AP psychology Biology **Everything psychological is simultaneously biological** Neurons: nerve cell.

Basic building block of nervous system. Sends and receives messages from other neurons in the body. About 100 billion neurons in human brain

Neurons are somewhat like trees, but are laid end to end. Neurons consist of Cell body: Produces energy that fuels the activity of the cell Also known as Soma Dendrites: Thin fibers that receive the message from other neurons and pass the message through TO the cell

body Axon: Carries messages away from cell body, and can be very long ...notice how messages flows in one direction - enters dendrites, through cell body, and out the axon to the next neuron. Myelin: A white fatty substance that insulates and protects the neuron. It also speeds up the transmission of the message. Axon terminal/terminal buttons: The very end, where small fibers come out of the axon. Contains Neurotransmitters Neurons do not touch. How send messages? Synapse: the 'gap' between the axon terminal of the sending neuron, and the dendrite of the receiving neuron. Sensory/Afferent neurons: Carry impulses TO the brain (sensations) Motor/Efferent neurons: Carry instructions from the CNS to the body (to move) Glial cells: support for other neurons, nourishment, remove waste Mirror Neurons: fire when observing others Neurotransmitters: chemicals stored in sacs in the axon terminals A neuron sends its message (known as 'firing') by releasing certain neurotransmitters

This can occur hundreds of times a minute Neurotransmitters make up the content of the 'message' and are involved in every single thing we do. Many drugs affect neurotransmitters, such as causing certain ones to be released, released more often, or

not to be released at all. We will discuss specific neurotransmitters later.

Neural Transmission The neuron contains charged ions that flow in and out of the axon to create energy to transmit a message

Resting potential – when a neuron is not currently sending a message Action Potential – brief electrical charge when message is sent Refractory period – small down time when a neuron cannot fire again All or none principle – a neuron can either fire or not. There is no partial firing Threshold – in order to fire you have to meet a minimum activity point. This is the threshold.

HOW DRUGS WORK ON THE BRAIN

NT=neurotransmitter (causes something to happen) NT is released from one neuron, goes through the synapse and tells the next neuron what to do. When a neuron releases the NT it releases more than it needs. Once a Neuron releases some NT, what happens to the leftover neuron transmitter?

-Broken down by enzymes -Taken back in by 1st neuron (Reuptake)

Agonist- Turn on neurotransmitter makes it do more ("excites" it) Antagonist- Turns off neurotransmitter, blocks it, ("depresses" it) Agonist (turns on) 1) Stimulates more NT release 2) Prolongs NT life. Blocks re-uptake of NT by pre-synaptic neuron

Prozac- blocks re-uptake of serotonin, so it floats around more Antidepressants (MAG inhibitors) prevent breakdown of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin Cocaine - blocks re-uptake of dopamine and norepinephrine

o Why addictive o To compensate for more neurotransmitters, close down receptors on receiving neuron. Must take

more drugs to get "high". Shut down more receptors. When go off drugs, normal production of neurotransmitters not enough keep 'normal'

Benzodiazepines (tranquilizers)- makes GABA bind more Alcohol- Makes GABA bind more

Antagonists 1) Suppress NT from being released, or shortens its life

LSD- suppresses serotonin from being released 2) block receptors, NT doesn't work. ...many drugs can do more than 1 thing. 1 drug can be an agonist for 1 NT, and an antagonist for another. (Ecstasy (MDMA) agonist for DA and NE, antagonist for ST) Some Neurotransmitter names (Major ones) Ach – One of the most well known

Vital to learning and memory Also motor and skeletal muscles When Ach is released muscles contract If it is blocked muscles can’t contract

o Curare – poison put on S. American hunting darts…paralyze the animal o Botox – block release of Ach – paralyze facial muscles o Black widow spider – causes flood of Ach – Violent muscle contractions, convulsions, and possible

death

Name of NT Site of Influence Function Dopamine Brain stem Governs motor control;

Too little - Implicated in Parkinson's Excess – linked to schizophrenia Reward pathway of brain – opium, heroin, nicotine increase dopamine

Norephinphrine Brain; Spinal Cord Undersupply depression Oversupply agitation, insomnia Serotonin Brain Stem Regulates sleep, arousal, mood, anxiety, OCD Involved in depression

Prozac – increases serotonin Drink warm milk at night – amino acids to produce serotonin

GABA Brain and spinal cord Improves signal precision Motor nerves Suppresses anxiety Huntington’s disease Valium increases GABA Best known inhibitory neurotransmitter Glutamate Brain; Spinal Cord Oversupply can over stimulate the brain causing

migraines or seizures, why some avoid MSG (monosodium glutamate) in food excess - ALS (Lou Gehrig’s Disease) lack of – negative symptoms in Schizophrenia

ACh Spinal cord Facilitates muscle contractions

Skeletal muscles Alzheimer’s disease

Endorphins spinal cord released in response to pain or exercise (runners

high) Structurally similar to opiates heroin and morphine – pain reduction, pleasure NT that allows hibernation – slows, heart rate, respiration, and metabolism

AP Notes – The nervous System

AP Psychology Parts of the Brain Brain is divided into 3 sections (Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain)

Hindbrain (medulla, pons, cerebellum) (Most posterior part of brain) - base of neck Medulla:

vital functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing Begins were the spinal cord enters the skull

Pons: regulating attention, and sleep Way to remember – A tranquil POND – calm and sleep inducing

Cerebellum: "little brain" balance and coordination, also patterns of movement If damaged or movements would become uncoordinated and jerky. Procedural memory

Midbrain (In mammals surrounded by forebrain) Reticular activating system:

Contained in midbrain and hindbrain – leads into forebrain Important for attention, sleep, arousal. Stimulation of this area results in higher blood pressure and heart rate. Also tells your body what is important. It is like a "net" between your brain and spinal cord that regulates impulses and signals coming from the

body. Alcohol and anesthesia affect this area greatly. Leads into the Thalamus

Forebrain (Thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, cerebrum, cerebral cortex) Largest part of brain Thalamus:

Sensory relay station for sense organs Receives all information from sense except smell and passes it on

Limbic system: Learning and memory, motivation and emotion, Contains hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus, Hypothalamus:

o motivation, emotion, and behavior...very important (rat example) o Starts the endocrine system o The 4 f’s of the hypothalamus

Label

o Lateral hypothalamus – stimulate – eats nonstop/opposite if destroy o Ventromedial hypothalamus – stimulate – stops eating/opposite if destroy o Way to remember – Lesion the Lateral hypothalamus Lose hunger

Amygdala o big role in rage and fear – but only one piece o Way to remember – a military MIG – causes fear

Hippocampus o Converts short term to long term memory o Way to remember – A Hippo going to college (campus) needs good memory

Cerebrum:

large area containing cerebral cortex (what makes us human) Cerebral Cortex (Means bark – outer inch or so of brain)

"Thinking" area, human consciousness. Also memory, complex motor functions, personality, and more. The bigger this area, the more advance the species (in dogs about 8%, monkeys 15%, humans 30% is made

up of C. Cortex. Association areas here. Shape info into something meaningful.

4 "lobes" (know these!) Occipital: Back of the head…associated with vision Temporal: "Temples" sides of the head. Associated with memory, hearing, learning Parietal: Top of head. Involved in movement, touch, etc. Somatosensory strip. Frontal: personality, motor strip, thinking.

The Homunculus The representation of how the body would look if it was based on the number of sense neurons devoted to body

parts. Somatosensory/Motor cortices

Start at center of the brain it controls bottom of body – as you move down the cortex you move up the body

AP the Endocrine system and Brain Scans Endocrine system: consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Hormone: a chemical produced by the endocrine system that control specific body functions Hormones are located in the following glands: Pituitary gland

-Lies just under the hypothalamus -Although the size of a pea it is referred to as the “Master Gland” -Secretes growth hormones (muscles, bones, and other glands) -Secretes hormones important for female reproduction

(Namely oxytocin (can induce labor) and prolactin (mother's milk) -Oxytocin and prolactin shown to produce "mothering" behavior in lower mammals, but their role in

humans caring for their young is unclear. Thyroid gland

-Produces thyroxin -Thyroxin affects the body’s metabolism (rate of food to energy conversion) -Too much = weight loss, hyperactivity, inability to sleep -Too little = overweight, possible retardation in children -Implicated in suicide

The Adrenal gland

-Cortical steroids (resistance to stress, muscle mass, release stored sugars) -Adrenaline (fight or flight, stress response, can intensify emotions like fear) -Noradrenaline (fight or flight, stress response, raise blood pressure)

Pineal Gland

-Releases melatonin for sleep -affected by sunlight on retina

Pancreas -insulin – too little – diabetes -too much – hypoglycemia Gonads - Testes and Ovaries (testosterone, estrogen & progesterone) . Testosterone

-Male sex hormone though females have some as well -Before birth if released, causes male sex organs to grow (if it's not released, female sex organs will grow) -In adolescence, triggers muscle and bone growth (steroid) -Primary and secondary sex characteristics

Estrogen and Progesterone

- female sex hormones, but low levels found in some males - primary and secondary sex characteristics in females - Regulates menstrual cycle - Changes in estrogen level linked to PMS

Language areas: Broca’s area: Damage to this area – person struggles to form words while still being able to comprehend speech

o Located in the left frontal lobe o Way to remember – Broca – broken – can’t speak

Wernicke’s area: Damage to this area – can’t understand speech. Talks in a "word salad" (Mother is away her working her work to get her better, but when she's looking the two boys looking the other part. She's working

another time" (in response to a picture of 2 boys stealing cookies from the cookie jar when their mother is in another room)

o Located in the left temporal lobe o Way to remember – Wernicke – “Que?” – I don’t understand

Left brain (language) also math, logic, problem solving Right brain (creativity) imagination, feelings, art, and spatial relations While there is some truth to this, it tends to be exaggerated. Plus in normal functioning people, both sides of the brain are Involved In almost all activities.

In class experiment When Mrs. Mackson tells you to, look to the left only using your eyes. What happened? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Now look to the right, again only using your eyes. What happened? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Corpus callosum: connects left and right hemispheres shares info between them -Information received by one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite side

"Split brain" patients: People who (because of seizures) had their corpus callosum cut, resulting in two independent hemispheres.

Results- Almost normal function, except when it came to input coming only from 1 source. (Ex. touch/language experiment)

Look at red dot flash HE/ART What did you see – ART, point with left hand - HE Test yourself If we flashed a red light to the right hemisphere and a green light to the left hemisphere 1. Would each observe it’s own color? _______ 2. What color would the person verbally report seeing? _____________

Of course your brain is not this

simplified, but this shows the right-brain, left-brain

argument. These are the basic roles

of each hemisphere.

How do People know this about the brain? Accidents: brain damage from head injuries can be very specific.

Researchers find the damage and see what effects it is having on the rest of the body. Certain areas are more vital than others. (Phineas T. Gage)

*The brain cannot repair itself. Once a neuron dies, it is gone. However, the brain can reroute itself, and find new pathways to access information and restore some function. (Plasticity) Electrical stimulation: Specific areas of the brain are stimulated with an electrode and the results recorded. All sorts of sensation areas have been mapped out, as well as radical behavioral changes (mostly in animals). Electroencephalogram (EEG): records electrical activity of the brain. Can locate tumors and measure brain wave patterns. MRI – works by putting someone in a strong magnetic field. This magnet aligns atoms in our brain, then a brief radio wave distorts the atoms, when the atoms return to their normal spin they release signals that provide detailed pictures of the brain. fMRI – tracks oxygen levels in blood (laid over a typical MRI), Clearer than a PET scan. Shows both structure and function.

PET scan – injected with radioactive glucose. Records where blood flow happens in brain. (This is the color one) CAT scan/CT – X-ray of brain. Good for people with metal in the body. Less detail. Cheaper than MRI.

AP Psychology Nature vs. Nurture The Nature-Nurture Debate Nature: Our biological groundwork, genetic, DNA, etc... Nurture: The effect that the environment has on us (family, education, culture, experiences, etc. ..) Most scientists and psychologists agree that both have an effect on us. We study twins, siblings, and adopted

siblings to determine heredity. EXAMPLE - Intelligence Twin studies indicate that intelligence is largely genetic Identical twins-100% the same genes (1 egg splits in two) Fraternal twins- 50% same genes (2 eggs fertilized at the same time) Studies find that identical twins who are raised apart still have very similar IQ scores, 80% of the time

When 1 identical twin is autistic, there is a 96% the other is too. Fraternal twins have only a 24% chance.

Alzheimer’s Identical 60%, fraternal only 30% The "range" theory People are born with a potential, determined by heredity. How far they develop that potential is determined by the environment (education, practice, etc...) Take the following two students Student A: Both parents had very high IQs, but both die in a car accident, leaving student A to grow up with her aunt in inner city Flint. She has the genetic potential for an IQ of 150. Student B: Parents have average intelligence but inherit money. Student B attends an exclusive private school and is tutored after school 1 on 1.

Who's smarter? Student A: [ A ] max potential Student B: [ A ] max potential ...notice student A has a greater potential (determined by genetics) but their environment is causing them to be unable to reach their potential Heredity: transmission of traits from parent to offspring. The traits we inherit shape our behavior and also place limits on it. (Hair color, height, eye color, even things such as disorders) Genes and Chromosomes Every cell nucleus in your body contain the genetic master code of you You have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs…each parent contributes 1 to a pair) made up of DNA

(Deoxyribonucleic acid – remember from biology this is the spiraling, complex molecule that contains your genes)

Genes: DNA segments that determine your traits and personality Genotype – the actual genes (set at conception – can never change) Phenotype – how the genes manifest into observable characteristics. (maybe affected by the environment) 22 of the 23 chromosomes in men and women are about the same except for the 23rd pair (the sex chromosome) Female can only contribute X, male contributes either X or Y. If XX, child is female. If XY, child is male Children born without 46 chromosomes, or having an extra chromosome, will have physical of behavioral problems (Downs Syndrome = extra chromosome on 21st pair