, other elements of the living environment, e.g., the size of the farm, family type, the form of child’s vacation, as well as the sport activities of children and their families, are also considered as determinants of motor development in children and adolescents [4].

In most welldeveloped countries, no observed effects of the environmental variables on the development and physical capacity of children and adolescents have been noted in the past several years. Thus, the socalled “biological classlessness” is postulated to occur in such countries [5, 6]. In contrast, disparities in the degree of somatic development and physical fitness of children and adolescents originating from groups characterized by various socioeconomic statuses can still be observed in Poland. Many authors have noted that a superior economic status along with a higher level of parental education and a lower number of children per family are associated with higher average values of somatic parameters in the representatives of a given social class [7, 8, 9]. However, the results of recently published studies examining large city environments point to a lack of significant social variabledependent

differences in the developmental parameters [10, 11, 12].

The research presented in this paper pertained to children and adolescents from rural areas of the Lubelszczyzna region. This region, at the end of the 20th century, was characterized by the low educational levels of its inhabitants and a high number of children per family. Furthermore, social inequities were observed in terms of somatic development and physical fitness of children and adolescents from Lubelszczyzna [13, 14].

The principal objective of this study was to answer the following question: was there any variation on the impact of the socioeconomic factors on the degree of somatic development and motor capacity in children and adolescents from the rural areas of the Lubelszczyzna region in the 1998–2007 time period?


This crosssectional study was performed in 1998 and 2007, and included 547 (1998) and 484 (2007) boys from selected age categories, i.e., boys aged 10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years, corresponding to various educational levels (primary, grammar, and secondary). The participants attended rural schools located in northwestern Lubelskie province. In 1998, the investigated schools were selected at random from a register listing all rural schools, kindly provided by the Department of Education in Biała Podlaska, and in proportion to the total number of schools of a given type in the former Biała Podlaska province. The schools in Janów Podlaski, Klonownica, Konstantynów, Leśna Podlaska, and Rokitno were selected. In 2007, the study was repeated in the same schools. The survey intended to examine all school children whose parents expressed their con

Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...

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sent, with the exception of individuals exempted from physical education classes. At the beginning of the study, the parents of participating children were asked to complete a questionnaire. Aside from parental consent to include their child in the study, the questionnaire asked for the date of birth of each child, the number of siblings, and paternal and maternal educational level.

The study included anthropometric measurements of basic somatic parameters taken using Martin’s technique [15]. Body height was measured using an anthropometer with a precision of 0.1 cm. Body weight was determined with an electronic medical scale with a precision of 100 g. Based on these values, the body mass index (BMI) was calculated for every participant. The somatic measurements were taken during morning hours. The children were examined individually, dressed in their gym suits and barefoot.

Selected motor abilities and flexibility were determined using a set of trials included in the protocols of the European Test of Physical Fitness [16]. Explosive leg power was determined based on the length of standing broad jump and the strength of the trunk based on the number of situps performed in 30 seconds. The evaluation of agility was based on the time obtained in 10 x 5m shuttle run, and the speed of upper limb movement was based on the time obtained in the plate tapping test. The sit and reach test was employed to assess flexibility [17]. The motor capacity of examined boys was measured at the sports facilities of participating schools during physical education classes.

Three variables describing the family situation of the examined children, i.e., the level of paternal and maternal education and the number of children per family, were selected to assess the socioeconomic status of the participating families. These variables are widely accepted as indicators of socioeconomic status of the family, and thus allow for comparative analyses. Furthermore, parents report their education data and the number of children more eagerly than other characteristics, such as economic status of the family or domestic relations.

The level of parental (paternal and maternal) education was classified into three categories: 1) primary and vocational training, 2) secondary education, and 3) postsecondary education. Similarly, three categories were recognized within the “number of children per family” variable. The first category included families with one or two children, the second – with three children, and the third – with more than three children. For the purposes of this analysis, two groups located at

the opposing extremes of the socioeconomic spectrum, high or low socioeconomic status (SES), were distinguished. The first group (high SES) included children and adolescents of parents with secondary or postsecondary education and originating from the families with one or two children. In contrast, the low SES group was comprised of school children from multichildren families (at least three children per family), with the mother and the father possessing educational levels lower than secondary.

The data recorded in 2007 was compared to that data obtained in the same region in 1998 in order to analyze the effect of changes in the factors indirectly evaluating the socioeconomic status of the families on the degree of somatic development and motor abilities of boys from rural areas. Both studies were performed by the same research team, employed the same methods of somatic development and motor ability assessment, as well as the same criteria for the parental education level and the number of children per family.

Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistica 6.0 package (StatSoft). Individual values of somatic parameters and motor tests were normalized for the individual age groups by arithmetic means and standard deviations. Each parameter was presented in T scale, where T = 10z + 50, where z is the normalized value of measurements; and in timescale, where T = 10(–1) + 50. The normalization procedure enabled the amalgamation of all the categories of boys aged 10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years.

The variables possessing the most significant impact on the basic somatic characteristics, motor abilities, and flexibility of our participants were identified using multiple regression analysis. Additionally, the significance of the differences between the normalized values of somatic parameters and motor tests determined in 1998 and in 2007 in groups characterized by high and low SES was analyzed using the Student’s ttest. Statistical significance of all tests was set at p < 0.05.

Results

The SES structure of examined children within the analyzed age categories is presented in Table 1. Analysis of the data presented in this table indicates a considerable variability in the distribution of high and low SES in 1998 and in 2007. In 1998, all of the analyzed age categories were characterized by a relatively small fraction of individuals with high SES and a high percentage of


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those with low SES. In contrast, the opposite was observed in the SES structure determined in 2007.

The results of regression analysis, expressed as beta coefficients, and the percentage values of adjusted coefficients of determination (R2) illustrating the degree of the variability of each dependent variable as a result of the effects of the socioeconomic characteristics included in this study, are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The values of standardized beta coefficients suggest weak (insignificant) associations between the paternal and maternal education levels and somatic parameters in both time periods of the study. With regards to the

paternal education level, only the positive correlations pertained to body height and weight in boys from the youngest age category analyzed in 2007. Significant effects of the “number of children per family” variable on the somatic development was revealed in the cases of the boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years analyzed at the end of the 1990s. However, a comparable relationship was not documented in 2007. The socioeconomic variables examined in this study explained only a small fraction of variance in the analyzed somatic parameters (approximately 5% in the case of body height and nearly 8% for body weight). More frequently, the effects

44

46

48

50

52

54

56

norm

alis

ed v

alue

s

high SES 1998 54,2 54,0 52,8

low SES 1998 49,3 48,6 48,5

high SES 2007 51,2 52,7 52,7

low SES 2007 47,6 47,5 48,4

body height body mass BMI

** *

Figure 1. Normalized values of somatic features of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

norm

alis

ed v

alue

s

high SES 1998 48,3 53,7 56,1

low SES 1998 50,6 49,7 48,7

high SES 2007 50,6 51,2 51,0

low SES 2007 42,1 42,8 47,4


* **



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of socioeconomic variables were observed to influence the development of motor abilities. Based on the results of regression analysis, trunk strength, explosive power and agility proved most “sensitive” to the effects of socioeconomic situation. The following relationship was documented in all age categories analyzed in 2007: the smaller the number of children per family, the worse the results of trunk strength development. Additionally, paternal and maternal education had a considerable impact on the development of trunk strength. In particular, in the case of the category of the 10–11yearolds, higher levels of paternal education were associated

with poorer results of the trunk strength test, while a reverse correlation was observed with regards to maternal education. In total, the analyzed variables explained between approximately 5% and 20% of the variability in the strength of the trunk. Socioeconomic status variables explained variability in the explosive leg power to a lesser extent (up to 4% at the most). Level of paternal education had a significant impact on this parameter, but the direction of this relationship was different depending on the parent’s gender. Similar phenomenon was also observed in the case of agility of participants aged 17–18 years examined in 1998, in which case

44

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52

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56

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alue

s

high SES 1998 50,2 49,1 48,9

low SES 1998 49,3 48,2 48,5

high SES 2007 50,4 50,5 49,9

low SES 2007 54,8 53,4 48,8



Figure 4. Normalized values of the analyzed motor abilities and flexibility of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)

30

35

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60

norm

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s

high SES 1998 47,2 49,2 45,5 47,4 51,0

low SES 1998 50,8 50,5 51,3 51,6 49,6

high SES 2007 46,8 49,6 44,7 49,6 48,0

low SES 2007 47,8 47,6 52,9 52,7 54,1

flexibility explosive pow er

trunk strength agility speed of upp. limb movement

* *


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the socioeconomic variables explained approximately 9% of variability in the results of 10 x 5m shuttle run. The number of children per family was the only variable which significantly affected the speed of upper limb movement; this association proved significant in the category of 14–15yearolds examined in 2007. In contrast, no significant effects of environmental variables were observed in the case of the results of the flexibility trials.

Normalized arithmetic means of somatic indices and motor tests (in T scale) in boys from extreme socioeconomic groups studied in 1998 and in 2007 are presented in Figures 1–6. When the variability of somatic development was considered, higher normalized values of body height, body weight, and BMI were documented in individuals with high SES belonging to categories of boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years. This aforementioned relationship was observed both in 1998

30

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high SES 1998 54,8 50,7 48,3 54,8 53,4

low SES 1998 51,5 49,9 49,6 49,7 49,7

high SES 2007 49,7 48,8 46,3 49,2 49,5

low SES 2007 59,1 47,2 58,8 47,9 46,8



* *



30

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high SES 1998 47,1 48,0 47,9 46,7 50,4

low SES 1998 51,7 50,5 49,0 50,9 49,1

high SES 2007 47,9 46,7 46,5 54,5 50,7

low SES 2007 54,5 59,5 60,6 52,2 52,0



** *

*


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and in 2007, the only exception pertaining to the body height of 14 to 15yearold boys who were examined in 1998. In 1998, slightly higher values of somatic development parameters were documented in the group of boys aged 17–18 years who were characterized by high SES. On the other hand, the intergroup SESrelated differences in body height and weight were markedly more pronounced in 2007, and a reverse relationship was observed, i.e., individuals with lower SES were characterized by higher values of those parameters. The SESrelated intergroup differences proved significant in categories of those aged 10–11 and 14–15 years, more often in 2007 (Figures 1–3).

When physical fitness was related to socioeconomic variability, both in 1998 and in 2007, better normalized results of most analyzed tests were observed in boys aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years from families with lower SES. In contrast, such evident relationships were not observed in the category of 14–15yearolds; however, in the case of the majority of the motor tests performed in this group higher normalized values were documented in boys from the higher SES group. The most pronounced differences between various socioeconomic groups pertained to body flexibility and trunk strength examined in 2007.

Discussion

Lubelszczyzna is one of the most eastern regions of both Poland and the European Union. This province is included in the group of provinces that are most endan

gered by poverty and is characterized by low educational levels of the rural population. At the end of the previous century, nearly 60% of rural inhabitants had only primary or incomplete primary education; farmers with secondary or postsecondary education corresponded to 13.4% of this population, whereas the corresponding fraction in Poland is 21.4% [18]. Additionally, the inhabitants of this region were characterized by a high number of children per family. More than 30% of families had four or more children [19]. Poland’s entrance into the European Union markedly improved the economic situation of families living in this region. Moreover, a gradual improvement with regards to the educational level was also observed; nevertheless, the level of education is still below the country average [20].

Families’ changing socioeconomic situation may indirectly influence the level of somatic development and motor capacity of children and adolescents. However, our analysis did not reveal any considerable changes in the effects of socioeconomic factors on the biological development of boys from the rural areas of Lubelszczyzna studied in 1998 and in 2007. Boys from families with high SES are still characterized by higher values of body height, body weight, and BMI as compared to their peers from the low SES group. The only exception pertained to the participants from the oldest age category (aged 17–18 years) studied in 2007 in whom higher values of body height and weight were documented in individuals originating from families with low SES. However, Student’s ttest showed those differences to be insignificant. The results published by

Table 1. The structure of selected SES groups in the examined periods

Years of research N in totalHigh SES status Low SES status

X2

N % N %

10–11-year-olds

1998 186 12 6.5 98 52.7 54.7*

2007 195 54 27.7 38 19.5

14–15-year-olds

1998 165 12 7.3 61 37.0 98.0*

2007 181 80 44.2 9 5.0

17–18-year-olds

1998 196 32 16.3 61 31.1 31.4*

2007 108 39 36.1 8 7.4

* – statistically significant dependence, p < 0.05


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Table 2. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 1998*

Variable Body height

Body mass BMI Flexibi-

lityExplosive

powerTrunk

strength AgilitySpeed of

upper limb movement

10–11-year-olds

Father’s level of education

Mother’s level of education

Number of children 0.233 0.312 0.287

Corrected R2 (%) 4.8 7.7 6.2

14–15-year-olds



Number of children 0.241 0.219 0.213

Corrected R2 (%) 4.9 6.5 3.6

17–18-year-olds

Father’s level of education –0.165 –0.247 0.330

Mother’s level of education 0.226 –0.219

Number of children

Corrected R2 (%) 1.0 5.1 9.0

* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table

Table 3. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 2007 *

Variable Body height

Body mass BMI Flexibility Explosive

powerTrunk

strength AgilitySpeed of

upper limb movement

10–11-year-olds

Father’s level of education 0.176 0.215 –0.215 –0.430 0.169

Mother’s level of education 0.223 0.231

Number of children –0.263

Corrected R2 (%) 1.1 4.2 3.2 19.9 1.0

14–15-year-olds

Father’s level of education 0.245

Mother’s level of education –0.166 –0.255

Number of children –0.163 –0.161

Corrected R2 (%) 3.9 7.3 2.4

17–18-year-olds



Number of children –0.264

Corrected R2 (%) 8.4

* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table

Strzelczyk [21] suggest that an association between maternal and paternal education and somatic characteristics of children and adolescents from rural areas is weak. In the case of maternal education, positive

coefficients of correlation were documented solely in younger girls (aged 7–10 years) with regards to body weight and height as well as chest and knee width. Additionally, paternal education was found to be cor


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related mostly with the somatic characteristics of older boys (aged 11–15 years).

The socioeconomic situation of a family influences the manner of spending leisure time, including the amount of time spent on physical activity. Charzewski [22] observed that the differences in the levels of physical activity in children resulted from belonging to a given social class, but occurred irrespectively of the degree of urbanization of the place of residence. Children from families belonging to higher social classes participated in additional sport activities, including sport clubs at school and other organized forms of sport activities, more frequently than those from lower social classes. Also, research of Blanksby et al. [23], Brodersen et al. [24], and McVeigh et al. [25] confirmed this aforementioned relationship, while, in contrast, it has not been observed by BiałokozKalinowska et al. [26].

Furthermore, the studies of physical fitness in children and adolescents representing groups with high, moderate, and low SES documented variability in the results. Gołąb [27] analyzed children and adolescents between 8 and 18 years of age living in Nowa Huta and observed that the best results of standing broad jump and envelope agility run were obtained by boys with high SES and girls with moderate SES. In most age categories, the best levels of relative strength were documented in boys and girls characterized by moderate socioeconomic conditions. In a study by Mynarski et al. [28], conducted in the Upper Silesia region, significant differences between girls and women qualified to groups with moderate and high socioeconomic status were documented only in the case of Flamingo balance test and maximal oxygen uptake. In boys and men, significant socioeconomic statusrelated differences pertained to the results of

handgrip, strength endurance, shuttle run, and balanced walk tests. Based on the results of their study of adolescents from Cracow, Mleczko and Ozimek [10] revealed that the groups of participants from families with poorer economic status showed higher levels of motor capacity (with the exception of some coordination skills) in most age categories. Also, our study documented a similar tendency in categories of those 10–11 and 17–18 years of age. Participants from the group with lower SES had better results of most motor tests. This phenomenon may result from the fact that currently children from families with higher socioeconomic status spend higher amounts of time learning, more frequently participate in extraschool classes and, thus, have less time for physical activity. Both in 1998 and in 2007, a higher level of motor capacity was documented in boys originating from families with high SES. This may be the result of earlier maturation of boys from parents with higher education levels, as suggested by the results of Wilczewski’s study [29], which was examined a rural setting.

Conclusions

1. Similar tendencies with regards to the influence of socioeconomic variables on the somatic development and motor abilities of boys from the Lubelszczyzna region were observed in 1998 and in 2007.

2. High socioeconomic status of families from rural areas correlated with high values of somatic development parameters in examined boys.

3. Low level of social stratification was most commonly associated with higher values of analyzed motor abilities and flexibility.


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REVIEW PAPERSPRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE

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THE MOVEMENT OF A HUMAN BEING IN THE MEDICAL EXOSKELETON –

THE ANTHROPOMOTORIC ASPECTS

PORUSZANIE SIĘ CZŁOWIEKA W EGZOSZKIELECIE MEDYCZNYM – ASPEKTY ANTROPOMOTORYCZNE

Emilia Mikołajewska*, Dariusz Mikołajewski**

***PhD, Department of Rehabilitation, 10th Military Clinical Hospital with Polyclinic SPS ZOZ in Bydgoszcz, Poland***MSc, Department of Informatics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University

in Toruń, Poland

Key words: rehabilitation, physical therapy, exoskeletons, biomechanicsSłowa kluczowe: rehabilitacja, fizjoterapia, egzoszkielety, biomechanika

Exoskeletons are mechanical constructions attached to particular parts of a human body, supporting its movement with the in-built effectors. Exoskeletons are promising solutions as rehabilitation devices and as tools, supporting patients, medical personnel, families and caregivers in everyday life activities. They may be particularly helpful for the people with deficiencies and those who suffer from pathology of the central ner-vous system (CNS) in result of, for instance, a stroke. The aim is to improve the quality of life of such people by supporting and expanding their motoricity. As for today, the knowledge and understanding in the area of adaptation of a human being to walking and performing everyday life activities in combination with such robots as exoskeletons are limited. This article is aimed at estimating to what extent the possibilities in this field are being exploited.

Egzoszkielety są konstrukcjami mechanicznymi mocowanymi do poszczególnych części ciała człowieka, wspomagającymi jego ruch za pomocą wbudowanych efektorów. Egzoszkielety stanowią obiecujące rozwiązania zarówno jako urządzenia rehabilitacyjne, jak i wspierające pacjentów, personel medyczny, rodziny lub opiekunów w czynnościach codziennego życia. Mogą być szczególnie pomocne u osób z osłabieniami oraz cierpiących z po-wodu patologii ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, spowodowanych np. udarem. Celem ich funkcjonowania jest poprawa jakości życia tych osób przez wsparcie i rozszerzenie ich zdolności motorycznych. Aktualny stan wiedzy oraz zrozumienie zagadnienia adaptacji człowieka do chodzenia i wykonywania czynności życia codziennego we współdziałaniu z takimi robotami, jak egzoszkielet, są mocno ograniczone. Artykuł jest próbą oceny, w jakim stopniu wykorzystuje się dziś możliwości w tej dziedzinie biomechaniki.



Introduction

The medical exoskeleton, defined as a power suit attached to particular points of the user’s body, allowing him to expand his strength and motor capabilities (including the lost or limited ones) constitutes a promis

ing solution in the field of medical robotics (including rehabilitation robotics) for the people with deficits of the central nervous system or with the weakened muscle power. The exoskeleton is an excellent solution for the disabled, seriously ill and elderly people not only in the area of their mobility (replacing wheelchair and expand

Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski

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ing its capabilities) but also as a rehabilitation device interacting with the user all day long in the course of the standard exploitation of the device. Therefore, the important element is the analysis of the exoskeleton and the interaction between a human being and a machine both on the biocybernetic and biomechanical levels, which overlap here. It seems particularly significant also from the viewpoint of introducing the steering of exoskeletons with braincomputer interface (BCI). One of the research projects conducted nowadays in this area is MindWalker [2, 3]. In the market, there are already first two commercial medical exoskeletons: HAL5 and ReWalk (versions B1/B2); and the consecutive one – eLegs – is to be available in the middle of 2012 [4, 5]. In the course of clinical trials and the development of knowledge on the exoskeletons, the dynamic growth of their clinical applications is predicted.

Two main basic groups of the applications of the exoskeletons are being under consideration here:• r e h a b i l i t a t i v e m o d e – the use of the exoskel

eton in case of severely ill people, the disabled and the aged as an ultra modern equivalent of a combination of today’s wheelchair with a rehabilitation

robot, and the telemedical system (for instance, telesupervision); the aim of using the exoskeleton may be here of a dualistic nature: providing the constant support of everyday life activities and mobility by replacing, strengthening and supplementing the particular functions’ parameter or else – when the exoskeleton is used temporarily – training the abovementioned functions (e.g. while gradually reducing the support), so that – when the using of the exoskeleton has been completed – those functions are performed by a patient in an improved way;

• a s s i s t i v e m o d e – the use of the exoskeleton as a supporting device for medical personnel and caregivers of the severely ill people, the disabled and the aged, particularly in case of the activities requiring a great physical effort: the change of a position, moving over, assuming the upright position or reeducation of walking, bathing etc. [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].

Scientific research on exoskeletons focuses primarily on the understanding of biomechanics, nervous control, and energetic cost of the movement of a human being in the exoskeleton and without it. It may supple

Figure 1. Advantages and disadvantages of using exoskeletons in rehabilitation

Advan-tages

Disadvan-tages

Reducing energy cost of a movement

(e.g. in case of enfeeblement)

The Alternative for a Wheelchair: The two-limb alternative (the exoskeletons only for lower limbs) The four-limb alternative (the exoskeletons for both lower and

upper limbs)

Supporting many everyday life activities

Exoskeleton is a mobile rehabilitation

device and a platform for tele-medical equipment

Possibility of compensation (also temporary)

of the OUN deficits

The possibility of steering with the help of the brain-computer

interface (e.g. the MindWalker project)

Adjusting the steering to the kind and level

of a deficit

Individual choice

Not fully examined long-term effects of the exploitation

Complex procedure of the user’s adaptation and training

Necessity to develop safety and emergency systems

The movement of a human being in the medical exoskeleton – the anthropomotoric aspects

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ment the knowledge and experience already acquired in this area through, among others, reeducation of the function (walking, the function of upper limbs) lost in the result of neurological deficits in the course of rehabilitation and neurological physiotherapy, through the impact of repetitive exercises on the effectiveness, through the speed of the return of the abovementioned function, or through the use of the rehabilitation robots.

Steering of the exoskeleton

From cybernetic viewpoint, the healthy people while attempting to make a movement – depending on the intention to make a movement and the conditions of the environment – modulate the patterns of the activation of muscles. Various functional tasks require development of a set of various patterns, including the sequen

tial activation of particular patterns, and stepping up the power of muscles and its direction. Some disabled people (e.g. in result of a stroke or damage of the spinal cord) have limited capabilities in this area or even their total absence, as far as particular muscles are concerned. It is most often caused by the damage of the nervous system in the way that prevents the patient from conducting the abovementioned modulations in a controlled way.

Exoskeletons are being equipped with an interface of the user, in traditional understanding of that concept, although exoskeletons ReWalk, eLegs and HULC possess partial interfaces for the choice of the work module. The user is steering the exoskeletons in the process of an interaction between a human being and a machine, cooperating with the exoskeleton via humanmachine interface. HMI interface, working in

Figure 2. Results of investigation of the PubMed database (U.S. National Library of Medicine) [11]

Comparison of the frequency of the phrases’

appearances

name of the

phrase

Number of articles

robotic exoskeleton +biomechanics

robotic exoskeleton

+ rehabilitation

robotic exoskeleton

23 50

76

robotic exoskeleton

+ physical therapy

7

exoskeleton

625


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real time on neuromuscle level, may lead to intuitive steering of the exoskeleton and the user’s full integration with it. The user perceives the exoskeleton then, as an extension (expanding the capabilities) of his own body [12].

In the simplest sense of the term, the full cycle of the steering of the exoskeleton covers the following stages realized in the real time: • reading from sensors the intention of the user to

make a movement,• interpretation of that intention while taking into ac

count the uptodate behavior and the programmed patterns of movement,

• interaction of the exoskeleton movement with the user’s movement while simultaneously strengthening the power, reducing the support or even replacing the deficient part of the user’s body (according to needs),

• analysis of the final position, and launching the successive cycle [6, 7, 8].

The proper realization of the abovementioned algorithm is being fulfilled by the subordinated detailed functioning of the whole (most often doubled) exoskeleton steering system. It ensures at the same time:• maintenance of the movement and particular po

sitions within the frames of natural patterns or the patterns close to natural for a particular user – the most interesting aspect from biomechanical point of view,

• comfortable and bearable use of the exoskeleton in a long period of exploitation, at altered effort, and multiple repetitions [8].

Human-machine interaction

Below a description of the chosen solutions to the area of humanmachine interaction used in the contemporary exoskeletons is placed.

Myoprocessors [12] are realized in the course of HMI computationally as the real time models of all the muscles covered by support. These models, working in combination with the functioning muscle, allow conducting the anticipatory identification of which of the muscles – and in what way – will be successively activated. By that means, one can – on the basis of kinematics of the joints and levels of the activation on the neuronal level – anticipate, for instance, the moments in joints. It is also possible, due to the fact that each user has at his disposal the source of natural move

ment patterns, either fairly limited or relatively close to the natural. The set is also learning in the process of adjusting the exoskeleton to the user’s needs and in the process of its entire exploitation. These patterns enable creating the internal database for the needs of HMI, which allow the calculation, for example of the initial stages of each movement and the assessment and eventual correction of the supporting of the movement by the exoskeleton. These procedures are quite complicated and they require the involvement of artificial intelligence (for instance GA – genetic algorithms, and such complex muscle models as Hill phenomenological muscle model). The recent studies have indicated high effectiveness of that kind of solutions, as sufficient tools for practical use [12].

For the time being, the most common type of control is steering of the exoskeleton with simultaneous application of all solutions or the ones chosen from the following solutions:• electromyographic sensors,• gyroscopic sensors of the position,• sensors of the power of pressure on the founda

tion,• sensors of acceleration,• sensors of the angles of bending the joints of

limbs,• ultimately (during the research): braincomputer in

terface and steering of the exoskeleton as the comprehensive and advanced neuroprosthetics [1, 2, 3, 13].

Conducting electromyography [14] is commonly used, due to the fact that EMG signals reflect directly the intention of the user to make a movement. Various solutions are examined in this respect:• the exoskeletons for lower limbs with various levels

of the freedom of movement (from level one upwards) in the knee joint, less frequently also in the ankle joint (although it is very important for the proper walk) – mostly used for supporting the movement of the disabled people,

• the exoskeletons for lower limbs anklekneehip with the artificial (according to needs) substitutes of all important muscles – mostly used for reeducation of walk, including the patients with hemiplegia with the regulated relieve of both the paralyzed and the healthy sides,

• the exoskeletons supporting also the movement of the upper limbs: the movement of an arm and the movement in the elbow joint, less frequently in the


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wrist joint – used mostly to support the movement of the disabled people,

• the advanced exoskeletons equipped with the support of a palm, including 16 joints – four for each finger – used in the reeducation of the everyday activities, also after surgeries.

In steering the exoskeletons, particularly the prototype ones [15], the steering devices equipped with neurofuzzy controllers can be helpful since their easy adaptation to the EMG signals of the user [14, 15].

Optimizing the power [16] is still a matter of interest since the values obtained from experimental research, however useful, require additional modeling. A very precise reflection of the natural power is not necessary here but its optimization in the given application is important. It concerns all the muscles and functions, walking included. To calculate the optimal powers in the real time, one needs to follow quite complicated operational mathematical procedures, often solving the problem of numerous contradictions and interrelations with the simultaneous movement of other muscles. One of the methods allowing the assessment of the muscle power on the basis of the EMG signal analysis, the Bogey’s and coworkers’ method [17] is often used in different variants.

The presupposition of involuntary reduction in human strength in the humanmachine interface [18] is reflected in the hypothesis formulated by Lewis and Ferris that users cooperating in the humanmachine interface involuntarily lower the power of muscles and the moments in joints, which influences the resultant moments of the userexoskeleton interface. In effect, these values may differ from the natural ones achieved by the same human being. As for today, the research in this field is being conducted and the initial results do not confirm the above hypothesis, however, the effective implementation of commercial exoskeletons requires full explanation of that problem.

The improvement of the exoskeletons’ inertia [19] as one of the means aimed at providing the exoskeleton movements with the agility natural for a human being, particularly in the area of the upper limbs movements, has caught the researchers’ attention. It is believed that the exoskeleton numbness disturbs naturalness (also lowering the natural frequency) of the exoskeleton movements of the humanuser. Particular role may be played here by great accelerations given to some elements of the exoskeleton, among others, in the substitutes of the hip and knee joints which can sometimes cause the so called jerky movements of the exoskeleton

while attempting a quick acceleration of a walk by the user. Hence, the attempts to create the compensation algorithms in that area are in interest [19].

Proportional myoelectric control [20] intensifies the process of the user’s adaptation, both the one with deficits, and the healthy one to steer the exoskeleton also in case of the necessity to reduce and to diminish the energy consumption. It is what makes the above method the leading one in the market. In this method, the value of powers of the particular muscles is proportional to the amplitudes of the equivalent EMG signals. It should be noted that EMG signals have to be processed here in the real time. It is suspected that the precision of movements in this method may not be an effect of a certain specific action of the descending stimuli but may rather depend on the longlasting exercises, proprioceptive feedback or mechanics of joints (e.g. the movement in the elbow may be less precise since the associated movement in the wrist will expand it) [20, 21, 22].

The control of an individual muscle [23] is realized mainly by the “individual muscleforce control” supported by the exoskeleton which allows obtaining much broader spectrum of data than with the help of such conventional methods as gripping or pushing the handles. In the controlling of groups of muscles, there may arise problems with coordination of the movements of the synergistic muscles both in case of the healthy people and the people with movement deficits in that sphere. Although in exoskeletons the issue of the artificial “muscles” construction as such is of a secondary importance, the choice of the appropriate pneumatic or hydraulic elements as well as electric actuator may significantly influence the algorithms of steering itself and the construction of the steering system, e.g. in the field of the energetic optimization or using the numbness of the limbs movement.

In accordance with all abovementioned, two crucial problems should be taken under consideration:1. Education and coordination of the userexoskeleton

interaction in the situation of a temporary using of the exoskeleton (e.g. for the time of convalescence in case of weakening of the user, and also while using the exoskeleton as the support of the weakened muscles with its gradual reduction) as well as the estimation of the influence of the exoskeleton’s period of exploitation upon the possibility of returning to the natural (selfreliant) patterns of movement.

2. Not sufficiently examined effects of a longtime stay in the exoskeleton in case of using it as an alterna


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tive for a wheelchair (i.e. even 11–14 hours a day) resulting primarily from:• enforced repetition of the movement patterns,• the lack of natural reflexes implemented in the

exoskeleton software,• the effect close to the human being lost in vir

tual reality: will the too profound trust in the machine not make the user too much dependent on the machine, hampering or even preventing him from functioning without it? Nowadays, for instance, the stabilization of the balance of the humanexoskeleton set is entrusted to a human being, since the proper automatic realization of that function is complicated. On the other hand, it is not known whether, for example, the automation of keeping the balance by the exoskeleton will not contribute to the weakening of this function in the exoskeleton’s user.

Moreover, the significant part of the research is conducted on the population of the healthy people, also in the area of a possible influence of the exoskeleton upon the changes in the movement patterns. It is caused, inter alia, by the fact that the origins of the research upon exoskeletons were of a military nature, focusing on the use of exoskeletons for expanding the endurance and lifting the capacity of individual soldiers. Additionally, in case of research on people with deficiencies, there is a whole range of types and levels of deficits, to which the tested exoskeleton would have to be individually adjusted. Also the research is being conducted on the

development of the reliable indicators in the area of compliance of the cooperation of the exoskeleton set with the elements of limbs while making a movement, both in the form of a simple 3D analysis of the movement and the coordination, speed and chronology of the rotation in the joints for whole limbs. One of the possible solutions is the registration and the measuring of the position of a limb and the forces while making the specific movement [24]. That research is particularly important also for further development of the stationary rehabilitation robots. An interesting solution for getting rid of some of those problems is an attempt to develop HAL exoskeleton for one leg (hemiplegic) – particularly for patients with hemiplegics [25].

Conclusions

In the coming years, one can expect the results of the European clinical trials on the use of the HAL 5 exoskeletons in rehabilitation, launched in 2010 in (among others) Odense University Hospital in Denmark [26]). Apart from the progress in therapy, particularly of neurological disorders, the research may bring the improvement in understanding of physiology, biomechanics, nervous control and the energetic cost of the human movement both in case of the healthy people, and the ones with deficits. Nonetheless, taking into account the coming implementation of the commercial exoskeletons, one has to identify and analyze today, the problems and potential threats, particularly in the area of biomechanics.

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