anu lecture - ethnicity and separatism

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1 Separatism and ethnic violence Gerard McCarthy- PhD Candidate, International, Political, Strategic Studies (IPS), ANU April 28th 2014

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Lecture to ANU Strategic Studies students on ethnicity and separatism. Case-studies of Bougainville and South Sudan, with discussion of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P).

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Page 1: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

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Separatism and ethnic violence

Gerard McCarthy- PhD Candidate, International, Political, Strategic Studies (IPS), ANU

April 28th 2014

Page 2: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

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Outline

• First hour – separatism and ethnic violence:– Definition of key terms– How do separatism and ethnic violence

challenge nation-states?– Case studies: (Bougainville; South Sudan)– R2P & Intervention

• Second hour – counterinsurgency:– Guest lecturer, Dr Russell Glenn, SDSC

Page 3: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

What is ‘societal security’?

• Middle ground between state and human security

• A society relies on its members sharing an identity

• The most important unit of society is the nation-state

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Page 4: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

What is the ‘nation-state’?

• Two separate ideas:– State: eg. China, Spain

– Nation: eg. Tibet, Basque

• What is a ‘nation’?– A type of society characterised by:

• A common (often cultural or ethnic) identity;

• Self-awareness and self-differentiation; and

• A continuity of existence over time.

• Why link ‘nation’ and ‘state’?– Idea that strong states need a united society

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Page 5: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

What is ‘nationalism’?

• Ideology that links nation to state• Three themes:

– Autonomy– Unity– Identity

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Page 6: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

What is ‘ethnicity’?• A perception of commonality and belonging

• Perception based on:– Language– Religion– Culture– History – Physical appearance– Ancestry

• Visual ethnicity especially ‘sticky’/durable

– jk

• Ethnicity is different to nationalism

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Page 7: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

How do ethnicity & nationalism interact?• Ethnicity is different to nationalism

• Rarely clear cut, especially in AP w/ large ethnic minorities.

• Related to processes/symbols of ‘nation-making’ (flag, official language, curriculum).

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• Highly contentious when linked:

• (eg. Burma & Burman Buddhist nationalism)

• Potential for competing ‘nationalisms’ within single state: eg. Burma, Indonesia (West Papua).

Page 8: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

What is ‘self-determination’?• Post-colonial borders (often arbitrary)

created multi-nation states• 1960 UN General Assembly Resolution 1514

(Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial countries and Peoples):– Principle: right of national groups to freely choose their

sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or interference

• 3 expressions of self-determination: – 1) free association w/ independent State (NZ & Cook Is)

– 2) integration into independent State (Crimea);

– 3) independence/separation (South Sudan).

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Page 9: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Decolonisation in the Asia-Pacific• ‘States without

nations’:– Culturally and

ethnically diverse– State borders divided

pre-existing social, cultural and ethnic groups

• ‘Second wave’ of colonisation

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Page 10: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Patterns of ethnic grievances• Ethnic conflict:

– Ethnic groups compete for primacy within a state (ethnic security dilemma); and/or

– Ethnic groups rebel against state/for control of state.

• Ethnic separatism:– Ethnic minorities develop a political consciousness, identify as a

nation and demand self-determination

• Can involve:• Cultural cleansing and homongenisation (govt & rebels)

• Insurgency

• Genocide/ ethnic cleansing (govt & rebels)

• Separatism

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Page 11: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

How does separatism challenge nation-states?• Separatism = creation of new, separate states:

(Balkanisation?); or legitimate secession (East Timor?)

• A challenge because:– Threatens societal security

– Call into question existing state boundaries

– Loss of state revenue (resources)

– Proliferation of new states – 26 since 1990

– 70+ separatist movements around globe

• Asia-Pacific examples:– East Timor; Aceh (Indonesia)

– Moro (Philippines)

– Tamils (Sri Lanka)

– Tibet and Xinjiang (China)

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Page 12: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

How do separatism and ethnic violence end?

• Stalemate • Counterinsurgency • Peace agreement• Nation-building• Autonomy arrangements• Referendum on independence

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Page 13: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 1: Bougainville

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Page 14: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• History:

– 1880s – Colonised by Germany (German New Guinea)

– 1921 – Australia granted mandate over German New Guinea

– 1947 – Australia merged New Guinea and Papua

• Differences between Bougainville and the rest of PNG:– Matrilineal vs. patrilineal language and culture groups

– Catholics vs. Protestants

– Physical appearance

– Geographical remoteness

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Page 15: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• Bougainvillean ethnic identity → national

identity:– 1972 – Panguna mine opened

• No consultation and strong opposition

• Environmental and social costs of mine

• Sentiment in favour of separatism

• 45% of PNGs GDP

– 1975 – first unilateral declaration of independence– 1988 – demand for US$10 billion compensation– 1989 – Bougainville ‘crisis’ began– 1990 – Blockade imposed; second unilateral

declaration of independence14

Page 16: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 1: Bougainville cont.

• Bougainville crisis – two dimensions:– Separatist struggle; and– Internal conflict (factionalism)

• Impact of crisis:– 20,000 Bougainvillean deaths– 60,000 Bougainvilleans internally

displaced– Infrastructure and private sector assets

destroyed– Massive economic impact on PNG– Challenged legitimacy of PNG state

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Page 17: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 1: Bougainville cont.• Solving separatist struggle:

– 1997: Sandline affair– 1997-2001: Peace talks (NZ, Aus)– 2001: Bougainville Peace Agreement:

• Referendum on independence

• Autonomy

• Demilitarisation

• Foreign Peacekeeping

– 2005: Autonomous Bougainville Government & Int. capacity building/state-building

– 2015-2020?: Independence Referendum?

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Page 18: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 2: South Sudan

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Page 19: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 2: South Sudan cont.• History:

– 1869: colonised by the British

– 1954: Sudanese independence

– 1955: First Sudan Civil War

– 1972: Addis Ababa Agreement (Southern Autonomy)

– 1983: Declaration of Shari’a law/end of Southern Autonomy.

– 1983-2005: Second Sudan Civil War (against north and in south)

• Differences between South Sudan and the rest of Sudan:– Religion: Christian/Animist vs. Muslim– Appearance: Black African vs Arab – Geography: wetlands vs desert– Governance: Limited autonomy ever provided to South 13

Page 20: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 2: South Sudan cont.• Separatist struggle:

– 1983-2005: Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and warring southern factions

– 2 million dead (direct & indirect)

– 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement + UN PKO

– 2011 Referendum on South Sudan’s Independence

– July 2011: South Sudan Independence

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Page 21: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Case study 2: South Sudan cont.

• 2011-2014:

– UN Peace keeping operation and state building support

– Divisions in military and Government of South Sudan re control of major political party.

– Coup attempt December 2013

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– Civil war and ethnic violence

– Raises question of sovereignty and preventative intervention or R2P (Responsibility to Protect)?

– Challenge of addressing roots of conflict (Sudan & South Sudan)

Page 22: ANU Lecture - Ethnicity and separatism

Summary• Societal security useful to understanding role of identity

in conflict.

• Criticism: fails to consider degree of fluidity/volatility in feelings of belonging and identity (individual, collective and national).

• Nation-making is highly dialectic process: ie interaction between state and it’s constituent parts, influenced by history (Bougainville, South Sudan, West Papua).

• Degradation to ethnic violence/cleansing raises q. of sovereignty and R2P.

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