ap bio – 3/19/13 the nervous system, chp.48 body systems test thursday (chp.40, 43 (immune), 45...
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AP Bio – 3/19/13
• The Nervous System, Chp.48• Body Systems Test Thursday
• (Chp.40, 43 (Immune), 45 (Endocrine), & 48 (Nervous)
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• Animals have nervous systems that detect external and internal signals, transmit and integrate information, and produce responses.
The Nervous System
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What trends do you notice?
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Noteworthy Trends In Development
• Increase in ganglia• Increase in sensory reception• Increase in cephalization
– Cephalization is the concentration of nervous tissue in the anterior region of the organism.
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Human Nervous System
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Neuron = nerve cells
• The neuron is the basic structure of the nervous system that reflects function.
• Neuron structure allows for the detection, generation, transmission, and integration of signal information.
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Neuron Anatomy
• A typical neuron has a cell body, axon and dendrites.
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Myelin Sheath Axon coated with Schwann cells
insulates axon speeds signal
signal hops from node to node saltatory conduction
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myelin
axon
Na+
Na+
++ + + + –
–
action potential
saltatoryconduction
Multiple Sclerosis immune system (T cells)
attack myelin sheath loss of signal
Multiple Sclerosis immune system (T cells)
attack myelin sheath loss of signal
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
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dendrites
cell body
axon
synaptic terminal
Structure fits function many entry points for
signal one path out transmits signal
signal direction
signaldirection
synapse
myelin sheath
dendrite cell body axon
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Evolutionary Adaptations of Axon Structure
• The speed of an action potential increases with the axon’s diameter
• In vertebrates, axons are insulated by a myelin sheath, which causes an action potential’s speed to increase
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Axon Myelin sheath
Schwanncell
Nodes ofRanvier
Node of Ranvier
Layers of myelin
Axon
SchwanncellNucleus ofSchwann cell
0.1 m
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Cell body
Schwann cell
Depolarized region(node of Ranvier)
Myelinsheath
Axon
Saltatory Conduction• Saltatory conduction. Notice that the conduction
along a myelinated axon can occur quickly as large spaces can be skipped and impulse propagation occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier.
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Describe a Resting Potential:
• Membranes of neurons are polarized by the establishment of electrical potentials across the membranes
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• What is the charge inside the neuron at rest?
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Source of Charge Differences:
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Action Potential
• Action potentials propagate impulses along neurons. – In response to a stimulus, Na+ and K+ gated
channels sequentially open and cause the membrane to become locally depolarized.
–Na+/K+ pumps, powered by ATP, work to maintain membrane potential.
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Figure 48.11a
Actionpotential
Threshold
Resting potential
Time
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
1
2
3
4
51
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1. Resting potential2. Stimulus reaches threshold
potential3. Depolarization
Na+ channels open; K+ channels closed
4. Na+ channels close; K+ channels open
5. Repolarizationreset charge gradient
6. UndershootK+ channels close slowly
Action potential graph
–70 mV–60 mV
–80 mV
–50 mV–40 mV–30 mV–20 mV–10 mV
0 mV10 mV Depolarization
Na+ flows in
20 mV30 mV
40 mV
RepolarizationK+ flows out
ThresholdHyperpolarization(undershoot)
Resting potential Resting1
2
3
4
5
6
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al
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OUTSIDE OF CELL
INSIDE OF CELLInactivation loop
Sodiumchannel
Potassiumchannel
Threshold
Resting potentialTime
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
Na
K
Key
1
1
Resting state
At resting potential1. Most voltage-gated
sodium (Na+) channels are closed; most of the voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels are also closed
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OUTSIDE OF CELL
INSIDE OF CELL
Inactivation loop
Sodiumchannel
Potassiumchannel
Threshold
Resting potential
Time
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
2
1
1
2
Resting state
Depolarization
When an action potential is generated
2.Voltage-gated Na+ channels open first and Na+ flows into the cell
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OUTSIDE OF CELL
INSIDE OF CELLInactivation loop
Sodiumchannel
Potassiumchannel
Actionpotential
Time
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
Na
K
Key
2
1
3
1
2
3
Resting state
Depolarization
Rising phase of the action potential
3. During the rising phase, the threshold is crossed, and the membrane potential increases to and past zero
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OUTSIDE OF CELL
INSIDE OF CELLInactivation loop
Sodiumchannel
Potassiumchannel
Actionpotential
Threshold
Resting potentialTime
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
Na
K
Key
2
1
34
1
2
3
4
Resting state
Depolarization
Rising phase of the action potentialFalling phase of the action potential
4. During the falling phase, voltage-gated Na+ channels become inactivated; voltage-gated K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell
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5. During the undershoot, membrane permeability to K+ is at first higher than at rest, then voltage-gated K+ channels close and resting potential is restored
***Action potentials travel in only one direction: toward the synaptic terminals
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OUTSIDE OF CELL
INSIDE OF CELLInactivation loop
Sodiumchannel
Potassiumchannel
Actionpotential
Threshold
Resting potentialTime
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)
50
100
50
0
Na
K
Key
2
1
34
5
1
2
3
4
5 1
Resting state Undershoot
Depolarization
Rising phase of the action potentialFalling phase of the action potential
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Sequence the following in order of occurrence
• Depolarization• Resting state• Repolarization• Hyperpolarization
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Sequenced in order of occurrence
• Resting state• Depolarization• Hyperpolarization• Repolarization• Resting state
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• Resting state• Depolarization• Hyperpolarization• Repolarization• Resting state
?
?
?Time
Mem
bran
e po
tenti
al(m
V)50
100
50
0
1
2
3
4
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a. the resting membrane potential to drop to 0 mV.b. the inside of the neuron to become more negative
relative to the outside.c. the inside of the neuron to become positively
charged relative to the outside.d. sodium to diffuse out of the cell and potassium to
diffuse into the cell.
Adding a poison that specifically disables the Na+/K+ pumps to a culture of neurons will cause
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How does the nerve re-set itself?• Sodium-Potassium pump
– active transport protein in membrane• requires ATP
– 3 Na+ pumped out– 2 K+ pumped in– re-sets charge
across membrane
ATP
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Name three specific adaptions of the neuron
membrane that allow it to specialize in conduction
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What happens when the impulse reaches the end of the axon?
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Synapses• Transmission of information between neurons
occurs across synapses.• A chemical synapse is a junction between two nerve
cells consisting of a narrow gap across which impulses pass by means of a neurotransmitter
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Cell To Cell Communication Events1. Action potential depolarized the membrane
of synaptic terminal, this triggers an influx of Ca2+.
2. That causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the pre-synaptic neuron.
3. Vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft.
4. Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of ion channels embedded in the postsynaptic membrane.
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Note the structural features that allow the cell to cell communication to occur in the synaptic region:
• Calcium gated channels in the synaptic knob• Sodium channels in the post-synaptic membrane• Fluidity of the lipid bi-layer allows for exocytosis of
the neurotransmitter
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Exocytosis
• Neurotransmitter release is a form of exocytosis.
• In exocytosis, internal vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to secrete macromolecules out of the cell.
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Neuron Transmitter Binds With A Receptor On The Postsynaptic Membrane
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• The neurotransmitter will then be released from the postsynaptic membrane and degraded.
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Response
• Transmission of information along neurons and synapses results in a response.
• The response can be stimulatory or inhibitory.
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• Acetylcholine – transmit signal to skeletal muscle
• Epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine– fight-or-flight response
• Dopamine– widespread in brain– affects sleep, mood, attention & learning– lack of dopamine in brain associated with Parkinson’s
disease– excessive dopamine linked to schizophrenia
• Serotonin– widespread in brain– affects sleep, mood, attention & learning
***There are more than 100 neurotransmitters1 neurotransmitter may have more than a dozen different receptors
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Neurotransmitters
• Weak point of nervous system– any substance that affects neurotransmitters or
mimics them affects nerve function • gases: nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide• mood altering drugs:
– stimulants» amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine
– depressants» quaaludes, barbiturates
• hallucinogenic drugs: LSD, peyote• SSRIs: Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil• poisons
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Injecting ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), a chelating agent that prevents calcium ions from moving across membranes, to a synaptic region would likely
a. increase the release of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron.
b. decrease the release of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron.
c. result in neurotransmitters being released, but could not bind to its receptors on the post synaptic neuron.
d. result in the lack of calcium ions keeping the ligand-gated ion channels open on the post synaptic neurons.
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• The contraction of a muscle is a typical response generated by the nervous system.
• Muscle contraction demonstrates the interdependence of the nervous and muscle systems.
Ex - Nervous and muscular
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Motor cortex(control ofskeletal muscles)
Frontal lobe
Prefrontal cortex(decision making,planning)
Broca’s area(forming speech)
Temporal lobe
Auditory cortex (hearing)
Wernicke’s area(comprehending language)
Somatosensory cortex(sense of touch)
Parietal lobe
Sensory associationcortex (integration ofsensory information)
Visual associationcortex (combiningimages and objectrecognition)
Occipital lobe
CerebellumVisual cortex(processing visualstimuli and patternrecognition)