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Some Reaction Basics:ALL single and double replacement MUST HAVE net ionic equations (eliminate spectator ions: onesthat remain aqueous)

All S!nthesis" decomposition" and combustion #$%LU&E e'er!thing" so $ net ionic equation

eactions in *ater:Acti'e metals + *ater , metal h!dro-ide (strong base) + h!drogen gas

$onmetals o-ide (%." S." etc)+ *ater , aqueous acid (can be strong or *ea/ acid)

$onmetal + *ater , acid + other nonmetal compound (o-!gen" another acid" etc)

eactions *ith acids:Acti'e metal + acid , salt *ater + h!drogen gas (basic S r-n)

Strong bases + strong acids , salt + *ater (neutrali0ation r-n)

1ea/ base + strong acid , acidic salt *ater

Strong base + *ea/ acid , basic salt *ater

eactions *ith bases:$onmetal o-ide + base , salt + *ater

2asic reactions o3 metals and nonmetals:Metal + nonmetal , ionic compound (i3 in *ater" chec/ solubilit! 3or net ionic)

$onmetal + nonmetal , comple- non4metal compound (can ha'e 'arious cmpds)

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Lab Due Dates8age9

Lab $ame Lab &a! 1rite4up&ue

301 1: 1hat #s the elationship 2et*een the %oncentration o3 a Solutionand the Amount o3 Transmitted Light Through the Solution

303 2: Ho* %an %olor 2e Used to &etermine the Mass 8ercent o3 %opperin 2rass

306 3: 1hat Ma/es Hard 1ater Hard

309 4: Ho* Much Acid #s in ;ruit ou Separate Molecules That AreAttracted to ne Another

314 6: 1hat?s in That 2ottle

316 7: Using the 8rinciple That Each Substance Has Unique 8roperties to 8uri3! a

Mi-ture: An E-periment Appl!ing @reen %hemistr! to 8uri3ication321 8: Ho* %an 1e &etermine the Actual 8ercentage o3 H22in a

&rugstore 2ottle o3 H!drogen 8ero-ide323 9: %an the #ndi'idual %omponents o3 =uic/ Ache elie3 2e Used to

esol'e %onsumer %omplaints325 10: Ho* Long 1ill That Marble Statue Last

328 11: 1hat #s the ate La* o3 the ;ading o3 %r!stal Violet Using 2eer?sLa*

333 12: The Hand 1armer &esign %hallenge: 1here &oes the Heat %ome;rom

337 13: %an 1e Ma/e the %olors o3 the ainbo* An Application o3 Le%htelier?s 8rinciple341 14: Ho* &o the Structure and the #nitial %oncentration o3 an Acid and

a 2ase #n3luence the pH o3 the esultant Solution &uring a Titration345 15: To 1hat E-tent &o %ommon Household 8roducts Ha'e 2u33ering

Acti'it!347 16: The 8reparation and Testing o3 an E33ecti'e 2u33er:

Ho* &o %omponents #n3luence a 2u33er?s pH and %apacit!

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Table of ontents!nit "#$ame %a&es '#Section To(ics

@eneral -ns 7 @eneral eactions 3or re3erenceLab List . List o3 all 7B A8 required Labs (.67C4.67D)@eneral#n3ormation

C

BFG

Table o3 %ontentsS!llabus

@rading 8oliciesSa3et! %ontract8ol!atomic #ons

7 1hat is%hemistr!

47.7C47D747G

7747C.74.C

Energ!" Matter" 8ropertiesAtoms" Molecules" #ons8roblem SetIbJecti'es

. Math o3%hemistr!

74.6.74...C.D4.F

7D77B

Units" densit!" temperaturesUncertaint!" 8ercent Error" Signi3icant ;igures%on'ersion 2asics8roblem SetIbJecti'es

C Language o3

%hemistr!

.G4CD

CCB4CFCG4D6

.B4.G

.D7" .DC..4.D

;ormulas" $ames" H!drates" Acids

Metals and Ligandsrganic $ames and ;unctional @roups8roblem SetIbJecti'es

D Heart and Moleo3 %hemistr!

D74DD

D4DGD4.

CC4C

D4DB

EmpiricalIMolecular" K %omp" H!drates" %ombustion Anal!%oncentrations" &ilutions" Stoich o3 Solutions8roblem SetIbJecti'es

%hemicalequations

C4BF4B7B.4BDB4FB

FF4FGF4GB

C74C.D.DD.674.6

CB4CF

S!nthesis" decomposition" combustionS" &" solubilit! song" net ionicE& basics" o-idation 9?sElectrochemistr!" %ells" @ibbs" Spontaneit!

Mole map" limiting" K !ield8roblem SetIbJecti'esB AtomicStructure and$uclear #ntro

GF4GGG4674..4CD4G476D

.74.DB74B.BCBD.7 (all)

Theor!" 8eople" #sotopesLight and energ! %alculationsLine spectrum and 2ohr Model1a'e and nuclear introadioacti'it!" deca!" li3e calculations8roblem SetIbJecti'es

F Trendsrbitals=uantum 9?s

7676B47777B477G7747.67.647.77..47.B

F7F.4FBB4BBBF4BGG.

8eriodic Table 2asic #n3oTrends (all o3 them) and properties=uantum Mechanics " 9?s" rbitalsules" electron con3igurationTransition metals and rbital $otation8roblem SetIbJecti'es

G %hemical2onding andMolecularStructure

7.F47D77D.47DF7DG47D7647.7C47F

G74GG74G.C4.CF77.

Le*is" #onic" %o'alent" StrengthsShapes" VSE8" H!brids" esonanceMetallic" Allo!s#nterIintra molecular 3orces8roblem SetIbJecti'es

!nit "#$ame '#Section To(ics

@as La*s 7G47BD 76 all @as La*s (all o3 them)" NTM" stoich *Igases

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7B47BG 8roblem SetIbJecti'es76 Solids"Liquids" and8hase %hanges

7B47F.7F.47FG7F47GC7GD47.7C47

.664.7.66

.7B4.7

..64..B

74.D4G7747C77D477B7D47F

7D747DF7D777ICIF

Thermod!namics #ntroEnthalp!" %alorimetr!" Hess?s La*Thermo La*s" Spontaneit!" Entrop!8hase %hanges" Heating %ur'es" 8hase &iagramsMore Entrop! and ;ree Energ!

Ninetics" ates: La*s" graphs" mechanismsLe %htelier?sSolidIliquidIgas comparison and properties8roblem SetIbJecti'es

77 Equilibrium ..F4.CD.C4.CB.CF4.D7

7747F7FB O 7FF

Neq" Nsp" Nc" Np" Applications= 's Nsp" Metallic elements8roblem SetIbJecti'es

7. AcidI2ase .D..DC4.DF.DG.D4.C.C4..B64.B7.B.4.FC.FD4.G.GB4.

D77C747CBD7DC" DB7B747B7B777BB47B767F747F

@eneral Solutions 8ropertiesSolutions" %oncentrations" %olligati'e 8roperties" %olloidsMolecular %ompounds #n *aterAcidI2ase r-ns" properties" titration basicsAI2 theories" reactions o3" pHIpH calculations" strengthsNa" Nb" N*" K #oni0ation" reactions%ommon #ons" bu33ers" titration cur'esLe*is Theor!" more reactions8roblem SetIbJecti'es

Things to Nno* .B4. Space 3or organi0ing in3ormation and important 3actsI3ormuLabs C66

C66C674C6

@uidelines@eneral #n3ormationLabs

A8 E-am #n3o C7 2asic in3o on changes to A8 e-am

P1hen !ou ha'e eliminated all *hich is impossible" *hate'erremains" ho*e'er improbable" must be the truthQ

Sir %onan &o!leSherloc/ Holmes

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)% 'emist*+ ,*s- oo(e*smit' 2012.13 acoo(e*smit'/m's-o*&

,ate*ials: Chemistryb! 2ro*n" LeMa!" 2ursten" Murph! TS B ,!ST B RD

E'er! da! in class !ou *ill need: A scienti3ic calculator 8encil andIor pen

A periodic table (the A8 sheet)Lab goggles R noteboo/ *hen a lab is scheduled

ou*se ontent See table o3 contents abo'e 3or speci3ic details

aluation A qui0 *ill be gi'en EVE> &A> that *ill be either multiple choice or reactions*ith related questions These qui00es are meant as practice as *ell as re'ie* o3concepts A problem set *ill be due at the end o3 e'er! unit eleased A8 ;reeesponse questions *ill be assigned A comprehensi'e e-amination *ill be gi'enat the completion o3 each semester The A8 %hemistr! E-am *ill be requiredas scheduled in Ma!

*ain& All grading is done on a K o3 total basis 8oints 3rom test" qui00es" labs" andassignments are totaled and grades assigned according to recommended schoolpercentage 3or PAQ"Q2Q" etc # do $T belie'e in e-tra credit as there are plent!o3 opportunities 3or PreasonableQ (H1 and lab) points

omeo*; Home*or/ *ill be assigned in the 3orm o3 A8 pac/ets and practice testsccasionall!" the! *ill be chec/ed 3or points $o credit *ill be gi'en 3or latehome*or/ Success in chemistr! depends on a continued e33ort to*ardscompleting assignments

Labs 1e *ill be co'ering the si-teen required labs as outlined b! the A8 %ollege

2oard E'aluation o3 the lab *ill be in the 3orm o3 a lab report" questions" andIora qui0

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A8 %hemistr! @rading 8olicies

omeo*; (olic+:7 Home*or/ *ill be assigned regularl!. Home*or/ *ill be chec/ed regularl!" but not all assignments *ill be chec/ed 3or creditC Home*or/ is not accepted a3ter the time it is chec/ed in class 3or an! reason e-cept absence

D Home*or/ *ill mostl! be graded 3or completion" but *ill also be graded 3or correctnessoccasionall!

Labo*ato*+ Re(o*t#%*oect (olic+:7 Laborator! reportsIproJects are t!picall! larger" more encompassing assignments. $o laborator! reportIproJect *ill be accepted late An! missed assignment *ill result in a grade

o3 P6QC These assignments *ill t!picall! ta/e more time to complete there3ore the! are usuall! due t*o

or more da!s a3ter completionIassignment o3 the acti'it! 8lease be a*are o3 due dates as the!'ar!

D #3 a student is absent 3or a lab" please see the instructor 3or details on completing the missed labemember" it is the student?s responsibilit! to arrange ma/e4up o3 missed labs

Test#>ui? (olic+:7 Tests and =ui00es ma/e up the maJorit! o3 a mar/ing period grade. #3 a student is absent 3or a testIqui0" she is required to ta/e the testIqui0 the da! she returns

E-tended time is a'ailable 3or students that missed multiple da!s or ha'e special situationsThese matters" ho*e'er" must be discussed in a stuent.initiate cone*sationbe3ore the 3inalma/e4up date The student must contact the instructor i3 an e-tension is required

C Ma/ing up tests on time is in the best interest o3 the student This polic! is not enacted to bepuniti'e" but rather to encourage timel! ma/e4up o3 tests missed due to absence

=inal $ote:;or those o3 !ou *ho ha'e had me be3ore" !ou /no* this:

#n all the !ears # *or/ed" # ne'er had a boss gi'e me a pop4qui0 on an!thing 3ten" the! *antedin3ormationIdata quic/l!" but the! al*a!s *anted it to be correct abo'e all Ho*e'er" in all the !ears #*or/ed" # ne'er had a boss or client *ho *as *illing to accept data that *as late # *atched numerouspeople squirm" and e'en get 3ired" o'er dela!s in in3ormation That said" # do not gi'e PpopQ qui00esAs a balance" # do not accept late *or/ E'er! assignment *ill be gi'en *ith adequate notice be3ore itis due 8lease learn to schedule !our li3e and time so !ou are not scrambling last minute to completeassignments 3or chemistr!

#n addition" A8 %hemistr! is a %LLE@E le'el course and shouldbe treated *ith the respect and time it deser'es

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'emist*+ Safet+ ont*actene*al Rules:7 %onduct !oursel3 in aresponsible manner at all times inthe laborator!

. ;ollo* all instructions#3 !ou do not understandsomething" as/

C $e'er *or/ alone

D &o not eat" drin/" or che* gumin the lab

8er3orm onl! the e-perimentsauthori0ed b!the instructor

B ead all procedures thoroughl!be3ore entering lab

F The lab is $T a pla! grounddo not treat it as one

G bser'e good house/eepingpolicies: clean up a3ter !oursel3

Nno* the location andoperating procedures o3 all sa3et!equipment in the room (3ire

e-tinguishers" 3ire blan/et" e!e*ash station" 3irst aid /it"emergenc! e-it)

76 2e alert and noti3! instructoro3 an! unsa3e conditionsimmediatel!

77 &ispose o3 all *aste asinstructed

7. Neep hands a*a! 3rom e!esand 3ace *hile *or/ing

7C 1ash !our hands *ith soapa3ter the e-periment is completed

7D &o not lea'e an! e-perimentunmonitoredat an! time

7 Students a*e (e*mittein thechemical closetB )R=!L

7B Nno* *hat to do i3 there is a3ire drill

7F #3 !ou ha'e a medicalcondition" noti3! the instructor

lot'in&:7G Students 1#LL *ear labglasses during e'er! e-periment

7 Hair *ill be pulled bac/Iupdepending on the e-periment

.6 $o loose clothing or dangl!Je*elr!

)ccients#nu*ies:.7 eport an! unsa3e conditionsimmediatel!

.. eport an! inJur!

immediatel!.C #3 *ater splashes in !our e!es"rinse *ell *ith *ater at the e!e*ash station

anlin& 'emicals:.D All chemicals in the labshould be considered dangerous

. %hec/ labels t*ice be3oreusing an!thing

.B $e'er return unusedchemicals to the container

.F $e'er dispense 3lammableliquids near an open 3lame

.G $e'er remo'e an! materials3rom the lab room

. ;ill *ash bottles onl! *ith *ater

anlin& lassa*e:C6 $e'er handle bro/en glass*ith !our bare hands

C7 E-amine glass*are be3oreuse $e'er use chipped orcrac/ed glass*are

C. &o not put hot glass into cold*ater: it *ill brea/

eatin& Substances:CC emo'e plugs 3rom outlets atthe plug" not b! the cord

CD Use e-treme caution *henusing a gas burner

C $e'er lea'e a heat sourceunattended

CB $e'er loo/ into a test tube o3other glass*are *hen heating

CF &o not place hot glass*aredirectl! on the lab bench

Basicall+:#3 !ou don?t understand it" don?t/no* *hat it is" or ha'e aquestion ASN

Also" use common sense

8arentStudent

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List of (ol+atomic ions to be lea*neThe 3ollo*ing is a list o3 7B pol!atomic ions to be learned 1h! do !ou need to /no*these These pol!atomic ions are part o3 the language o3 chemistr! 8lease learn these

pol!atomic ions immediatel! as *e *ill soon e-pand the original list into a much largerlist #t is necessar! to be able to /no* all pol!atomic ions b! mid $o'ember

8hosphate 8D 4C $itrate $C47

Sul3ate SD 4. %hlorate %lC47

%arbonate %C 4. Acetate %.HC.47

%hromate %rD4. H!dro-ide H 47

&ichromate %r .F4. Ammonium $HD+7

T'e $e nes:8ermanganate MnD47 -alate %.D4.

Thioc!anate S%$47 %!anide %$47

8ero-ide .4. Thiosul3ate S.C4.

Seriousl!: *e *ill be using these and learning more this !ear >ou $EE& to N$1these" not Just recogni0e and loo/ them up *hen the! occur >ou *ill ha'e to go 3rom

names to 3ormulas and bac/

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Befo*e e sta*t: Bi&&est im(act (ictu*e in c'emist*+ on (& 218- oul'ae loe to be t'e*e-

!nit 1: T'e @A'o A'at an A'+C of 'emist*+As a note" !ou should loo/ at the pictures and diagrams" and at least EA& THU@H e'er! e-amplein each chapterIsection >ou should also actuall! readIs/im through e'er! section !ou ma! not get it

all" but actuall! EA& it all #3 !ou need a Pho* to read a science te-tboo/Q re3resher" as/Section 1-1 O The Stud! o3 %hemistr! : ead this section so that !ou /no* *h! !ou too/ this class

;rom %hapter " *e?ll see it again later:ne*&+O the abilit! to cause change (energ!Iph!sical) or do *or/ (a bit e-panded 3rom *hat # told!ou)

ineticO (otentialO also called energ! o3 position

T!pes o3 energ! O electrical" mechanical" chemical" ph!sical (sound" heat" *ind" *ater)" electromagneticradiation (energ! o3 *a'es)" nuclear

La of onse*ation of ,assO (/e!*ord being ordinar!)

La of conse*ation of ene*&+O energ! can be con'erted 3rom one 3orm to another" but

matter and energ! are related in the equation (Einstein?s 3amous one)

and Ninetic Energ! (NE) is speci3icall! related to mass (m) and 'elocit! (') E m2

inetic an %otential ne*&+: The magnitude (amount) o3 NE depends on the obJect?s mass (m) and speed ()

NEW m .1here mass (m) W mass speed or 'elocit! () W (mIs)

2asicall!" a hea'ier or 3aster mo'ing obJect has more NE than a lighter or slo*er mo'ing one

1hich *ould !ou rather: 2e hit b! a pitch at 6 mph baseball (maJor league pitcher) or at 76 mphbaseball (C !r old) Ha'e !our 3oot stepped on b! an elephant or a /itten

Atoms and Molecules ha'e mass and are AL1A>S in motion E%E8T at 0ero /el'in (absolute 0ero)"so the! ha'e NE @ases ha'e the highest" solids the lo*est

%: Arises *hen a 3orce operates on an obJect (something is pushedIpulled)" li/e gra'it!The more potential energ! an obJect has" the greater the NE it can obtain

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;alling 3rom a step stool is no big deal" but 3alling o33 o3 a .6 stor! building hurts The PpullQ o3 gra'it!is greater the 3urther 3rom the sur3ace o3 the Earth *e go: this is *h! *e start small and learn to *al/*hen *e are little (closer to the ground" less li/el! to get hurt)

So" *e get a relationship bet*een 8E" mass (m)" height o3 obJect (h)" and gra'it! (g):8E W mgh

@ra'it! (g) mass (m) height (h)@ra'it! is negligible 3or atomsImolecules due to their relati'e mass

The lo*er the energ! o3 a s!stem" the more stable it is There3ore" a $E@AT#VE Eel gi'es a morestable s!stem (atoms *ith a strong opposite charge W more stable)

The potential energ! o3 a substance (e'entuall! turning into NE) is generall! in the 3orm o3 chemicalenerg! (bondIlattice energ!) 2ut" thermal energ! (energ! trans3er during reactions) is also associated*ith NE

!nits of ne*&+

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1-2 lassification of ,atte*,atte* 4 4 is e'er!thing e

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%lasmaO gas at e-tremel! high temperature (7 - 76GN) *here electrons separate 3rom the nucleus1e?re tal/ing places li/e the sun" nuclear reactions" and VE> controlled heating used 3or metal #& ina lab *ith a Mass Spectrometer

1-3 %*o(e*ties of ,atte*: 'emical an %'+sical %*o(e*ties

('+sical (*o(e*t+. a propert! that is obser'ed *ithout changing the substance into a ne* substance

#ntensi'e O e- mp" bp" densit!" color" temperatureE-tensi'e O e- si0e" *eight" mass" length" 'olume" heat

c'emical (*o(e*t+. a propert! that can be obser'ed *hen changing the substance into a ne*substance (or properties that describe how a substance interacts or doesnt interact withother substances)

LST: 3lammabilit!Ie-plosi'eness" abilit! to rustItarnish" decomposesI3erments

'emical an %'+sical 'an&esO('+sical c'an&e4 *hen a substance changes 3orm" but its identit! or chemical properties-e-amples: cutting" grinding" magneti0ing 4 all changes o3 state (sublime" boil" condense" 3ree0e" melt)

sublimation (sublime) O deposition 4 'apori0ation O e'aporation 4 Melting(3usion)I3ree0ing(solidi3ication) 4

c'emical c'an&e4 a change *hen the substance turns into another substance b! losing" gaining" orrearranging atoms e-amples: 3orms a gas" 3orms a solid" change in odor" change in color" change intemperature (*ithout addingIremo'ing heat)

LST: change in energ! (usuall! heatIlight)" change in color" change in odor" 3ormation o3 a precipitate"and 3ormation o3 a gas (3orming a bubblesIsteam)

ALL chemical changes in'ol'e some energ! change although those changes ma! not beeasil! detected (some are small and some are great)

Se(a*ation of ,i

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'a(te* 2 )toms ,olecules an onsT'e )tom

Historical 2ac/ground 4 #n appro-imatel! DB6 2%" &emocritus (@ree/) coins the termPatomQ (means indi'isible or not able to cut) 2e3ore that matter *as thought to be one continuouspiece 4 called the continuous theor! o3 matter &emocritus creates the discontinuous theor! o3 matter

DaltonGs )tomic T'eo*+ Fea*l+ 1800GsHO P2illiard 2all Theor!Q 4 &alton put together the la*s o3conser'ation o3 mass" de3inite proportion" and multiple proportion to create his o*n atomic theor!

7 All matter is made up o3 atoms *hich are indi'isible (a lie" butX)Y. Atoms o3 the same element are identical in mass and properties

Y 9. is *rong becauseX()YC Atoms can?t be changed into other elements and atoms cannot be created or destro!ed

Y 9C is *rong becauseX () D %ompounds are 3ormed *hen atoms combineIseparate chemicall! The relati'e numbers and /inds o3 atoms are constant in a gi'en compound (simple" *hole 9 ratios)

)tom

4 smallest part o3 most elements retain chemical identit! o3 that element,olecule4 smallest part o3 some elements and all compoundsmonatomic molecules4 $oble gases" Metals" etciatomic4 H.$. . ;. %l. 2r. #. (naturall! occurring)(ol+atomicO C" AsD" SG (naturall! occurring)

La of onstant om(osition . (3rom %hpt 7" so it must be important)elati'e /inds and numbers o3 atoms are constant in a gi'en compound (goes *I9)

La of onse*ation of ,atte* F,assHO (should /no* this alread!)The total mass o3 the materials a3ter a chemical reaction equals the total mass o3 the materials present

be3ore the reaction2etter /no*n as: Matter cannot be created or destro!ed in an ordinar! chemical reaction (goes *I9C)

La of Definite %*o(o*tions 4 (deduced 3rom &alton?s postulates)1hen t*o or more elements combine to 3orm compounds" the ratios o3 the masses o3 the elements mustbe in simple *hole numbers2asicall!" atoms can be grouped in di33erent amounts to 3orm di33erent compounds" but !ou can?t ha'epart o3 an atom (no 3ractions)

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2-3;undamental 8articles O Just a quic/ re'ie*

Subatomicparticle

Location %harge Mass &eterminesX

8roton(p or p+) $ucleus + 7 766FCamu #dentit! (element)$eutron (n or no) $ucleus 6 766GFamu mass

Electron (e4) rbit nucleus 47 6666DGGamu charge

$ote: the PchargeQ is not reall! 7 #t is 7B6. - 76 47% (% W coulombs) >ou probabl! sa* this inph!sics class Ho*e'er" it is an incon'enient number" so *e Just use +7

E'er! atom has an equal number o3 protons and electrons" so atoms ha'e no electrical charge nl!ions (charged particles" usuall! in a solution) ha'e a charge

amu (atomic mass unit) O 7 amu W 7BB6D - 76 4.Dg W 7I7. o3 a %47. atom1e use amu because it is an easier number to *rite and *or/ *ith

&iameters o3 atoms OPpmQ W picometer A pico is 7 - 7647.m%an also use )n&st*om(Ao) O

1 can do Pcon'ersionsQ *ith these numbers

Atomic $umber" Mass $umber" and #sotopes

atomic 9 smallest 9 W atomic mass a'erage mass o3 isotopesmass number larger 9 W plus

soto(eO &i33erent 'ersions o3 the same element *ith di33erent masses due to di33erent numbers o3neutrons Some isotopes occur naturall! 4 most are produced arti3iciall!

$BThe isotopes o3 H!drogen$ame 8rotium &euterium Tritium

(7p+" 6n" 7e4) (7p+" 7n" 7e4) (7p+" .n" 7e4)

on(Just a reminder) O Atoms become charged b! gainingelectrons (become a negati'e charge) or losing electrons (become a positi'e charge)

A@A#$: USUALL> #$S AE ;ME& #$ SLUT#$S" but can also happen in the gas phase

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!nit 1 %*oblems#>uestions#%*actice:List the ph!sical properties o3 *ater than can used to #& it in the lab

1hat is the ph!sical state o3 each at room temperatureSil'er gasoline helium candle *a- rubbing alcohol

%lassi3! each as an element" compound" or mi-tureArgon eth!l alcohol (%.HH) grape Juice cheese 0inc

%lassi3! each as a chemical or ph!sical change;ood spoils *ater boils a nail rusts a 3ire3l! emits light

2read is ba/ed gas is pumped into a tan/ sugar dissol'es in *ater

A sno*3la/e melts paper burns a batter! starts an engine

Ho* man! di33erent 3orms o3 energ! are in'ol'ed *hen a candle burns

Lots o3 practice:

Element(ionIisotope)

Atomic$umber

AtomicMass

AtomicMass

$umber

8roton Electron $eutron

.BC

#47

D6%s+7

.BC 76B 4. CB DC

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!nit Set 1

7#3 matter is uni3orm throughout and can?t be separated b! ph!sical means but can be bro/en do*n b! achemical process" it is called a(n)

a heterogeneous mi-ture c elementb homogeneous mi-ture d compound

. 1hich o3 the 3ollo*ing is $T a chemical reactiona dissol'ing a penn! in acid c 3orming pol!eth!lene 3rom eth!leneb burning a candle d the condensation o3 *ater 'apor

C A student per3orms an e-periment using a . mL graduated c!linder and an anal!tical balance The results 3orthe densit! *ere 7CFgImL" 7DG gImL" and 7.BgImL The actual densit! 3or the obJect *as 7BD gImL Thee-periment *as

a precise c accurateb neither accurate nor precise d precise and accurate

D #n the periodic table" ro*s are called and columns are called a cta'es" groups c cogeners" 3amiliesb Sta33s" 3amilies d periods" groups

are 3ound uncombined as monatomic species in naturea Halogens b Al/ali metals c %halcogens d $oble @ases

B The empirical 3ormula o3 a compound containing 7. carbon atoms" 7D h!drogen atoms" and B o-!gen atoms isa%7.H7DB b %H c %H. d %BHFC

F The 3ormula o3 a salt is %l. The 4ion in this salt has .G electrons The element is a $i b Zn c ;e d V e 8d

G 1hich pair o3 elements belo* are most similar in chemical propertiesa % and b 2 and As c # and 2r d N and Nr e %s and He

Aluminum reacts *ith a nonmetallic element to 3orm Al is a diatomic gas at room temperature:a -!gen b 3luorine c chlorine d nitrogen

76 @ra'itational 3orces act bet*een obJects in relation to theira 'olumes b charges c densities d masses

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77 Element < has three naturall! occurring isotopes The masses and K abundances are listed ;ind the a'erageatomic mass o3 the element Abundance Mass

6F CF77C C67FFG D.777

aD7D b CBG c C6F d CGBD e CCCC

7. 1hich o3 the 3ollo*ing are chemical processes7 rusting o3 a nail. 3ree0ing o3 *aterC decomposition o3 *ater into h!drogen and o-!gen gasesD compression o3 o-!gen gas

a ." C" D b 7" C" D c 7" C d 7" . e 7" D

7C All o3 the 3ollo*ing 3orm ions *ith a charge o3 +. e-cept a %u b ;e c Au d Zn e 1

7D -!gen 3orms an ion *ith a charge o3 a 4. b +. c 4C d +C e +B

;or questions 7 through 7" use the 3ollo*ing in3ormation Each ans*er can be used once" more than once" ornot at all

a %hemical propert!b ph!sical propert!c %hemical changed 8h!sical change

7 Energ! is added to *ater in the 3orm o3 heat7B A spar/ is added to a h!drocarbon

7F The temperature o3 a gas is reduced to one tenth the original 'alue

7G 2leach" an o-idi0ing agent" is spilled on a red shirt

7 Lead has a higher densit! than table salt

.6 1hich o3 the 3ollo*ing is an e-ample o3 La* o3 Multiple 8roportionsa %47. and %47D b %47D and $47D c %HDand %%lDd % and %. e %.HH and %HC%HC

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!nit 1 becties

7 &e3ine chemistr! and the basic sections o3 chemistr!

. &escribe and #& chemical 3rom ph!sical properties

C 2e able to di33erentiate bet*een atoms" molecules" compounds" and mi-tures as *ell as puresubstances and solutions

D &escribe ho* a mi-ture can be separated

&etermine the number o3 protons" neutrons" and electrons in an atom based on name" s!mbol" oratomic number

B 2e able to match names and s!mbols o3 elements

F 2e able to #& a chemical reaction and describe the e'idence that a chemical" not ph!sical"

reaction has occurredG 2e able to de3ine energ! and /no* the di33erence bet*een potential and /inetic Also /no* the

relationship bet*een mass and energ!

&istinguish bet*een temperature and heat

76 State the la*s o3 conser'ation o3 mass" energ!" de3inite proportions" etc

77 2e a*are o3 @L8 (good laborator! practices) and sa3e chemical handling

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!nit 2 ,at'ematical Relations'i(s in 'emist*+As a note" !ou should still be loo/ing at the pictures and diagrams" and at least EA$@ e'er!

e-ample in each chapterIsection

>uantitatie 4

>ualitatie 4

1-4 !nits of ,easu*ementsMetric s!stem O basic units are: mass ()" length ()" 'olume ()" temperature (%elsius)

Nno* O 6667 /ilo" 76 deci" 766 centi" 7666 milli" 76Bmicro" 76nano" 767.picoall W 7 base (gram" liter" meter" second" etc)

S# Units O the internationall! accepted set o3 units (S# W S!steme #nternational d?Unites: it?s ;rench)(Table 7D" pg 7D)

8h!sical =uantit! $ame o3 Unit Abbre'iationMass Nilogram NgLengthVolumeTimeEnerg!;orceLight intensit!

Might also *ant to add the Metric 8re3i-es here 3or 3uture re3erence >ou $EE& to learn these and be

able to con'ert *ith them ALLMega II Nilo hecta de/a base unit deci centi milli II micro

$ote: Mega through micro The ones listed abo'e) are the ones !ou?ll see o'er and o'er The othersshould loo/ 3amiliar" but probabl! *on?t be used o3ten

Units o3 measurement: Mass and *eight O used interchangeabl!" but there is a di33erenceX,assO " 3i-ed amount (!our Pbul/Q doesn?t changeregardless o3 *here in the uni'erse)

Aei&'t4 O changes *ith location (larger celestialbod! W higher gra'it! W higher *eight)

E-act numbers O 7. eggs W 7 do0en" FB6 mmHg W 7atm" 76 cm W 766 mm" 7 min W B6 sec" etc$ote: e-act numbers ha'e an endless 9 o3 sig 3igs The! $EVE limit the 9 o3 sig 3igs in a problem

eat an Tem(e*atu*eTem(e*atu*eO a measure o3 the (intensit! o3 hotness or coldness) measured in degrees (;ahrenheit" %elsius" Nel'in)

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eatO

Heat AL1A>S 3lo*s

So" HEAT is *hat brings about a change in state (all molecules must ha'e enough NE to change

3rom one state o3 matter to another)" not temperature Temperature is sort o3 a b!4product o3heat %on3used !et

Temperature scales;ahrenheit %elsius Nel'in

2oiling 8oint .7. 766 CFC2od! Temp GB CF C76oom Temp F6 .6 .CMelting 8oint C. 6 .FC

To con'ert ; [ %" use boo/ 3ormulas ;or /el'ino% W I(o; O C.) or o; W I(o%) + C. N W o% + .FC7

MUST ha'e degree sign 3or % and ;" but $EVE 3or N

An aside: Nel'in is used 3or gases" %urium is used 3or e-tremel! hot temperatures (plasma range)

De*ie !nitsO used 3or multiple unit 3unctions (densit!" speed" measured 'olume)2asicall!" Just plug in the numbers and get the deri'ed unit

E-: the gas constant has units o3 Patm LI mol NQ #3 7 mol o3 gas is at ST8" *hat is the 'alue o3

as constant W

olumeO can be measured and calculated in S# units o3 length cubed (cmC) 3ound using *aterdisplacement in S# unit o3 Liters The measured one can be con'erted to Liters (7 cmCW 7mL)

Densit+I&ensit! W mass per unit 'olume W mI'

&ensit! is characteristic" intensi'e" and tem(e*atu*e e(enentMeaning that the S#ZE o3 the sample doesn?t matter" but the TEM8EATUE doesAlso" the densit! o3 an obJect can help identi3! 1HAT the chemical ma/e4up o3 the material is

#n addition" people tend to use densit! and mass interchangeabl!: the! aren?t

1-5 !nce*taint+ in ,easu*ementsT*o t!pes o3 numbers: e-act (*e /no* the actual 9" not limited b! sig 3igs)And ine-act (measured 9?s" limited b! sig 3igs) These are also called PmeasurementsQ

,easu*ementsO in chemistr! class" *e almost al*a!s use measurements O the! all in'ol'e uncertaint!(Peducated guessQ 3or the last digit)

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T*o important points to remember regarding measurement:7 #nstruments can onl! measure so *ell. 1e onl! need some measurements to be reall! e-act

1hen measuring" include all readable digits 8LUS one estimated digit (sig 3ig?s)

Masses are PreadQ 3rom a scale (an!thing digital does not ha'e an estimated last digit)

(*ecision4 re3ers to the reproducibilit! o3 a measurement 4 is usuall! a 3unction o3 the person measuring

%*ecision e**o* Ibased on measured 'alues" used to determine precision o3 e-perimental 'alues

K W (range)Ia'erage - 766K

accu*ac+4 closeness o3 a measurement to the true 'alue 4 is usuall! a 3unction o3 the measuringinstrument

%e*cent e**o*O ho* 3ar the measured 'alue is 3rom the actual (accepted) 'alue 2ased on actual ande-perimental 'alues Used to determine accurac! (error\ 76K $T accurate) o3 the e-periment

K error W (measured a'erage O actual) 766Kactual

%ositie J e**o* means +ou oe* measu*e (contamination" scale issues" h!droscopicW absorbedmoisture 3rom air)

$e&atie J e**o* means +ou une* measu*e(spilled" di33erent scale issues" incomplete reaction)

$T: acceptable error limits 'ar!" but a good rule o3 thumb is +76K An!thing o'er that 3or aqualit! lab *ith properl! trained personnel is $T acceptable Some labs *ill ta/e up to +7K" butthat is Just ine-cusable

e-: a person measures the 'olume o3 an obJect using *ater displacement three times *ith the 3ollo*ingresults: C7. mL" CDF mL" and C6G mL The accepted 'olume o3 the obJect is C.6 mL Are theresults: accurate" precise" neither" both E-plain

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Rules fo* finin& t'e " of si&nificant fi&u*es F+ou s'oul ;no t'ese b+ no butKH

7 All non40eros are signi3icant. Zeros bet*een non40eros are signi3icantC All other 0eros are signi3icant only if....a) there is a decimal point an b) the 0eros are to the right o3 a non40ero number

4 all other (not a andb) are simpl! place holdersAnother *a! to remember: Leading 0eros ne'er count" middle 0eros al*a!s count" and trailing 0erosonl! count *hen a decimal point is in'ol'ed

Sig 3igs appl! to scienti3ic notation as *ellThe 9 o3 s3 in scienti3ic notation W 9 s3 in non4scienti3ic notationE-: .C - 764Dand 6666.C ha'e the same s3DF - 76Band DF6666 ha'e the same s3

$ote: the more the sig 3igs in the data" the better the results #3 !ou ta/e bad data" !ou &ESEVE to

get bad resultsalculatin& it' ,easu*ements F Si& =i& ,at' H

multi(l+in& o* iiin&4 the ans*er should ha'e the smaller 9 o3 sig 3igs in the original problem

&o a better Job on the measurements" !ou get better (more precise) data in the end And use the bestequipment (accurac!) a'ailable

ain& o* subt*actin&4 round to the last common signi3icant digit on the right(This means that !ou line them all up" do the math" and then round to *here the PshortestQ

number ends in terms o3 the decimal point)

YYY;inal note on sig 3ig?s 4 e-act con'ersion 3actors do not limit the 9 o3 sig 3igs 4 the 3inal ans*ershould al*a!s end *ith the 9 o3 sig 3igs that started the problem

also note: n the A8 e-am" signi3icant 3igures are graded A correct response must ha'e the correctnumber o3 sig 3igs (one more or one less is also accepted) A good rule o3 thumb is that most ans*ersha'e three signi3icant 3igures >ou don?t need that PcheatQ O !ou /no* the rules o3 sig 3igs

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1-6 T'e !nit =acto* ,et'o Fimensional anal+sisH TS S B $ ,STR;actor Label Method 4 a method o3 problem sol'ing that treats units li/e algebraic 3actors

%on'ersions are all the same: start *ith *hat !ou /no*" mo'e units upIdo*n and go to another relatedunit" 3ill in numbers" cancel" repeat until desired units are le3t A$& 3or s3: end *ith the startingamount

one*sions nolin& olume Fan ot'e* e*ie unitsHThe! *or/ the same as an! other con'ersion" e-cept P1hat !ou /no*Q goes o'er P7Q and the bottomunit (B6mph W B6 milesI7 hour)

;rom there" !ou can ta/e units PupQ to change them" not Just do*n

E-: con'ert 7DGmgIcmCto gIL:

$B Fbut s'oul beHules o3 ounding 4 numbers greater than (B4) get rounded up

numbers less than (74D) get rounded do*n3or numbers ending on :

round to the e'en number

note 4 the PQ rule onl! applies to a Pdead e'enQ 4 i3 an! digit other than 6 3ollo*s a to be rounded"then the number gets rounded up *ithout regard to the pre'ious digit

*eMui*e met*ic.n&lis' cone*sions to ;no:1 inc' 2-54 cm 1 lb F(ounH 454 & 1 Mua*t 0-946 L

Reall+ t'ese come in 'an+ in life in &ene*al not ust c'em class-

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*a('s:These sho* up 3rom time to time" so let?s tr! one

>ou *ant to determine the e33ects o3 temperature pressure 3or a certain gas The table belo* *asobtained @raph the results to pro'e the relationship bet*een temperature and pressure (>ep" 2o!le?sLa* 3or gases) 2e sure to label EVE>TH#$@ properl!

Tempo% 7.6 ..6 D66 6 B6 F66 G66 .6 76.8resstorr

76. 7GC C 77G6 7GF .CCF C7 BF6 G7

$ote: !ou ma! *ant to use graph paper 3or this: #T #S $T 8T#$AL Turn this graph in*ith the problem set at the end o3 the unit

!nit 2 %*oblems#>uestions#%*actice:

%on'ert each76D Mg W g 6GC cm W mm DdL W L

C6.mm W m .6 o% W N .6o% W o;

*eMui*e met*ic.n&lis' cone*sions to ;no:1 inc' 2-54 cm 1 lb-F(ounH 454 & 1 Mua*t 0-946 L

con'ert 77 gal to L('olume) F 3t to m(distance)

6 lb to /g(mass) 666 mile.to /m.(area)

Ho* man! gallons o3 *ater are in m! s*imming pool measuring .D6 3t b! 7.6 3t b! C6 3t ( 3t to cm"cm(C) to cmC" cmCto mL to qt to gal)

8resuming the densit! o3 *ater to be 7 gIcmC" ho* much does the *ater *eigh in tons (cmCto g to lb

to tons)

a *ater tan/ *ith a diameter o3 66 3t and a height o3 766 3t holds ho* man! gallons o3 *ater (V W]r.h) (3t to cm" 'olume 3ormula" con'ert cmC(ml) to quart" then gallon

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A8 %hemistr! Unit . Set

7 A liquid *ith a densit! o3 .BF gIcmCis added to C666 mL o3 *ater *ith a 3inal 'olume o3B6 mL The liquid has a mass o3 Ng

a G7D b 77D c 66GF d 66G7D e 6677D

. The ans*er o3 (777C4.B) - 76D

_ I ^(76C6 + 7B) - 764B

_ has signi3icant 3iguresa b D c C d .

C #n *hich o3 the 3ollo*ing are $$E o3 the 0eros signi3icanta) 7666 b) 76B c) 66766 d) 766CD6 e) 666667

D The /inetic energ! o3 a .C.g obJect mo'ing at a speed o3 G7G /mIhr is

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%) compound&) pure substanceE) solid

7D ound the 3ollo*ing number to three signi3icant 3igures and e-press the result in standard e-ponentialnotation: ..B7C

A) 6.C6 76C 2) .C6 %) .C6 76. &) .. 76. E) ..

7 The atomic number indicates A) the number o3 neutrons in a nucleus2) the total number o3 neutrons and protons in a nucleus%) the number o3 protons or electrons in a neutral atom&) the number o3 atoms in 7 g o3 an elementE) the number o3 di33erent isotopes o3 an element

7B 1hich pair o3 atoms constitutes a pair o3 isotopes o3 the same element

A)7D

B 7D

F 2)7D

B 7.

B %)7F

7F

G

&)7

76

7

E)

.6

76

.7

77

7F The densit! o3 a certain substance decreases as the temperature gets 3urther a*a! 3rom roomtemperature The substance must bea mercur! iodide b ammonia c sodium chlorided *ater e carbon dio-ide

Use the 3ollo*ing to ans*er questions 7G through .7 Each ans*er can be used once" more than once" or notat alla Li b %u c $a d ;e e Tc

7G This element produces a bright red color in a 3lame test

7 This element usuall! produces a +. charged cation" but also ma/es a +7 cation

.6 This element has the largest atomic and ionic radius o3 those listed

.7 This transition metal does not ha'e an! isotopes

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!nit 2 becties

7 &istinguish bet*een quantitati'e and qualitati'e

. List and de3ine basic S# units

C &emonstrate a logical approach to problem sol'ing and con'ersions using dimensional anal!sisD &e3ine and use densit! 3or calculations

&e3ine and di33erentiate bet*een accurac! and precision and be able to per3orm K errorcalculations

B &e3ine sig 3ig?s and be able to determine them in numbers

F %on'ert numbers to and 3rom scienti3ic notation

G 2e able to create a graph 3rom in3ormation *ith all necessar! in3ormation" and be able to

determine the math relationship bet*een . 'ariables 3rom a graph

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!nit 3 T'e Lan&ua&e of 'emist*+

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Let?s turn dra*ings into 3ormulas and 3ormulas into dra*ings:

%CHG $HC %. %a(H).(#onic" soX)

2-7ons an onic com(ouns

ons4 created *hen an atom readil! (easil!) gains or losseselectrons

ation(comes 3rom the anode end o3 a cathode ra! tube) O

)nions(produced 3rom the cathode end) 4

and remember" a positi'e ion gets smaller *hile a negati'e one gets bigger due to (called e33ecti'e nuclear charge: more later)

Ho* about 8ol! (can?t 3orget the pol!atomics) &ra*:

H!dro-ide Ammonium

Neep in mind that the chemical properties o3 )T,Sare di33erent 3rom the chemical properties o3$S(the electrons are responsible 3or bonding" *hich is *here all o3 the %HEM#%AL stu33 happens)

The ph!sical properties are basicall! the same regardless o3 charge

8redicting #onic %harge

The $oble @ases are the ro!alt!" and e'er!one *ants to be li/e them" soXsoelect*onic4 Atoms gainIlose electrons to obtain a noble gas con3iguration (the! all *ant G 'e4"or . 'e4 i3 the! are li/e Helium)

Ho* do *e /no* charges: memori0e" learn a bunch o3 rules" or Just count (reall!) across the s and pbloc/ in the ro* o3 the gi'en elementonic om(ouns%ontain both

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A lot o3 chemical acti'it! is based on the mo'ement (trans3er) o3 electrons Again" this is *here all o3the %hemistr! reall! happens (e-cept the nuclear stu33" but *e get to that later)

#onic compounds are arranged in a C4& structure called a cr!stal lattice (li/e those *ood structures onthe sides o3 houses that hold up plants" but C4& not 3lat)

1e *rite the 3ormula as an empirical (3or ease in reactions)" but ionic compounds are reall! comple-structures that are held together b! all o3 that PchargeQ The charge becomes e'ident *hen *e pass acurrent through the compound or dissol'e it in *ater (and can measure a charge increase in the solutiondue to the charge imbalance)

A+ + 24 , A2A2A2 3ormula unit A2%ation anion cr!stal lattice

2! the *a!" great graphic on pg B

8lease read through the %hemistr! and Li3e (pg F)

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2-8 $amin& no*&anic om(ouns Fnon.ca*bon base molecula* com(ounsH2e3ore *e start" there are t*o important PtraditionalQ names that don?t 3ollo* the rules:1ater (H.) ammonia ($HC)

#norganic () compounds include ionic" molecular" and mostacids 2ases are part o3 the ionic compounds (MST bases begin *ith a metal and end in h!dro-ide)

2! the *a!: Nno* !our list o3 7G pol!atomics !et STAT $1

$ames an =o*mulas of onic om(ouns

;#ST: name cation" $ E$$@ %HA$@E

7 The s bloc/ are Just *hat the! appear to be: 7stcolumn W +7" .ndcolumn W +.

. The d4bloc/ %A$ 3orm di33erent cations The charge is indicated b! oman $umerals

notable e sho* up on A8 e-am)(%u) cuprous" ic (;e) 3errous" ic(Sn) stannous" ic (8b) plumbous" ic

(Hg) mercurous" ic2E %AE;UL: the mercurous or Mercur! (#) cation is actuall! Hg.+.

C 8ol!atomic ions (!es" the! are molecular) that end in Oium: ammonium ($HD+) and H!dronium(HC+)

(This is the list" there are a 3e* others but *e ma! ne'er actuall! see them" soX)

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SE%$&: name anions

7 ;ormed b! replacing the end *ith 4ide -ide nitride chloride phsophide$ote: some 8ol!?s also end in Oide" h!dro-ide" c!anide" pero-ide eall!" do !ou /no* these !et

. ternar! compounds O C elements ma/e up the compound (basicall!" !ou ha'e a 8ol! theresome*here or t*o lo* charge metals *ith a higher charge 8ol!)

emember # mentioned that *e *ould Pe-pandQ (add to) the list o3 8ol!?s

All 8ol!?s containing Po-!genQ end *ith either Oate(most common 3orm o3 8ol!) orOite(same charge but one less o-!gen) The! are called o

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C Anions that ha'e a h!drogen out 3ront are named b! adding the either Ph!drogenQ 3or one H+orPdih!drogenQ 3or . H+to the pol! The e-tra h!drogen(s) reduce the o'erall charge o3 the 8ol! (eachh!drogen is +7" soX)

%arbonate %C4. phosphate 8D4CH!drogen carbonate H%C47 dih!drogenphosphate H.8D47

$ote: some older sources use PbiQ 3or one H+ and PdiQ 3or .

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$ames and ;ormulas o3 AcidsAll acisO start *ith h!drogen and are molecules that ioni0e (act li/e ionic compounds) *hen dissol'edin *ater

An acid has enough h!drogen?s to PbalanceQ the charge o3 the 8ol! or non4metal anion

Neep #n Mind:7 Acids containing anions *hose name ends in Oideare named as h!dro(element name)ic acid2asicall!" *e?re tal/ing about the alo&ensand an! single element acid *ith h!drogen

List: H%l" H2r" H#" H; ($ote: H; is the *ea/ halogen acid)" along *ith H.S" HC8 (both *ea/ acids)$amed: h!drochloric acid" h!drosul3uric acid (Sul3uric acid is H.SD)" etc

. Acids *ith endings o3 Oateor Oiteha'e their ends changed to Oic (3romate)and Oous(3rom Oite) along *ith the *ord acid 2asicall!" *e?re tal/ing 8ol!s

Let?s do a quic/ list o3 strong acids:

,olecula* $ames

ules 3or naming: These are !%)(#nternational Union o3 8ure and Applied %hemistr!) rules" notmine # still occasionall! use the PoldQ or standard names (old habits are hard to brea/)

7 1rite the name o3 the 3irst element in the 3ormula

. 1rite the name o3 the second element in the 3ormula" changing its ending to OideOide ending: usuall! signi3ies a binar! () compound

C Add pre3i-es to indicate the number o3 atoms o3 each element $ote: mono is dropped 3or the;#ST element $L>

mono tetra hepta decadi penta octa tri he-a nona

D 2inar! compounds ha'e . *ord names (one 3or each element)

t'e* a+ Fnames to fo*mulasH ust elementGs s+mbol t'en (*efi< numbe* fo* cation folloe b+elementGs s+mbol t'en (*efi< numbe* fo* anion-

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+*ates 4

2asicall!" name the compound" then use a pre3i- 3or the coe33icient o3 the *ater 3ollo*ed b! Ph!drate:

%uSDH. is copper (##) sul3ate pentah!drate(!ep" need to *atch 3or roman numerals)

24-1Metal %omple-es" %oordination %ompounds and Ligands (*a! beastl! and the! ma! sho* up)

,etal om(le< I A central metal ion bonded to a group o3 surrounding molecules or ions

oo*ination com(oun I %ompounds that contain metal comple-es

Li&anO the molecules or ions that bond to the metal ion in a comple-

E-: ^Ag($HC)._%l Ag is the metal comple-" the $HCmolecules are the ligands" and the entire thingis a coordination compound

24-3$o*" *e name the beasts7 $ame the cation 3irst " then the anion. ;or the comple- ion" the ligand is named be3ore the metal" and ligands are named in alphabeticalorder (basicall!" the order in *hich the! are *ritten)C The name o3 anion ligands end in PoQ" but neutral ones are the same as the molecule

$ote: Table .DC (pg 76.) has a list o3 Pspecial casesQ

$aming pattern:^8re3i-(ligand)(non4metal cation)(metal(charge))_ anion

So" ^%o($HC)%l_%l. is called pentaamminechlorocobalt (###) chloride

^%r(H.)D%l._%l is tetraaMuadic'lo*ochromium (###) chloride

Mo($HC)C2r_$Cis triamminetrib*omomol!bdenum (#V) nitrate (;U$" isn?t it)

T*+ a fe:

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25-2 I 25-4Some Simple rganic %ompoundsrganic 4

H!drocarbons 4

%arboh!drates 4

Al/anes 4 ;ormula is %nH.n+.(n W number o3 carbons" then do the math)methane ethane propane butane

1e can e-pand al/anes b! adding more carbons (and h!drogens) to the Ps/eletonQ This is ho* *e(and Mother $ature) ma/e 3uels" plastics" 3oods" etc

$ote: h!drocarbons (al/anes) are binar! molecular compounds (onl! . t!pes o3 atoms" both non4metals) 2UT are not named the same as other molecular compounds

T'e+ )ll en in IaneFsin&le bonsH

The 3irst 3our are Just memori0ation:Methane 7carbon Ethane . carbons8ropane C carbons 2utane D carbons

A3ter that" the! *or/ o33 o3 the pre3i-es *e use 3or molecular compounds:

B F G

nce *e can recogni0e al/anes" *e can start on the rest o3 the organics: alcohols" aldeh!des"/etones" (Lions" Tigers" and 2ears)These are all created b! replacing one or more h!drogens *ith a 3unctional group (a speci3icarrangement o3 atoms)

>our boo/ onl! reall! goes into alcohols" so:

Alcohol 4

E-:Methane becomes methanol propane to 74propanol or .4propanol (isopropanol)

$ote: the properties change despite the similar structure %arbon" due to its bonding nature" gi'es riseto long chains" as mentioned abo'e That is *h! it gets its o*n 3ield o3 chemistr!

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Al/anes O all single bonds

Al/enes O a double bond in the chain

Al/!nes O a triple bond in the chain

E-:

>ou ma! *ant to glance atI*rite do*nIdra* some o3 the 3unctional groups 3or organic chem >ou *illabsolutel! learn these b! second !ear college" so getting 3amiliar no* is a bonus (pg 76F7)

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!nit 3 %*oblems#>uestions#%*actice:

$a%l Mg%l.

carbon tetrachloride iodine tri3luoride

$CB #;FAl.C $aH

sul3ur he-a3luoride tetraphosphorus deco-ide

2a%l..H. aluminum chloride he-ah!drate

Mg%C ;e($C)C

S2rB 8.

dinitrogen mono-ide disilicon tetro-ide

%u%l %u%l.

8ropane %GH7G

Ethanol %GH7B

!nit 3 becties

7 &i33erentiate bet*een a chemical s!mbol and a chemical 3ormula

. E-plain the importance o3 subscripts and coe33icients

C &istinguish bet*een atoms" ions" and molecules

D @i'en a 3ormula" state the number o3 each t!pe o3 element

Use the periodic table to predict the charge and 3ormula o3 mono and pol!atomic molecules andions

B 1rite 3ormulas 3or chemical compounds using o-idation numbers

F $ame compounds 3rom 3ormulas" both ionic and molecular

G &etermine the name and 3ormula o3 acids" h!drates" and comple- salts

ecogni0e basic organic molecules b! their names and *rite 3ormulas 3or simple compounds

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Unit C Set

7 Aluminum is a and silicon is a A) nonmetal" metal2) nonmetal" nonmetal%) metal" metal&) metal" metalloid

E) metalloid" metalloid

. The correct result o3 the molecular mass calculation 3or . DH S " ta/ing each mass to C past the decimal" is:a G6G b G6F c G6FD d GGCG e GGD

C An o-ide o3 nitrogen is 3ound to be BC.K o-!gen b! mass 1hat is the empirical 3ormulaa $ b $. c $.C d $.

D 1hich metal does not 3orm cations o3 di33erent charges

a %o b %u c $a d Sn e ;e

1hich o3 the 3ollo*ing is $T an ionic compounda 8%l b b%l c Mo%lB d $a%l e 8b%lD

B ;or the element -B%" -Wa 7 b 7C c Fd B e can?t be determined based on gi'en in3ormation

F The empirical 3ormula that 3orms bet*een aluminum and o-!gen is a Al b AlC. c Al.C d Al.

G The correct name 3or H.SCis a Sul3uric acid b sul3urous acid c h!drosul3uric acid d sul3ur h!dro-ide

The correct 3ormula 3or mol!bdenum (#V) h!pochlorite is a Mo(%lC)D b Mo(%l)D a Mo(%l.)D a Mo(%lD)D

76 Ammonium sul3ide has the 3ormula a $HDSC b ($HD).SD c ($HD).S d $HCS

77 1hat is the molecular 3ormula 3or propenea %.HG b %CHB c %CHG d %DHG

7. A 3ormula pro'ides the most in3ormation about a compounda empirical b molecular c structural d chemical

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7C All atoms o3 a gi'en element ha'e the same a) mass b) number o3 protons c) number o3 neutronsd) number o3 electrons and neutrons e) densit!

7D 1hich pair is most li/el! to 3orm a molecular compound *hen combined

a) aluminum" o-!gen b) magnesium" iodine c) sul3ur" 3luorined) potassium" lithium e) barium" bromine

7 Solids ha'e a shape and are not appreciabl! A) de3inite" compressible2) de3inite" incompressible%) inde3inite" compressible&) inde3inite" incompressibleE) sharp" con'ertible

7B The number 666666 has signi3icant 3iguresA) . 2) C %) &) B E) D

7F 8redict the product in the combination reaction .Al (s) + $ (g) UUUUUUUUA) Al$ 2) AlC$%) Al$. &) AlC$. E) Al$C

7G The balanced equation 3or the decomposition o3 sodium a0ide isa .$a$C(s).$a(s)+ C$.(g)b .$a$C(s)$a.(s) + C$.(g)c $a$C(s)$a(s) + $.(g)

d $a$C(s)$a(s) + $.(g)+ $(g)e .$a$C(s).$a(s) + .$.(g)

7 is an o-idation reactiona #ce melting in a drin/b table salt dissol'ing in a pot o3 boiling *aterc iron rustingd the reaction o3 sodium chloride and lead nitrate to 3orm a precipitante neutrali0ation o3 h!drochloric acid b! sodium h!dro-ide

.6 ;i'e grams o3 an element combines *ith 7 grams o3 chlorine #t 3orms an o-ide *ith the 3ormula M.C1hat is the elementa Li b ;e c Al d 2 e Au

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!nit 4: LetGs ,a( it ut: ,ole Time

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3-4 )o&a*oGs $umbe* an T'e ,ole

The MoleAtoms are tin!" so *e countthem in PbunchesQ 4 a mole is a Pbunch o3 atomsQ

mole (mol) 4 The amount o3 a compound or element that contains o3

that substance %alled (it is a $UM2E)7 mole W 7 molar mass W B6. - 76.Cparticles (atoms" molecules" 3ormula units)

2asicall!" the molar mass is the MASS o3 one MLE o3 a substance

Molar Volume 4 ();irst proposed b! A'ogadro in 7G77 7 mol gas W ..D L gas (3or all &asesat ST8)

ST%: 6% temperature" and 7 atmosphere (atm) o3 pressure *here 7 atm is about the pressure at seale'el (considered room pressure) Again" it is the L!, of one ,L of a )S substance

Mole elationships;orstartersin chemistr!" *e ha'e to be able to con'ert bet*een moles" grams" and moleculesIatoms o3substance (also lite*s*hen *e *or/ *ith )SS)

emember &imensional Anal!sis #T?S 2A%N (along *ith units and sig 3igs)

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3-5m(i*ical an ,olecula* =o*mulasEmpirical 3ormula O simplest *hole 9 ratio o3 atoms in a substanceMolecular 3ormula O Pscaled upQ 'ersion o3 empirical 3ormula: *hat !ou reall! ha'e;ormula unit O used 3or #$#% compounds onl! and #S the empirical 3ormula

emember: an empirical 3ormula can also be the molecular 3ormula 3or simple co'alent compounds

To 3ind an empirical 3ormula" a mole ratio is used O ratio (or 3raction) that compares moles o3 each t!peo3 atom in a 3ormula

ules 3or 3inding empirical 3ormulas:7) 8resume !ou ha'e a 766 gram sample #3 the percentage o3 each is /no*n" change the percent

to grams (C6K W C6 g" etc)S/ip this step i3 the masses are gi'en

.) %on'ert 3rom grams to moles 3or each element

C) %reate a mole ratio using the mole amounts 3rom step . To do this" di'ide each 'alue b! thelo*est mole amount as calculated in the compound

D) %on'ert each to a *hole number (must be done to all or none)

) The numbers in the ratio become the subscripts in the empirical 3ormula

$ote: good 3lo*chart at the bottom o3 pg

,olecula* fo*mula (chemical 3ormula) O *hat !ou EALL> ha'e in terms o3 ratio o3 atoms#t is either the same as the empirical 3ormula" or a simple *hole 9 multiple o3 the empirical 3ormula

A3ter 3inding the empirical 3ormula" use the molar mass (gi'en) to 3ind the molecular 3ormula

E-: A compound has a molar mass o3 B66 gImol *ith an empirical 3ormula o3 %H D$ 1hat is themolecular 3ormula

7 3ind the empirical 3ormula MASS W C66 gImol. ;ind the *hole number ratio: (B66 gImol) I (C66 gImol) W .C Multipl! the number b! each subscript in the empirical 3ormula: %.HG$.

Tr! it:7) A component o3 roc/et 3uel is comprised o3 GFDK nitrogen and h!drogen" *ith a molecular

mass o3 C.6 gImol 1hat is the empirical and molecular 3ormula o3 the compound

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$B Fell so*t ofH =o*mulas of +*ates+*atesO compounds that are chemicall! combined *ith *ater in a speci3ic ratio

H!drates are usuall! ionic compounds

2asicall!: K *ater W () - 766K

The empirical 3ormula is *ritten *ith the *ater molecules at the end: $i($C).BH.6This means there are B *ater molecules 3or e'er! one nic/el nitrate molecule$ote: the dot be3ore the *ater is $T a multiplication sign

1hen a h!drate is heated" the *ater molecules lea'e the compound and mi- *ith the surrounding air1hat is le3t is the ionic compound The 3ormula unit sho*s no *ater moleculesE-: %uSDH.6 ,%u SD

A3ter dr!ing a h!drate" the empirical 3ormula (ratio o3 moles o3 compound to moles o3 *ater) can beeasil! calculated:

7 mass o3 h!drate

. mass o3 compound *ithout *aterC mass o3 *ater in sample

e-: A h!drate o3 MgSD is heated gi'ing the 3ollo*ing results:mass o3 h!drate: B gmass o3 compound a3ter dr!ing: .FB g

7 ;ind the mass o3 *ater remo'ed (loss in mass): g *ater. %alculate the moles o3 compound and moles o3 *ater:

( g MgSDI7) - (7 mol MgSDI7.6C g MgSD) W mol MgSD( g H.I7) - (7 mol H.I 7G6 g H.) W mol H.

C Using a mole ratio o3 MgSDto H." di'ide each b! the smaller number:W MgSDW H.

D This means there are molecules o3 *ater 3or e'er! 3ormula unit o3 MgSD" gi'ing a3ormula o3: MgSDH.6

AeGll o a Muic; lab on t'is so +ou can (*actice t'e calculations-

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3-5ombustion )nal+sis

Empirical means Pbased on obser'ation and e-perimentQ

1hen a compound that contains h!drogen and carbon (can be A$> organic compound)" it can beanal!0ed *ith a combustion 3urnace (dra*ing 3rom abo'e)

2asicall!" the compound is split apart into atoms The carbon becomes %." the h!drogen becomesH." and *hate'er else is present is Premo'edQ in the %u chamber (sort o3 a cleaning process)

Ho* it *or/s:7 @et a mass on each o3 the reaction chambers prior to combustion. Ta/e a sample o3 /no*n mass and burn it upC . A3ter the reaction is complete" get a mass on the H. absorbing chamber The di33erence is

the mass of '+*o&en3rom the sampleD @et a mass on the %. chamber The di33erence is the mass of ca*bon3rom the sample

Using the mass o3 %.and H." calculate the 9 o3 moles o3 % and H respecti'el! in the originalsample (g cmpd , mole cmpd , mole element ,g element)B #3 a third element is present (doesn?t *or/ 3or more than %" H" and one other element)" its mass

can be 3ound b! subtracting the calculated masses o3 % and H 3rom the original sample

Let?s Tr!:A 6.6B6g sample o3 a carboh!drate (%H) is combusted in a 3urnace reactorThe end result is 6C.F g %.and 6767 g H. 1hat is the empirical 3ormula o3 the compound

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4-5oncent*ations of Solutions%oncentration 4

The more solute (stu33) in the sol'ent (solution)" the more concentrated it is

E-: the concentration o3 people at the mall the da! be3ore %hristmas 'ersus on the 3irst sunn! Saturda!

in the spring The people are the solute and the mall is the sol'ent More people W more cro*dedMolarit! (M W molIL)

eall! Just the number o3 moles o3 solute dissol'ed in total liters o3 solution#3 gi'en grams" con'ert to moles then plug into 3ormula

E-: Ho* man! grams o3 iodine must be dissol'ed into .66mL total 'olume o3 carbon tetrachloride(densit! W 7gImL) to ma/e a 67FM solution o3 iodine

E-: An ethanol4*ater solution is prepared b! dissol'ing 7666mL o3 ethanol (%.HH *ith adensit! W 6FG gImL) in enough *ater to ma/e 7666 mL o3 solution *ith a densit! o3 6G.gImL1hat is the molarit! o3 the solution (>ep" the! loo/ Just li/e this on the test)

%on'ert mL o3 ethanol to grams using the densit! (tric/!) then to mols (one big con'ersion)Then di'ide b! total 'olume o3 solution

('ol solute) (densit!) (con'ersion 3actor) W mol solute di'ide b! 'ol solution W molarit!

SE#USL>: #3 in doubt" %$VET

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4-5

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4-5 DilutionA dilution is a solution o3 a lo*er concentration than *hat is a'ailable ()2asicall!" *e get concentrated solutions 3or lab prep and ha'e to P*ater it do*nQ 1e need e-actnumbers" soX

Things to /eep in mind:

7) the number o3 MLES does not change be3ore and a3ter the dilution.) !ou need both the 'olume and concentration o3 the concentrated (original) and diluted (ne*)solution

C) moles o3 an! solution W molarit! - 'olume W molIL - LD) the molarit! o3 the concentrated solution is AL1A>S greater than that o3 the dilute solution

(common sense)

So" *e get the eas! *a!: Mconc- VconcW Mdil- Vdil

r" !ou can do a bunch o3 con'ersions andIor Algebra

E-: 1e *ant to ma/e D66mL o3 a .66M sul3uric acid solution 3rom a stoc/ solution (conc W 7G6M)Ho* much o3 the acid do *e need to use

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Unit D Set

7 Ho* man! grams o3 o-!gen are in B g o3 . . .% H A) 7G 2) . %) 6 &) CB E) 7C6

. 1hat is the empirical 3ormula o3 a compound that contains DDK N" .6CK S" and C6CK b! massA) .NS 2) CNS %) . DN S &) . CN S E) DNS

C A compound contains D66K %" BF7K H" and C.K b! mass The molecular *eight o3 the compound isB66 amu The molecular 3ormula o3 this compound is A) . D .% H 2) .%H %) . C D% H &) . . D% H E) .%H

D The combustion o3 ammonia in the presence o3 e-cess o-!gen !ields .$ and .H :C . . .D $H (g) + F (g) D $ (g) + B H (g)

The combustion o3 DC g o3 ammonia produces g o3 .$

A) .G 2) 7FG %) 77 &) 6D E) DC

The combustion o3 propane C G(% H ) in the presence o3 e-cess o-!gen !ields .% and .H :C G . . .% H (g) + E (g) C% (g) + DH (g)

1hen . mol o3 . are consumed in their reaction" mol o3 .% are producedA) 7 2) C6 %) 6 &) B6 E) .

B The 3ormula *eight o3 aluminum sul3ate . D C(Al (S ) ) is amuA) CD.7D 2) 7.C6D %) 6D &) 767D E) .FC6B

F The molecular *eight o3 the acetic acid C .(%H % H) is amuA) B6 2) DG %) DD &) C.

G The mass K o3 % in methane D(%H ) is A) .7C 2) 7CCB %) FDGF &) ..B E) FFDC

There are atoms o3 o-!gen are in C66 molecules o3 C .%H % H A) C66 2) B66 %) C67 .D76 &) CB7 .B76 E) 7G6 .B76

76 @aseous argon has a densit! o3 7D6 gIL at standard conditions Ho* man! argon atoms are in 766 L o3argon gas at standard conditionsA) DF 76.. 2) CD 76. %) .7 76.. &) 7 76. E) B6. 76.C

77 The total number o3 atoms in 6777 mol o3 C C .;e(%) (8H ) is A) 7 2) 766 .D76 %) DDB .776 &) 7BF E) .FB 4.D76

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7. A nitrogen o-ide is BCBK b! mass nitrogen The molecular 3ormula could be A) $ 2) .$ %) .$ &) . D$ E) either $. or $D.

7C The titration o3 .66mL o3 $aH required .FGGmL o3 67M sul3uric acid The molarit! o3 thebase isa 67DC b 67FF c 6.G d 6C

7D 1hat is the ph!sical state in *hich matter has no speci3ic shape but does ha'e a speci3ic 'olumeA) gas 2) solid %) liquid &) salts E) ice

7 3 the 3ollo*ing" onl! is a chemical reactionA) melting o3 lead 2) dissol'ing sugar in *ater%) tarnishing o3 sil'er &) crushing o3 stoneE) dropping a penn! into a glass o3 *ater

7B 1hich one o3 the 3ollo*ing is the highest temperatureA) CG`% 2) B`; %) C6. N &) none o3 the abo'e E) 3ree0ing point o3 H.

7F 3 the obJects belo*" is the most denseA) an obJect *ith a 'olume o3 . L and a mass o3 7. /g2) an obJect *ith a 'olume o3 7C mL and a mass o3 C g%) an obJect *ith a 'olume o3 666.7. Cm and a mass o3 DD.. 76 mg

&) an obJect *ith a 'olume o3 4.D CC7 76 nm and a mass o3 47FC 76 ng

E) an obJect *ith a 'olume o3 C7C dm and a mass o3 C7. 76 g

7G A 6.66 M . DN S solution is produced b! A) dilution o3 .66 mL o3 766 M . DN S to 766 L

2) dissol'ing DCB g o3 . DN S in *ater and diluting to a total 'olume o3 .66 mL%) diluting .66 mL o3 66 M . DN S solution to 666 mL&) dissol'ing .6. g o3 . DN S in *ater and diluting to .66 mL" then diluting .6 mL o3 this solution to a total'olume o3 666 mLE) dilution o3 766 mL o3 .6 M . CN S to 766 L

7 1hich solution contains the largest number o3 moles o3 chloride ionsA) 766 mL o3 666 .2a%l2) D66 mL o3 7666$a%l%) F6 mL o3 666 C;e%l&) .66 mL o3 6D66N%l

E) C666 mL o3 6766 .%a%l

.6 Ho* man! moles o3 sodium ions are present in F6mL o3 67.C M sodium chromateA) .. - 764C 2) 7CG - 764. %) 7GD - 764. &) .FF - 764.

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!nit 4 %*oblems#>uestions#%*actice:Do ,ola* ,ass an J om( Fnee one to o t'e ot'e* soKHHC8D %BHG%lD ;e2rC

cone*t7CG g $a%l to atoms o3 sodium

DDG L o3 %l.to grams

7. - 76.Datoms o3 tin to grams

7.G g o3 .L o3 .

A'at is t'e em(i*ical fo*mula fo* a com(oun it' 40-92 & 4-58& an 54-50 & of O

) sam(le contains 3-70& i*on an 1-59 & o

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Desc*ibe 'o to (*e(a*e eac' of t'e folloin& Ft'in; in mat' te*msH-

.6 mL o3 D66M $aH solution >ou ha'e *ater and solid $aH

66mL o3 a 7M H.SDsolution starting *ith 7G6M and *ater

!nit 4 becties

7 Use dimensional anal!sis (3actor label" con'ersions) to sol'e problems con'erting mass to moles

to 3ormula units or 'olume

. %alculate the total mass o3 each element in a compound

C %alculate the molar mass o3 ionic and molecular 3ormulas

D %alculate the K composition b! mass o3 each element in a compound

;ind the empirical 3ormula based on data

B &etermine the molecular 3ormula o3 a compound based on molar mass and the empirical

3ormulaF &etermine the 3ormula o3 a h!drate

G %alculate the molarit! o3 a solution

&etermine the amount o3 substance needed to prepare a solution *ith a de3inite molarconcentration

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!nit 5: 'emical MuationsN" so # put the same thing at the top o3 each section: are !ou actuall! reading the te-tboo/

3-1'emical Muations%hemical equations represent" *ith s!mbols and 3ormulas" the reactants and products in a chemicalreaction

reactants products AL1A>S

chemical equations gi'e us EVE> piece o3 basic in3ormation about the reactionRemembe*: t'e ==$TS a*e eMual to t'e $!,BR = ,LS

requirements 3or all chemical equations:7 must sho* all reactants to the le3t and products to the right o3 the arro*. Use a P+Q sign i3 more than one reactant or productC 3ormulas o3 compounds must be correctD La of onse*ation of ,assmust be satis3ied (e'er! element must be accounted 3or and

balanced on each side)

%an do in s!mbols or *ords (do !ou /no* !our elementsIs!mbols and 8#?s !et)

States or matter and other s!mbols to /no* (3ill in *hat !ou can" as/ *hat !ou don?t /no*):W gas W solid W liquid = aqueous

W one *a! reactions W re'ersible reaction

W precipitate (solid 4 onl! 3ound on products side)

W heat W light W catal!stY

Ya substance that speeds up a reaction *ithout being used up in the reaction

Tr! it: decomposition o3 carbonic acid to carbon dio-ide and *ater: use s!mbols" balance" states o3matter (b! the *a!" a *ea/ acid" so re'ersible and can be spontaneous each *a! depending on conc)

oefficients numbe* of moles fo* eac' substance-$R c'an&e t'e subsc*i(ts )=TR t'e co**ect fo*mulas a*e foun

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Balancin& 'emical MuationsTrul! a trial and error process i3 there e'er *as oneEquations MUST be balanced to be correct because o3: La* o3 %onser'ation o3 Mass (Matter)

Help3ul hints:7 7 atom at a time (# usuall! start *ith the 3irst one and go 3rom there)

. 2alance atoms that appear onl! 7 per side 3irstC 2alance 8ol!s as *hole unitsD 2alance diatomic elements near end Sa'e -!gen and H!drogen 3or lastB All coe33icients must be in the smallest *hole number ratios (reduce)

And: i3 this doesn?t succeed" tr! doubling e'er!thing (e'en number carbons in %H combustion usuall!)

So*t of in Boo;: All chemical reactions in'ol'e a change in energ! . t!pes:7) 8otential O the energ! o3 position or composition ()

.) Ninetic O All t!pes o3 non4stored are /inetic (light" heat" sound" *ind" etc)

La* o3 %onser'ation o3 Energ! O

2asicall!" as the potential energ! decreases" the /inetic energ! increases (balance bet*een the .)The total energ! (unchanged)

And: energ! o3 a substance is 8AT potential and 8AT /inetic" but ne'er ALL /inetic

nicatin& t'e States of Reactants an %*oucts

N" so A8 does $T require this" but being able to do states gi'es clues 3or the questions that 3ollo*the equation section (*e?ll do some so !ou can see *hat # mean)

7 Metals are solids (e-cept Hg). #n single replacement reactions" all compounds are al*a!s aqueousC #n double replacement reactions" reactants are aqueous and products should ha'e their phasesidenti3ied using a solubilit! chart (seriousl!" learn the song)D #n s!nthesis and decomposition reactions" ionic compounds are solids #n combustion reactions" the *ater ('aporIsteam)" %." and .are gases The h!drocarbon is hard totell" but is usuall! a liquid at %WB and higher and A$> time there is an H on the end it is a liquidB Most co'alent (molecular) compounds are gases or liquids: tr! !our best

F Acids (chemicals starting *ith H) are al*a!s gases or liquids U$LESS the! are in replacementreactionsG ALL #$#% %M8U$&S $T #$ 1ATE AE SL#&S

)$D L)R$ !R %LGs )$D D)T,SNNNNNN

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3-2Simple 8atterns o3 %hemical eacti'it!

remember 4 3irst !ou ha'e to 3ind the right (*oucts" then !ou need to balance

s+nt'esis(also called combination) 4 needs energ! to happen

H3 + $.

copper + chlorine

,etal

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combustion4 the reaction o3 h!drocarbons and o-!gen to !ield*hen !ou Just sa! %H

%arboh!drate 4

H!drocarbon 4

e- combustion o3 gas grill%CHG(g) + . (g)

cellular respiration(care3ul about the state o3 matter 3or *ater in a li'ing s!stem" and !ep: its re'ersible)%BH7.B(s) + .(g)[

1h! *e don?t use ethanol near an open 3lame%.HH

ctane (gas 3or the car: octa W eight and Oane W all single bonds soX)

Neep in mind: combustion ma! need !ou to P&ouble e'er!thingQ to get it to balance (usuall! *ith ane'en number o3 carbons" 2UT not al*a!s *ith alcohols: ha'e OH on the end)

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4-2Sin&le *e(lacementTa/e place in aqueous solution 4 need 'er! little energ! to happen" sometimes gi'es o33 energ!

)ctiit+ Se*ies of t'e lementsHe!" some reactions happen and some don?teaction *ill happen onl! i3 the ne* element is more acti'e than the ion it is replacing in the original

compoundMust loo/ at acti'it! series to determine See page 7D7 in boo/ 3or metal acti'it! series

3or s!nthesis" combustion" and decomposition" *e *ill assume the! all happen gi'en su33icientacti'ation energ! ()

Rules fo* )ctiit+ Se*ies FSame as t'e Stana* Reuction %otentials ust u(sie onH:7 ;or the acti'it! series" higher up on list (more acti'e) belongs in compound. Top G elements (most acti'e metals) can react *ith C Metals 3rom Mg to 8b react *ith D The nonmetal reacti'it! series is AL1A>S

Time to loo/ at the A8 chem sheet Lots o3 help" i3 !ou /no* *hat !ou?re loo/ing at

2 t+(es: Fcan *e(lace cation R anionH

@allium + sul3uric acid

-!gen + antimon! (###) sul3ide diantimon! tetro-ide + sul3ur dio-ide

Magnesium %hloride + ;luorine gas

Magnesium %hloride + liquid bromine

Aluminum + *ater

sodium + *ater

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4-2Double *e(lacement Falso calle ,etat'esis o*

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Rules fo* solubilit+(Ta/en 3rom %ornell Uni'ersit! %hemistr! &ept" as *ritten b! S!l'ia %ooper R Morganto*n HS A8%hem) #t?s corn!" but e33ecti'e

(Sung to the tune P bottlesQ) Summar! o3 Soluble %ompounds

Al/ali metals and ammonium salts" all al/ali metals and ammonia salts1hate'er the! ma! be" AL1A>S%an al*a!s be depended upon 3or solubilit!

1hen as/ed about the nitrates all nitrates" acetates" chlorates"The ans*er is al*a!s clear" nitrates" and perchlorates are solubleThe! each and all are soluble"#s all *e *ant to hear

Most e'er! chloride?s soluble All chlorides" bromides andAt least *e?'e al*a!s read iodides are solubleSa'e sil'er" mercur! one E%E8T: Ag+" Hg.+." 8b+.

And chlorine o3 lead

E'er! single sul3ate All sul3ates e-cept:#s soluble" it is said 2a+." Sr+." Hg.+." %a+." 8b+.E-cept barium" strontium" mercur! oneAnd calcium and lead

H!dro-ides in general $L> strong bases to an! e-tent&on?t dissol'e at all (N$1 THE L#ST)2ut barium" strontium" and calciumAre slightl! soluble

but dont forget

Al/ali metals and ammonium salts"1hate'er the! ma! be"%an al*a!s be depended upon 3or solubilit!

The carbonates are insoluble" $o carbonates e-cept:#t?s luc/! that it is so" al/ali metals and ammonium saltsr else" our marble buildings1ould melt a*a! li/e sno* Also" none o3 the:

8hosphates" o-alates" chromates" sul3ides"and o-ides E%E8T but once again" dont forget al/ali metals and ammonium salts

AL1A>S dissol'e" AL1A>SAl/ali metals and ammonium salts"1hate'er the! ma! be"%an al*a!s be depended upon 3or solubilit!

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A quic/ pre'ie* o3 E& and AcidI2ase %hemistr!:$et onic MuationsO *hich ions change state 3or replacement reactions (emember 3ordecomposition" s!nthesis" and combustion" e'er!thing is in'ol'ed)

S(ectato* ions4 ions that remain in the aqueous state

The regular" 3ull4blo*n equation is called a molecular equation bIc it does $T sho* the ions" Just thecompounds in'ol'ed in the reaction

E-: 1hen *e made chal/" *e used calcium sul3ate (%aS D)%alcium sul3ate is made 3rom the 3ollo*ing reaction:%d(H).(aq) + H.SD(aq) ,%dSD(aq) + H.(l)

The $et #onic equation is:. H4(aq) + . H+(aq) ,.H.(l)

$ote %d+.(aq) + SD4.(aq) ,%dSD(aq) These are the

ules:7 1rite the balanced equation *ith states o3 matter. e4*rite to sho* ions that are 3ormed 3or e'er! A=UEUS compoundC #denti3! and cancel spectator ions (aqueous both sides)

So" in A8 *orld" al*a!s *rite a net ionic i3 it is one (not all ha'e net ionic equations" Just S and &)Tr! #t: 1rite the $et #onic Equation 3or the 3ollo*ing reactions

7 8b($C). (aq) + N#(aq) , 8b#. (s) + N$C (aq)

. ;eS(aq) + H%l(aq) , H.S(g) + ;e%l. (aq)

C Are there A$> spectator ions in the 3ollo*ingSodium chloride is added to a dilute solution o3 sil'er chloride resulting in a *hite pptAg+(aq) + $a+(aq) + %l4(aq) , Ag%l(s) + $a+(aq)

$ote: this is a Pcommon ionQ t!pe o3 problem Also" an! ionic compound in (aq) is sho*n as#$S This applies to strong acidsIbases as *ell (more on that later)

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$B: Balancin& eMuations usin& )l&eb*a Fma&ine t'atNH

1or/s *ell i3 the 8ol! bro/e apart" or there *ere no real 8ol!?s to start

7 Label each compound as a 'ariable (see belo*)

. %ount the number o3 atoms present in each reactant or product and list the number as thecoe33icient 3or the 'ariableC Let a W 7" then plug that 'alue in to sol'e 3or the othersD E-press all o3 the 'alues as a *hole number ratio" then use them as coe33icients 3or balancing the

equation #3 there is a 3raction" multipl! EVE> coe33icient b! the denominator to get rid o3 the3raction

8lug in the 'alues and rechec/ to ma/e sure it balances

As.C + H$C + H. , HCAsD + $a b c d e

As: .a W d: Ca + Cb + c W Dd + eH: b + .c W d$: b W e

Let a W 7" so d W . ^.(7) W d_;or b + .c W C(.)" sol'ing 3or c W (B4b)I.Then C(7) + Cb + (B4b)I. W D(.) + b sol'ing 3or bWDICThat means that eWDIC also (bWe)8lug all the other 'alues in and sol'e 3or cWFICThis lea'es us *ith 3ractions" so multipl! e'er!thing b! C to get:aWC" bWD" cWF" dWB" eWD

CAs.C + D H$C + FH. , BHCAsD + D$

@o ahead" !ou /no* !ou *ant to chec/

Tr! one (this is tough but do4able: e-tra credit):H. + 8D + 8.#D, 8HD# + HC8D

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4-4

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-idation o3 Metals b! Acids and SaltsThe boo/ ma/es it loo/ complicated: it?s not #t is a simple single replacement (the! call it simpl! aPdisplacement reactionQ" same thing) in'ol'ing an! metal in the elemental 3orm (pure metal) *ithE#THE an acid (begins *ith h!drogen) or a salt (a metal *ith either a halogen or a pol!)eall!" Just S r-ns

Some r-ns can be balanced b! trial and error O others cannotE- ;e%lC + Zn [ Zn%l. + ;e

So Zn goes 3rom a 0ero to a +." so o-idi0ed (loss o3 electrons);e goes 3rom a +C to a 0ero (gain o3 electrons so reduced)

2alanced: .;e%lC(aq)+ CZn(s) [ CZn%l.(aq) + .;e(s)

E- N.%r.F + H. + S S. + NH + %r .C

so S goes 3rom a 6 to a +D (loss o3 electrons so )%r goes 3rom a +B to a +C" (gain o3 electrons so )

2alanced:.N.%r.F(aq) + .H.(l) + CS(s) CS.(g) + D NH(aq) + .%r.C(s)

(one o3 those Pdouble e'er!thingQ t!pes that is $T combustion)

$ote ho* the o-idation number is sho*n belo* EA%H element on both sides This sho*s that it is aredo- r-n" and it sho*s us *here the o-idation (loss o3 electrons to be ) andreduction (gain o3 electrons to be ) ha'e occurred

Since the other elements all sta!ed the same in terms o3 o-idation number (thus are spectators)" *e cando net ionic redo- equations:

More practice:%u(s) + H$C(aq) , %u($C).(aq) + $(g) + H.(l) (ans: C" G" C" ." D)

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'a(te* 20 lect*oc'emist*+The reall! hard stu33" but *e need to co'er it #t is all about po*er (batteries" electricit!)

20-1

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20-2Balancin& Reo< MuationsSome equations are easil! balanced:

H%l(aq) + Al(s) , Al%lC(aq) + H.(g)

Zn + %uSD , %u + ZnSD

thers are much more di33icult:$a.SC(aq)+ $aMnD(aq)+ H%l(aq), $a.SD(aq)+ Mn%l.(aq)+ H.(l)+ $a%l(aq) (" ." B" " ." C ".)

These redo- reactions can be easil! done b! the hal34reaction method

alf ReactionsUsed onl! 3or redo-" the! trac/ electron trans3er All based on ionic equations o3 reduction ando-idation separatel!" then put together at the end

Steps:

7) &i'ide the reaction into . hal34reactions" one 3or o-idation R one 3or reduction.) 2alance each hal34reaction separatel! b!a) ;irst" balance elements other than H and b) 2alance atoms b! adding *ater as neededc) 2alance H atoms b! adding H+as needed 3or acid H43or base

C) Multipl! each hal3 reaction b! *hole numbers so the electrons are the sameD) Add the . hal34reactions" simpli3! b! canceling) %hec/ to ma/e sure the atoms and charges are balanced

Sounds harder than it is

%r.(SD)C (aq) + $a$C(aq), $a.%rD(aq) + $.(g) + H.SD(aq)

;irst" 3ind the LEI@E" then brea/ into the . hal3 reactions noting the number o3 e4 change 3or each:-idation: .%r+C, %rD4. %r goes 3rom +C to +B (LE and Ce4) and starts as .%r+C

eduction: $C47, $. $ goes 3rom + to +D (@E and 7 e4)

$e-t" 2alance each hal3 reaction and add *ater to balance o-!gen" then h!drogen to other side:4

-idation: .%r+C + , %rD4. +

eduction: $C47 + , $. +

;inall!" scale up to ma/e sure the same 9e4 3or each" then Just add and cancel (Hess? La* t!pe o3 thing)-idation (4Ce4): - (.%r+C + , %rD4. + )eduction (+7e4): - ($C47 + , $. + ) $ote: $a+and SD4.arespectators

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#n acid" add H. to balance ?s" then H+ to balance H?s then e4 to balance charge#n base" add H4 to balance ?s" then H. to balance H?s" then e4

Al*a!s ma/e sure other species balance and remember conser'ation o3 charge

Let?s tr! one in an acidic solution:

%r.F4.

+ %.HH , %r

+C

+ %.HD.(acid)

So no* let?s do one in a basic solution:Al + H. , Al(H)D4+ H. (basic)

DH. + Al , Al(H)D4+ DH++ Ce4 -.

.e4 + .H++ H. , H. + H. -C

2UT this is in base" so H+on one side W H44 H.on other

BH. + .Al + .H4, .Al(H)D4+ CH. added . H4so had to subtract . *aters 3rom le3t and . h!drogen ions 3rom right

2oo/ does this a bit di33erent" so loo/ at the e-ample (pgG6) &oesn?t matter *hich *a! !ou go" Just

as long as !ou can do one o3 them (edo- balancing is a State 3unction: path doesn?t matter)

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20-3 oltaic ellsO Sur3ace upon *hich o-idation and reduction occur Electrodes ma! or ma! notparticipate in the reaction (some electrodes are inert)

Also called alanic ells These are cells in *hich spontaneous redo- reactions produce electricit!-idation and reduction occur in separate compartments and electrons 3lo* 3rom one side to the other%ell notation: anode (o-idation) cathode (reduction) $#2: but it is in lots o3 other boo/s

o-idation at the anode" reduction at the cathode

Also" Anode and o-idation both start *ith 'o*els" reduction and cathode both start *ith consonants

Electrodes O solid metal attached to an e-ternal circuit (*ire)

anoeO o-idation occurs and electrons are LST (mo'e a*a! 3rom anode)cat'oeO reduction occurs and electrons are @A#$E& (mo'e to*ards the cathode)

n elect*ol+sisenerg! is A&&E& (po*er source) n oltaic cellsenerg! is 8&U%E& ('oltmeter)

e4 e4

e4

2! /eeping the anode and cathode separated" *e can harness (use) the 3lo* o3 electrons through ane-ternal circuit (*ire) in the 3orm o3 po*er (*or/ energ!) >ep" this is a batter! (Voltaic)

The solutions must remain electricall! neutral (not absorbIrelease e4 themsel'es) in the hal34cells

All o3 the 3lo* o3 electrons MUST occur bet*een the electrodes (anode and cathode) b! means o3 acircuit to get usable energ!I*or/

;lo* o3 ions bet*een solutions in hal34cells can be b!:Salt b*i&e: U4shaped tube containing an electrol!te (usuall! in a paste or gel medium)%o*ous Ba**ie*: can be glass or other neutral material that allo*s 3lo* o3 ions

egardless o3 ion 3lo* method" anions al*a!s 3lo* to*ard the anode( 4 charge)" cations al*a!s 3lo*to*ard the cathode (+ charge)

e-) 1hich trans3ormations could ta/e place at the anode o3 an electrochemical cell The cathode end%r.F.4, %r.+ $ , H$. HSD4, H.SC Mn.+, MnD4

A Molecular Vie* o3 Electrode 8rocessesSeriousl!: this is de3initel! a higher le'el under grad or e'en grad le'el concept ;eel 3ree to readthrough the Psimpli3iedQ 'ersion the! are dishing out 1on?t be on an! test this !ear" e'en the A8 one

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8o*er source

%athode Anode

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20-4%ell EM; Under Standard %onditionsElectrons 3lo* spontaneousl! to the anode 3rom the cathode due to a di33erence in potential energ! (e43lo* to*ard the electrode *ith the more positi'e electrical potential: the cathode)

Volt (V) O potential di33erence required to impart 7Joule (

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Let?s loo/ at N(s)+ $a+(aq" 7M), $a(s)+ N+(aq" 7M) Eocell W 46.7V$a+(aq), $a(s) EcathodeW 4.F7V (gain o3 electron W reduction W cathode)N(s), N+(aq) EanodeW 4..V (loss o3 electron W o-idation W anode)Eocell W Ecathode4 Eanode

Since EocellW +" this is a batter! and is spontaneous

Ma/es sense since 3urther up is cathode 3or a spontaneous ('oltaic cellIbatter!) reaction

The standard cell potential (E cell) 3or the 'oltaic cell based on the reaction belo* is 6B. VSn.+(aq) + .;eC+(aq) , .;e.+(aq) + SnD+(aq)

.;eC+(aq) , .;e.+(aq) EcathodeW (gain o3 electron: )Sn.+(aq) , SnD+(aq) EanodeW (loss o3 electron: )

Eocell W Ecathode4 EanodeW

E-ample: %alculate the cell potential 3or %u+.+ N , N+7+ %uSpontaneous More or less po*er than pre'ious

E-ample: 1ill %r+Co-idi0e %u to %u+.or *ill %u+.o-idi0e %r to %r+Co*(said another *a!):1hich r-n is spontaneous: %r%lC+ %u , %u%l.+ %r R%r + %u%l. , %u + %r%lC(Hint: Just pic/ one: i3 negati'e" then other *a! is spontaneous)

E-ample: %alculate the cell potential 3or Hg+.

+ 8b , Hg+ 8b+.

A 3e* things to remember:7) All reactions are *ritten as reduction: use as *ritten

.) changing the stoich coe33icient does $T change the 'alue o3 the standard reductionpotential(intensi'e propert!" but ratio remains constant 3or

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%u(s)+ .Ag+7(aq), .Ag (s)+ %u+.(aq)

T'e Stana* +*o&en lect*oe FSH

2ecause a cell is al*a!s made o3 t*o hal3 cells" it is impossible to determine the potential o3 a single hal3cell This is an Einstein (relati'it!) thingThe SHE (standard h!drogen electrode) is assigned a 'alue o3 e-actl! 6 'olts#t is aQ relati'eQ thing All others are based on the SHE reduction (used as a calibrator)

.H+7(aq" 7M) + .e4 , H.(g" 7atm) EoreductionW 6V (de3ined" set 'alue)

Had to start *ith something Since H got bumped as the basis 3or molar mass (%47. no* rules)" the!ga'e H this (consolation pri0e" # guess) Actuall!" there is a 'er! good reason" but trust me: !ou don?t*ant me to go into it

Strengths o3 -idi0ingIeducing AgentsThe more positi'e the Eoreduction'alue 3or a hal34reaction" the greater the tendenc! 3or the reactant to bereduced" and there3ore to o-idi0e another species

Since an element being reduced is the o-idi0ing agent" and the one being o-idi0ed is the reducing agent

$eed to get this straight: there *ill be questions 2! the *a!" there is a picture on pg GB7

1hich o3 the halogens is the strongest o-idi0ing agent

1hich o3 the al/aline earth metals is the strongest reducing agent

1hich element in the 3irst period transition metals is most easil! reduced

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20-5 =*ee ne*&+ an RDQ ReactionsAn! r-n in a 'oltaic cell that produces a positi'e em3 (Eocell) is spontaneous

Since reductionW cathode and o-idation W anode" it can be restated as: EoW EreductionO Eo-idation

This can be applied to non4cell reactions 2asicall!: (ositieEois spontaneous"

ne&atieEo

is non4spontaneous

EM; and f@

.nF Fon t'e )% s'eetHn is the number o3 electrons trans3erred during the reaction (positi'e number *ithout units)Fis ;arada!?s constant B"66 %Imol W B"66

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$B#But ill be on t'e e

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20-6ell ,= une* $on.stana* onitions#n an actual r-n (batter!)" the reactants are used up as product is 3ormed E'entuall!" the em3 dropsuntil E W 6 (batter! dies)

N" so this section co'ers the e'er dreaded $e*nst Muation: it is on the A8 sheet" and *as actuall!on an e-am a 3e* !ears bac/ Ho*e'er" the! dropped it this !ear" butX (3uture re3erence)

oncent*ation ellsEM; (electrical charge that can be used 3or *or/) depends on concentration" soX%oncentration %ell 4 Uses same species at ca