apa style 101

APA 101: APA Style for Research Papers

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● APA101 ● 1. Intro ● 2. Refs ● 3. Sources ● 4. Pages ● 5. Tables ● 6. Text ● 7. Stats ● 8. Review ● APA Home

APA Style for Research Papers

APA Style is documented in the 467 pages of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association(5th ed; 2001)). Where do you start? APA101 examines the basics, the central rules of the style. The focus is on final manuscripts, research papers prepared for college classes or seminars.

The Challenge is to know what the style covers. Then it is a simple matter to look up a rule or practice in the APA Manual (or a crib sheet) and apply it. For example, when writing numbers in the text do you spell them out or use numerals? Do you write "8" or "eight?" Unfortunately, the APA Manual has hundreds of pages of instructions, and to know when these may apply requires an intimate knowledge of the style. The Solution is to focus on the deep features of the style, its central paradigms. These fall within three groups: (a) documentation, (b) page formatting, and (c) text rules. By understanding these basic rules, the style is simplified. You need not memorize these rules, only be aware that they exist. Then you can look up the details. 1. Documentation, using references to cite material used in your work, is an essential part of research paper. All other oversights can be forgiven, but not sloppy documentation. You must get this right! 2. Page formatting, how text appears on the page, follows specific rules. However, the APA Manual is dedicated to preparing manuscripts for publication, for copy editors and typesetters. Papers for class use follow different instructions. Tables and figures have their own special requirements. 3. Text rules, editorial style, govern how you present your text. There are rules for acronyms, adding emphasis, and formatting quotes. The presentation of numbers and statistics can be confusing, like walking in on the middle of a lecture. These merit special attention.

APA 101 Course Syllabus

The course is organized into seven lessons, and a review. Each lesson should require about a half-hour of study, some more, some less. Most lessons require no prerequisites, but the lesson on numbers and statistics may leave you faltering if you are not versed in these subjects. On the other hand, if you are unfamiliar with basic statistics you are not likely to use them in your paper. Lessons begin by defining special terms. Then the focus shifts to describing core APA rules. The lessons are concise, but they do require thought and study. If you are looking quick reference to APA style, try the APA Crib Sheet.

1 Lesson 1: Introduction to Final Manuscripts. Journal editors (or instructors) may reject papers that do not follow APA style. The most common mistakes are discussed. The APA Manual draws a distinction between final manuscripts and copy manuscripts. Explore the differences and why they matter to you.

2 Lesson 2: Documentation A - Reference Elements & Citations. The parts of a reference are its elements. These are not arbitrary, they have a reasoned structure that flows through all APA references. Text citations to references also follow a common form. Exposed! APA style has a passion for parentheses!

3 Lesson 3: Documentation B - Reference Sources. The APA Manual recognizes 95 different reference sources, providing examples of each. However, these are all built around basic references to periodicals, books, edited volumes, and documents. The APA passion for parentheses is further revealed.

4 Lesson 4: Manuscript Format A - Pages & Headings. The differences between copy manuscripts and final manuscripts are most apparent in formatting pages. Chapter 6 of the APA Manual was discussed in Lesson 1. Here it is applied. Headings follow a complex set of rules in APA style. These can be simplified.

5 Lesson 5: Manuscript Format B - Tables & Figures. The presentation of tables and figures is one of the most common problems in using APA style. Yet, these offer few difficulties if you understand the basic rules. It is always prudent to check the APA Manual when formatting complex tables.

6 Lesson 6: Text Rules A - General Rules. There are specific rules when using acronyms, formatting quotations, and adding emphasis to words. The boundaries between conventional usage and APA style blur as the manual refreshes the rules on punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

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7 Lesson 7: Text Rules B - Numbers and Statistics. When to write numbers as words, when to use numerals? APA style uses the metric system. Some common statistics are represented by uncommon APA symbols, and subject to unique rules for their presentation. This can trip you up!

8 Review: Identify APA Style Features. Now that you have grasped the essence of APA style, and mastered many of its details, it is time to test your knowledge. The challenge is to identify all the unique style elements in an article published in an APA journal. Can you find the scare quotes? How often is the under 10 rule applied?

Required Texts

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.).

Washington, DC: Author.

There are two sections in the APA Manual that are required reading. These are chapter 6, "Material Other Than Journal Articles," and a section in chapter 2, "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language." These total just 18 pages, so you need not purchase the APA Manual as long as a library copy is available for reference.

Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of (APA) style:

A survey of psychology journal editors. American Psychologist, 56, 266-267.

The survey reports that about 40% of editors have rejected papers solely because they do not conform to APA style. This paper is impeccably formatted, as might be expected given its subject. It helps why APA style must be mastered if you expect to write professionally. APA101 makes repeated reference to the paper; it should be available online. You will need a copy for the final lesson.

Taylor, B. N. (1995). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811,

1995 Edition). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Available from the NIST Web site, http://physics.nist.gov

The NIST Guide by Barry Taylor is the standard reference for using the International System of Units by the government of the United States.

Optional Reading

Gopen, G. D., & Swan, J. A. (1990, November-December). The science of scientific writing [Electronic version]. American Scientist. Available from the American Scientist Online Web site, http://www.americanscientist.org

"If the reader is to grasp what the writer means, the writer must understand what the reader needs." Read how to compose clear scientific English. About 10 pages. APA 101 is about style as presentation (see lesson 1). This paper is about style as expression.

APA101 - Required Text & Suggested Readings

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American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. New prices: $33.95 spiral bound, and $26.95 paperback (free shipping, no taxes).

Fifth Edition! The APA Publication Manual is the commanding guide in psychology, and found in other fields ranging from education to literature. The new edition shows how to format papers (40 pp., 15 with diagrams), expands coverage of tables and figures (50 pp.), adds Web sources to the 95 references sources covered (75 pp.), and refines the best section on avoiding bias found anywhere (15 pp.). The spiral bound edition lies open to the page you select, not a trivial convenience!

Taylor, Barry N. 1995. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Special Publication 811. 80 pp. http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf

Free Style Guide for Numbers. The NIST is the official representative of the United States before the Convention du Metre which in turn is the body that defines the International System of Units (SI) for the world scientific community. A free 80 page style guide is available from their website. This link (click on the title above) is directly to the document which is in Adobe PDF format. To download rather than display the document click the right mouse button on the link and select "Save Target As."


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Houghton, P. M., Houghton, T. J., & Peters, M. F. (2005). APA: The Easy Way!. Port Huron, MI: Baker College. Link to Amazon.com: (Paperback $10.95).

APA Easy? This handbook is a quick and simplified guide to the APA writing style. It was developed as a condensed version of the official APA Publication Manual and designed to be utilized as a supplement to the actual guide. One reviewer at Amazon.com writes: "APA The Easy Way is a godsend. It takes the pain of dealing with the APA Manual, cuts through the BS and tells you the 'meat' of what you really need to know to conform to this style of writing. All-in-all a very simple and easy-to-use guide that helps take the sting out of writing APA style" (Fronckowiak, 2005).

APA101 - Permissions & Version

APA101 Fall 2007. APA101 is an introductory course to using the style of the American Psychological Association for research papers. It is a serious course requiring study and application. It may serve as a lesson plan to introduce the style to college students, or as a guide to self-study. The course is provided free without entanglements, and may be used without express permission. Figures, tables, lessons, and parts of lessons may be used for instructional purposes without express permission provided the source is cited. The copyright to all materials presented on the website is held by Doc Scribe. The course is subject to change and further development. Therefore, it is recommended that you link directly to this page rather than mirror the course on you own server. Updates occur as time allows, typically in the late summer with the start of the school year, and after the Christmas break. This is the first edition of APA101 and revisions can be expected. The APA Publication Manual (2001) provides a chapter on preparing papers for other than publication, what it terms final manuscripts (chap. 6). APA101 follows the instructions in this chapter and interprets the intent of the chapter as it affects page formatting. This differs slightly from the copy manuscripts that are the wider subject of the Publication Manual. Instructors wishing to use APA101 in their course should alert other faculty of the changes to avoid unfairly penalizing students who apply them. A document has been prepared to help communicate these changes.

Download: APA Style Final Manuscripts (PDF 75 kb).

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APA 101.1: Introduction to APA Style & Usage

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Introduction to APA Style & Usage Synopsis: The style of the American Psychological Association (APA) is quite conventional---comparable to other major styles. Only about half the APA Manual is concerned with the presentation of papers, as distinct from the style of writing. The style is not as complex or difficult to use as it first appears. A survey of journal editors identified problem areas in using the style, and alerted malefactors to the consequences.

Note: Begin a sentence with an abbreviation rarely, and only to avoid clumsy writing (APA, 2001, sec. 3.29). When possible, use a circumlocution. For example, write "The style of the APA is quite conventional," not "APA style is quite conventional." This rule is largely ignored on these webpages, but do not follow this terrible example in your own writing!

APA Style and the APA Publication Manual in Perspective

What's in the APA Manual? At first glance, the APA Publication Manual appears a rather formidable tome, packed with 467 pages of rules and instructions. This is a lot to learn and study. But on closer examination we find that the APA Manual is something of a lightweight when compared with other major style guides. There are several reasons for this: 1. There is a lot of white space on each page. 2. The APA Manual is focused entirely on preparing research papers (not books) for publication. 3. Only about half the Manual is devoted to style as a mode of presentation as distinct from style as a mode of expression. 4. Many of the rules are conventions in the language, simply repeated in the Manual, for example, how to use commas. Each of these issues will be addressed in turn. Then APA101 will examine the topics that journal editors find give writers problems.

1.1. APA Manual: Content, Style, & Common Usage

Words Per Page? There's a lot of white space on each page of the APA Manual. At first you notice how wide the margins are. The outside margins, left and right, are 1.625 inches (1-5/8). Margins in the Chicago Manual of Style are 1.0 inch, although the page is smaller. But what is really different is the line spacing. The APA Manual almost looks double spaced. The Chicago Manual of Style is definitely single spaced. A line of text in both manuals, in fact in all the manuals analyzed, contains 10-12 words. So the number of words per page is governed by the number of lines per page.

Table 1 Research Style Guide Page-Line Content Analysis Style Guide Pages Lines/Page Adjusted

AMA (American Medical Association Manual of Style, 1997) 670 52 (100%) 670

APA (Publication Manual, 2001) 465 34 (65%) 300

CMS (Chicago Manual of Style, 2003) 975 44 (85%) 825

MLA (Modern Language Association Handbook, 2003) 380 42 (80%) 300







Our thesis is confirmed. The APA Manual has fewer lines per page than any of these other major style guides. Adjusting the page count for content by this technique, the APA Manual has less than half the content of the American Medical Association Manual of Style (1997), and just slightly more than a third of the content of the venerable Chicago Manual of Style (2003). It has about the same content as the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (2003). One explanation for this shortfall is that both the APA Manual and the MLA Handbook are focused on research papers, the AMA and Chicago manuals are both focused on the publication of books. There are other content issues that also help explain the differences, for example, the AMA Manual has a vast section on medical terminology and the Chicago Manual is a reference to both American English usage as well as to Chicago style. The key point is that APA style is fairly compact and concise. It is not that difficult to learn. If the APA Manual put as much content on a page as the MLA Handbook it would have the same number of pages. The paperback MLA Handbook sells for $18, the paperback version of the APA Manual for $27. Is the white space a marketing gimmick to add pages--but not content--to squeeze an extra $9 out of you? Perhaps. Perhaps too, they simply want to make it easier to read. Style: Presentation or Expression? Style has two meanings. Style as it is understood in APA101 is about presenting the content of a research paper in the style of the American Psychological Association. The course does not address the style of expression: the grammar, sentence structure, paragraph composition, and the like. The distinction is helpful, since only about half the APA Manual addresses style as presentation. This is revealed by examining the table of contents of the APA Manual, 5th ed. (2001).

Table 2 Contents: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition Chapter 1: Content and Organization of a Manuscript (pp. 3-30). This is a chapter about the content of a research paper as distinct from its presentation. Chapter 2: Expressing Ideas and Reducing Bias in Language (pp. 31-76). The section on Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language is excellent, but again deals with content, not presentation. Chapter 3: APA Editorial Style [Text Rules] (pp. 77-214). Text rules govern how you present text on the page, word-by-word and line-by-line. Chapter subheadings include: Punctuation, Capitalization, Abbreviations; Headings and Series, Quotations, Numbers, and Statistical and Mathematical Copy. The sections on Tables and Figures are covered under page formatting in APA101; the section on Reference Citations in Text is covered under documentation. Chapter 4: Reference List [Documentation] (pp. 215-282). This is always the most heavily thumbed chapter in any used copy of the APA Manual. The chapter presents sample references, 95 in all, for documenting almost any source. This is the heart of APA style, and the manner of presenting references is unique to the style. Chapter 5: Manuscript Preparation [Page Formatting] and Sample Papers ... for Publication (pp. 283-320). This chapter explains how to format a page of text for publication--what margins to set, how to number pages, what typeface (font) to use, how to format headings and subheadings, and so on. If you are drafting a paper for class use or a thesis, these instructions must be revised. The revisions are (mostly) covered in the next chapter. Page formatting is an essential part of presenting a paper in APA style. Chapter 6: Material Other Than Journal Articles (pp. 321-330). This is a very important chapter for students preparing papers for classes or seminars, or writing a thesis or dissertation. The APA Publication Manual is focused on that, that is, publication. If you are not writing for publication then a number of things change. This course, APA101, is focused on class papers as instructed in this chapter. Chapter 7: Manuscript Acceptance and Production (pp. 331-344). Your paper has been accepted for publication. This chapter outlines the bureaucratic gauntlet you must run to get in print. This chapter has nothing to do with APA style. Chapter 8: Journals Program of the American Psychological Association (pp. 345-362). This is another chapter on procedural issues in the publication of APA journals. This chapter has nothing to do with APA style. Chapter 9: Bibliography (pp. 363-377). If you peruse this brief chapter the most notable thing is how old many of the references are, often dating to the 1970s and 1980s. Appendixes A-E: Instructions/Checklists-Ethical Standards-Legal Citations (pp. 379-412). The checklists may be of some interest when a paper is finally ready for submission. The References to Legal Materials appendix belongs with chapter four.



The first two chapters focus on the content and organization of a paper, on the expression of ideas. There is nothing in these chapters that is unique to APA psychology as distinct from research in education or sociology. Chapters 7 and 8 are unique to APA psychology, but have nothing to do with APA style since they are focused on the administrative process of publication. The bibliography and appendixes (Note: APA writes appendixes not appendices) also are not central to APA style, although Appendix D: References to Legal Material really belongs with chapter 4, since offers instructions of formatting references to legal materials. Presentation chapters. Most of the material concerning the APA style of presentation is found in chapters 3 (text rules), 4 (references), and 5 (page formatting). These chapters amount to a little more than half the content of the APA Manual. However, chapter 4 often restates rules that are part of the English language, for example, how to use commas. APA style complements the language, it does not generally contradict it. The Boundaries of Style: Language Rules vs. APA Rules Conventional? APA style is quite conventional. That is, APA style has rules for the same issues as other styles. For example, in APA style you are instructed to write out numbers below 10 as words unless they are precise measurements (APA, 2001, sec. 3.43). In contrast, the MLA (Modern Language Association) Handbook for Writers of Research Papers instructs authors to write out numbers when they can be expressed in one or two words (Gibaldi, 2003, sec. 3.5.2). These are different rules for the same question, when do you use numerals for numbers, and when do you use words? It is possible to pose the same question for other styles and get different rules. The English language presents no decisive rule for using numerals versus words. Therefore, style guides make their own. But when the language does offer definite rules, style guides often repeat them, and this can cause problems. APA Style or English Language? An example of a rule that belongs to the language, as distinct from a particular style, is the requirement to capitalize proper nouns--words that name specific places, persons, or events. European languages other than English often leave these words lowercased. The APA Manual restates the common rules followed in English (APA, 2001, sec. 3.14). While this is simply an aid to the reader, many of these rules have become second nature and may not be readily articulated. For example, all style guides caution against beginning a sentence with numerals, for example, "439 numbered pages comprise the APA Manual." We have all been taught to write this sentence: "The APA Manual is comprised of 439 pages." When was the last time you saw a complete sentence begin with a numeral? Have you ever seen a sentence that began with a numeral? (Advertising copy and newspaper headlines might begin with numerals, but examples in print are so uncommon I could not find one for this lesson.) Much of our understanding of the language is known intuitively. When conventions are violated the usage feels awkward, although we may not be able to explain exactly what's wrong. For example, "Laughing, John at Betty's joke is." What's wrong with this? How do you know? How would you rewrite it? Can you articulate the grammatical rules it offends? Some things you just know. This sounds like something Yoda in Star Wars might say. (Some languages put the verb at the end of a sentence.) There is no point to studying what you already know. APA101 will not ask you to do so.

1.2. Problem Areas in Using APA Style Irritated Readers! A study reported in the American Psychologist surveyed 210 journal editors to determine the importance of adhering to APA style in research papers (Brewer, Scherzer, Van Raalte, Petitpas, & Andersen, 2001). An astounding 39% of the editors reported having rejected a paper for failing to follow APA style. Most editors reported that "(a) adherence to APA style has no bearing on the editorial decision [to review a paper]; (b) where deviations from APA style exist, the content of the manuscript far outweighs style in importance; and (c) the journals will work with authors of high quality manuscripts to ensure conformity with APA style." (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267). Still about a fifth of the editors placed a heavy emphasis on APA style as a factor in evaluating a paper. The actions of these editors may explain why APA style has such a fierce reputation. Get it right, or get it back! Problem areas. The editors also reported the major problem areas and their influence on editorial decisions. This is important. The foreword of the fourth edition of the APA Manual reported that the 24 journals published by the APA (at that time) received nearly 6,000 papers a year (APA, 1993, p. xxi). Only 1,400 of these (about 23%) were published. The rest were rejected. The journal editors in the study reported above cautioned that reviewers may be negatively influenced when papers fail to meet the requirements of APA style. Don't give your readers an excuse to reject your paper!

Table 3 Problems in Using APA Style: A Survey of Journal Editors Problem Area Frequency Influence

References (Documentation) 3.23 2.27

Tables & Figures (Graphics) 3.00 2.23

Mathematics & Statistics 2.81 2.31



Note. Values are the mean of reported scores on a 5-point scale (1 = none, 5 = a lot). A frequency score of 3 indicates a fairly common occurrence; an influence score of 2 indicates some influence on the decision to accept or reject a paper. Adapted from "The Elements of (APA) Style: A Survey of Psychology Journal Editors," by B. W. Brewer, C. B. Scherzer, J. L. Van Raalte, A. J. Petitpas, and M. B. Andersen, 2001, American Psychologist, 56, p. 266.

The results indicate notable problems with references, tables and figures, and the use of mathematics and statistics. There is no mention of problems with capitalization, spelling, or the use of abbreviations, all suborned under the heading Text Rules in APA101. In contrast, the problem areas are all with the presentation of the more complex elements of APA style. The APA Manual is very specific about the format of references to 95 different sources, to the presentation of tables and figures, and to the presentation of numbers, statistics, and mathematical formulas. Two lessons in APA101 are devoted to references, and one each to tables and figures, and numbers and statistics. Comments by the editors' also revealed problems with page formatting. The study reported "that deviations in . . . title page and abstract and (document format were . . . observed most frequently and that deviations from APA style in (document) format were among those noted as having the strongest adverse impact on editorial decisions" (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 266).

1.3. Chapter 6: Final Manuscripts vs. Copy Manuscripts APA Warning! "The Publication Manual is not intended to cover scientific writing at an undergraduate level. . . Instructions to students to 'use the Publication Manual' should be accompanied by specific guidelines for its use" (APA, 2001, sec. 6.01). Chapter 6, "Material Other Than Journal Articles," of the APA Manual draws the distinction between copy manuscripts and final manuscripts. Copy manuscripts are what the APA Manual is all about. These are papers submitted journal editors for review and publication. They are not designed to mimic their final form, but to make is easier to typeset and format the manuscript for print. Final manuscripts, on the other hand, are meant to be read by their intended audience. "A number of variations from the requirements described in the Publication Manual are not only permissable but also desirable in the preparation of final manuscripts" (APA, 2001, sec. 6.01). Student papers are final manuscripts. APA101 is an introduction to using APA style for preparing final manuscripts. Specifically, it is focused on preparing papers of 10-20 pages in length, about 2,500 to 5,000 words, that is, the typical undergraduate paper--the counterpart to a paper prepared for publication. Many of the features presented in the course and in the guides available on the www.docstyles.com website have no specific expression in the APA Manual. They represent an interpretation of APA style to present a compact and professional paper. This interpretation affects only the organization of the manuscript and page formatting. Standard APA documentation and text rules are unchanged. You should understand the differences. Organization of the Manuscript Copy manuscripts are strange documents. First, the are intended for anonymous peer review. Therefore, there are two title pages. The first has the title, the author's name, and their affiliation; the second, the abstract. The title page with the author's name is torn off before the manuscript is sent to the reviewers. Different people typeset the text, tables, and figures included in a paper. Therefore, tables and figures are not included in the text, but appended to the end on the text with each table or figure on a separate page, even the caption or legend for figures go on separate pages. These are the instructions found in the APA Manual (APA, 2001, chap. 5).. Final manuscripts are meant to be read by their final audience, not editors, reviewers, and typesetters. Therefore, it makes sense to consolidate the abstract with the title page, dispense with the running head (which is only used for publication), and embed tables and figures in the document. This is the organization of the manuscript featured in APA101. Line Spacing & Pagination Every line of a copy manuscript is double spaced. This includes titles, headings, tables, references, quotations, and the captions for figures. But for final manuscripts, the APA Manual advises that "when single-spacing would improve readability . . . it is usually encouraged. Single-spacing can be used to table titles and headings, figure captions, references (but double-spacing is required between references), footnotes, and long [block] quotations" (APA, 2001, sec. 6.03). These are the instructions followed in APA101. Every page has a page number. For copy manuscript the page number on every page goes at the top right of the page. There are no exceptions. However, the APA Manual suggest altering the placement of page numbers on titles pages of final manuscripts, and even skipping the page number (but not the numbering sequence) to achieve a desired appearance. APA101 does not go that far. Every page is numbered, but the page number is relocated on the title page to the bottom center position. Cold Turkey? These changes are minor, but would be devilishly difficult to figure out if you came to the APA Manual "cold turkey," that is, without forewarning about what the Manual recommends and where in its 465 pages the instructions are found. But is your instructor on the same page? If this is a relevant question you might check with your instructor. APA101 is not improvising. It is following the instructions given in the APA Manual for papers of the kind you might be writing.

APA101: Review Questions for This Lesson



The review questions ask you to restate the basic ideas presented in the lesson. The intent of this lesson is to place APA style in perspective and context, introduce the APA Manual, and identify those parts of the Manual and style that are the focus of the course and explain why they merit that attention. Q1. How does the APA Manual compare with other style manuals in the amount of content?

Q2. Style can refer to a mode of expression, or a mode of presentation. What is the difference and why is it relevant?

Q3. A style (as a mode of presentation) can be organized around three topics. What are these topics and what sort of things do they cover?

Q4. APA style complements, but does not replace, the rules of usage in the English language. What does this mean and why is it relevant?

Q5. Journal editors have identified three areas of difficulty in using APA style. What are they?

Q6. The APA Manual draws a distinction between copy manuscripts and final manuscripts. What is this distinction and why is it relevant?

Required & Recommended Readings

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Required: Chapter 6, "Material Other Than Journal Articles" (9 pp.). This chapter is new in the fifth edition. It explains how to go about formatting a paper for other than publication. While all these instructions are part of APA101 and the various guides on this website, it is helpful if you read this chapter for yourself. The APA Manual presents a sample paper (Chapter 5), but it is formatted for publication. There is nothing in the Manual other than chapter 6 (and this website) to guide you through a class paper. Browse the rest of the Manual while you are at it. The IMRAD structure (Introduction, Method, Results, Analysis, Discussion) is basic to research papers (IMRD in APA style), see chapter 1.

Required: Chapter 2, "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language" (9 pp.). Prejudice is embedded in everyday language. For example, "We studied 50 disabled American Indians." The APA would have you write this: "we studied 50 American Indians (12 Jicarilla Apache, 32 Navajo, and 6 Zuni) with disabilities." Persons are not diseased or disabled, they are people afflicted by disease or disability. American Indians comprise over 500 ethnic communities; the term alone is not specific enough to be meaningful. If you are writing in APA style these are mistakes that reveal your ignorance.

Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of (APA) style:


Required. This is the paper cited in the section on "Problem Areas in Using APA Style." It is well written, in IMRD format (but without the headings), and illustrates a variety of style features, most of which will be covered in this course. It is the focus of the exercise in lesson 4, and central to the review in lesson 8.

Gopen, G. D., & Swan, J. A. (1990, November-December). The science of scientific writing [Electronic version].

American Scientist. Available from the American Scientist Online Web site, http://www.americanscientist.org

Recommended. This article is about style as expression. The catch phrase: "If the reader is to grasp what the writer means, the writer must understand what the reader needs." Read how to compose clear scientific English. There is nothing better. It is also available in PDF format from Doc Scribe: The Science of Scientific Writing (90 KB).

References

American Psychological Association. (1994). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.).

Washington, DC: Author.

Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of (APA) style: A survey of psychology journal editors. American Psychologist, 56, 266-267.

Gibaldi, J. (2003). MLA handbook for writers of research papers (6th ed.). New York: MLA.

Iverson, C. Flanagin, A. Fontanarosa, P. B., Glass, R. M., Glitman, P., Lantz, J. C., et al. (1997). American Medical

Association manual of style (9th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

University of Chicago Press. (2003). The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). Chicago: Author.

Required Text for APA101


http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/23947?fulltext=true&print=yes

http://www.docstyles.com/archive/ascience.pdf

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Fifth Edition. The APA Publication Manual is the commanding guide in psychology, and found in other fields ranging from education to literature. The new edition shows how to format papers (40 pp., 15 with diagrams), expands coverage of tables and figures (50 pp.), adds Web sources to the 95 references sources covered (75 pp.), and refines the best section on avoiding bias found anywhere (15 pp.). The spiral bound edition lies open to the page you select, not a trivial convenience!




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APA 101.2: Reference Elements & Citations

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Reference Elements & Citations Synopsis: APA references appear fraught with petty details and nuances. On closer examination, this complexity is found to be governed by a set of simple rules. Once these are understood composing APA references becomes much easier, if not quite easy. Documentation--citing and referencing research sources--is something you must get right. This lesson focuses on the basic elements of APA references and text citations.

Author-date style. APA references follow the author-date style or system, the name derived from the text citation in the form: (Author, Date). Other styles also uses this system including the Chicago Manual of Style where it is called the reference list (RL) system, and the Council of Science Editors style, where it is called the name-year system. Citation. The term is used for the notation in the text that refers the reader to a reference in the reference list at the end of the paper. The APA Manual refers to these as reference citations in text. APA101 generally uses the term text citation. Element. These are the parts of a reference: the author(s), date of publication, title, publisher and page numbers, and availability information. These parts of a reference remain largely consistent in APA style, whatever the source being referenced. Reference. A reference provides sufficient information to allow any source to be accessed by a reader. A source that cannot be found, such as a lost Web page, cannot be referenced. Source. This is the actual document--a journal article, book, report, Web page, or whatever--being cited and referenced.

The APA System of Author-Date Citations & References

The author-date style is so named because references begin by listing the authors of a source followed by the date of publication. The text citations, too, gives the author and date of the source, and just the author and date (unless a page number is cited for a quotation). Thus the citation in the text, for example, (Bates, 1995), connects with the reference in the reference list which begins: Bates, J. K. (1995). Citations and references are (almost) always paired. You cannot reference something you do not cite, and generally, vice versa (an exception is made for personal communications, which are cited but not referenced). Nor can you reference material that does not exist or is no longer retrievable. If a Web page is no longer available when you finish your paper you cannot cite and reference it (from personal experience I know that editors do check!). When using the APA author-date system reference what you cite, cite what you reference, and makes sure all sources are available. There are just two other styles in addition to the author-date system. These are the bibliography style and the endnote/footnote style. The bibliography style is used by the Modern Language Association. The endnote system is used in medicine, and footnotes are used in history. APA style makes no provision for a bibliography, that is, a list of interesting sources that were not cited in the text. The style does make provision for referencing some sources in footnotes, but only in very rare circumstances (e.g., with tables). References are composed of elements. In APA style there are four basic elements found in all references. The basic elements are: author, date, title, and publication information (publisher). Additional information is added on as needed. For example, the retrieval statement has come into use with the advent of the Internet. This is the part of the reference where the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) goes for online sources. Other add-on statements may indicate where a document might be found, or when it was originally published. These statements will be addressed in lesson 3. Consistencies in the elements, from one type of source to another, reveal the underlying logic to the APA reference style. Without this understanding APA references can appear to be a mass of arbitrary detail. With this understanding most APA references are easier to compose. The goal in the process of documentation is to link an idea or quote in the text to a reference that has enough information to allow the reader to find the source. Books and journal articles are the standard fare of research writing, but there are many other sources that might be cited. It may be necessary to add additional information to the reference to enable the reader to find it, such as the URL (Uniform Resource Locator), or even the street address of the publisher of a report that might not find its way to most libraries. APA style makes provision for these sources, too. The key question when composing references: Can the reader find the source?

2.1. APA Documentation: Authors and Citations

Every source has an author. Most of the time those authors are known, but not always. Sometimes the author given is a group or corporate entity, like the American Psychological Association. But many newspaper articles have no identifiable author. Irrespective of the type of document being referenced, APA style follows the same rules.







APA Rule. All authors' names go last name first, followed by initials, in the order they are presented in the source. With two or more authors place an ampersand before the last author; more than six list the first six plus et al. If the author is an organization give the full name. If no author, start the reference with the title (not with "Anonymous").

A paper cited in lesson 1 gave this list of authors: Britton W. Brewer, Carrie B. Scherzer, Judy L. Van Raalte, Albert J. Petitpas, Mark B. Andersen. There are five authors in the list so all are given in the reference, and the last is preceeded by an ampersand (&). (The ampersand is an APA trademark!) The reference begins: Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of (APA) style:

A survey of psychology journal editors. American Psychologist, 56, 266-267. Each name is presented last name first, followed by first and middle initials (when they are available). An ampersand is placed before the last author. It is customary when placing initials after a name to separate the name and initials with a comma (the initials are in apposition to the name), and to separate all the words in a list with commas. This is standard English usage. It gets a bit busy if there is a "Jr." or "III" in the name, which then becomes Smith, S. R., Jr., Jones, F. M., III, and so forth. When listing a series of nouns it is also standard English usage to place a comma after each item. For example, "The menu included apple, oranges, and lemons." APA style follows the same convention. Note. British [and pretentious U.S.] usage sometimes drops the last comma, the comma before "and lemons." The Chicago Manual of Style does not support this usage, citing even Fowler as well as other authorities (CMS, 2003, sec. 6.19). Note. APA style would have you space once after all punctuation (except in abbreviations like a.m.) (APA, 2001, sec. 5.11). The period-comma pair after initials and other abbreviations, where there is no space between them, is an exception. Text citations. Text citations are placed in parentheses, just last names and given (no initials), but with standard usage of commas and the ampersand. The objective is to allow the reader to unambiguously link the citation to the reference. Alas, APA style is showing its age, and can't agree with itself. The first six authors are listed in references (if there are more than six), but just the first five are listed in citations. Either rule serves equally well. This is a petty detail to remember. There are also a couple of tricks you should know about.

APA Rule. Text citations list the last names of up to five authors to a reference and the full names of group authors (no abbreviations). With two or more authors place an ampersand before the last author; follow standard rules for the use of commas. If there are more than five authors give the first plus et al.

Citation: (Brewer, Scherzer, Van Raalte, Petitpas, & Andersen, 2001). Next citation (Trick 1): (Brewer et al., 2001).

Trick 1. When there are three to five authors to a reference, all three, four, or five, are listed in the first citation. Thereafter, just the lead author is given

followed by et al. In the example above all five authors are listed. But the next citation is (Brewer, et al., 2001). Trick 2. A comparable trick is used with group authors. The first citation follows this form: (American Psychological Association [APA], 2001, sec 3.43).

The acronym APA (technically, it is an initialism) is inserted after the full name of the organization in square brackets. Thereafter, just the acronym is used: (APA, 2001, sec 3.43). Note. These tricks can cause confusion. If the first and subsequent citations are close together, and used frequently thereafter, then the reader is not likely to be confused. But if you cite the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) early in your paper, then again 20 pages later, the reader may not remember what ICMJE stands for. This is less of a problem with a list of names. But, while they are given as rules in the APA Manual, they are really tricks intended to improve the readability of the text by not cluttering it up with long-winded citations. Their use is governed by the overriding demand for clarity. If instructions like this confuse the reader rather than add clarity, then don't follow them. That's why APA101 labels them as "tricks."

2.2. APA Documentation: Publication Dates (A Passion for Parentheses!)

APA style loves parentheses. It seems to use them in references wherever it can. Got a bit of information you don't know what to do with? Put it parentheses and stick it somewhere. While this is a bit of an exaggeration, APA style puts dates in parentheses, along with the number of an edition (after the title), the abbreviation (Ed.) after the name of an editor, the page and editions of (edited volumes), and the (number of a report). You don't have to remember this stuff, just be aware that APA style loves parentheses.

APA Rule. Dates are placed in parentheses after the author(s). If the month or month and day are to be noted, these follow the year, after a comma, in American month-day format. All full dates in APA style, such as the retrieval date for an online document, follow American month-day-year format.



Wilson, E. O. (1998, March). Back from chaos. Atlantic Monthly, 281, 41-62.

Goleman, D. (1991, October 24). Battle of insurers vs. therapists. New York Times, pp. D1, D9.

Note. Only the year is included in text citations: (Wilson, 1998; Goleman, 1991).

2.3. APA Documentation: Titles & Capitalization

Two title formats are recognized in APA style: the titles of works that stand alone, and the titles of works that are parts of other works. The first group is set in italics; the second left as plain text.

APA Rule. Titles of free-standing works (nonperiodicals) are set in italics---books, reports, Web sites, and the names of journals. Parts of works---articles in periodicals; chapters in edited books---are referenced in plain text without quotation marks. Use sentence capitalization for all titles except the names of periodicals (format as proper nouns).

Berry, D. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Nonverbal and verbal emotional expression and health. Psychotherapy

and Psychosomatics, 59, 11-19.

Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (1995). The craft of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random House.

The last example, Stephan (1985), is a reference to an article or chapter in an edited book. The title of the chapter is in plain text; the title of the book is set in italics.

Capitalization comes in two basic forms: heading capitalization and sentence capitalization. Sentence capitalization, as the name implies, is the capitalization used in sentences: the first letter of the first word is capitalized, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns. Heading capitalization capitalizes the first letter of every word, with some exceptions. This style is used for some text headings and when noting titles in the text. APA style has a rule for doing this that will be presented in lesson 4.

Titles in the text are capitalized (in heading caps, see rule in lesson 4). Titles of books and other nonperiodicals are set in italics as they are in references. Title of articles and parts of works are capitalized and placed inside quotation marks. Quotation marks are also used when a short title must be used in a text citation. Quotation marks are not used in APA references. For example, "Intergroup Relations" is the title of a chapter by Walter G. Stephan in The Handbook of Social Psychology ("Intergroup Relations," 1985).

2.4. APA Documentation: Publishers and Publication Information To publisher or not to publisher? By long established custom references to books and other stand-alone documents (nonperiodicals) give the place of publication followed by the name of the publisher in references. By custom references to articles in periodicals dispense with this information. But since an article is a part of a journal or magazine, page numbers (and other information) are needed to locate it. Both sets of information---the publisher and pages numbers---are needed to reference an article or chapter in an edited book. Unlike other elements in a reference, it is difficult to articulate a general rule. These practices are not unique to APA style. This is a universal convention, or custom, in research documentation.

APA Rule. The place of publication and publisher are given in references to free-standing works (nonperiodicals); the volume and page numbers for articles in journals or magazines; the full date and page numbers for articles in newspapers. Both publisher and page numbers are given in references to articles or chapters in books.

Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (1995). The craft of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of

(APA) style: A survey of psychology journal editors. American Psychologist, 56, 266-267.

Goleman, D. (1991, October 24). Battle of insurers vs. therapists. New York Times, pp. D1, D9.

Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random House.

Books, and especially journal articles (the first two above), make up the bulk of references in the research literature. In the section above on titles it was pointed out that APA style places the titles of free-standing works in italics. This may be the title of a book, edited book, or the name of a journal, magazine or newspaper. The volume, issue, and page number information immediately follows, if relevant. For books, the place of publication and publisher is then added, as if an afterthought.

Note. There is no obvious explanation as to why APA style adds the abbreviation "pp." before the page numbers in newspapers and edited books, but not journals and magazines. This abbreviation is also used in all text citations when page numbers are cited (as when citing a direct quote).

Citations: (Booth, Colomb, & Williams, 1995, p. 123); (Brewer et al., 2001, pp. 266-267); (Goleman, 1991, p. D1);



(Stephan, 1985, pp. 626-635).

2.5. APA Documentation: Retrieval Statement Internet documents note the URL. This statement can take two forms depending on whether the document can be accessed directly or can be obtained only if a visitor registers, pays a fee, or goes through some other gate-keeping exercise. Electronic documents in Adobe's portable document format (PDF) may be exact facsimiles of a print document. When this is the case, APA style forgoes giving a retrieval statement and just adds a note after the title. This will be explored in the next lesson.

APA Rule. Documents directly accessed on the Internet add a retrieval statement in the form: Retrieved access date in month-day, year format, from name of the Web site if relevant, URL. Documents accessed indirectly through a Web site follow the form: Available from name of the Web site if relevant, URL. No period is added to a URL.

American Psychological Association (2001). Electronic references: Reference examples for electronic source materials.

Retrieved November 21, 2001, from the American Psychological Association Web site: http://www.apastyle.org/elecsource.html

Beers, M. H., & Berkow, R. (Eds.). (1999). The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy (17th ed.). Retrieved January 17, 2003,

from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/

Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807-1814. Available from the Journal of the American Medical Association Web site, http://www.jama.org

Note. There is no period at the end of these retrieval/availability statements. APA reasoning is that a period might confuse the reader, thinking it is part of the URL. Most people today are too savvy about the Internet to make this mistake, but that's the way the APA wants it. APA style considers Web a proper noun, and Web site two words. (The convention has become website.) Use either, depending on how "APA correct" you wish to be, but be consistent. Do not switch from spelling to spelling anywhere in your manuscript. Long URLs may not fit on a line. It is best to break them after a slash or before a period.

APA101: Exercises for This Lesson

Apply the Rules. Format the following attributions as APA references and citations based on the rules given in this lesson. Exercises may draw on the basic rules, notes, and examples, and may ask you to reason your way to the correct result (trick exercises). They are not intended to be easy, E1. The noted French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu collaborated with Jean-Claude Passeron to publish their influential 1977 book, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. The English language version was published in London by the Russell Sage Foundation. E2. Trick exercise! William Strunk, Jr., wrote the original edition of the Elements of Style, then little more than a pamphlet, in 1918. It was required reading in his course at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he also lived. The author published this first edition himself. It was subsequently revived and revised in 1959, and is still in print today. E3. Trick exercise! It was long thought that science developed in a steady cumulative state. But Thomas S. Kuhn argued that science reached tipping points that cascaded into new paradigms. A second edition his thesis, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was published in 1970 by the University of Chicago Press. E4. Trick exercise! The New England Journal of Medicine published a provocative analysis entitled "The Quality of Health Care Delivered to Adults in the United States" in 2003 (volume 348, pages 2635-45). The authors were Elizabeth A. McGlynn, Ph.D., Steven M. Asch, M.D., M.P.H., John Adams, Ph.D., Joan Keesey, B.A., Jennifer Hicks, M.P.H., Ph.D., Alison DeCristofaro, M.P.H., and Eve A. Kerr, M.D., M.P.H. E5. "Ethical Issues Concerning Research in Complementary and Alternative Medicine" was the title of an article that appeared in JAMA (journal of the American Medical Association) in 2004 (volume 291, pp. 599-604). The authors Franklin G. Miller, PhD; Ezekiel J. Emanuel, MD; Donald L. Rosenstein, MD; and Stephen E. Straus, MD. E6. Trick exercise! The Homeland Security Council announced their first "national strategy for pandemic influenza" in a monograph posted on the Whitehouse Web site [http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html] on November 1, 2005. You accessed it on November 2, 2005.

Answers to Exercises



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APA101.3: Reference Sources & Citations

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Documentation: Sources & Citations Synopsis: APA style follows basic rules that apply to all references. The most common sources have the most basic formats. The rules do work! The lesson begins with the most common sources cited in research papers, journal articles, progresses to books, then explores other documents including Web pages. The lesson closes on the document that is the product of this effort, the reference list.

Article or Paper? A distinction is made between articles as published papers or manuscripts, and papers as unpublished manuscripts. This distinction is found in the APA Manual. Host/Sponsor. Some Web pages are found on very large and complex sites, such as a government or university Web sites. When this is the case the specific department hosting or sponsoring the page is noted in the retrieval statement. PDF Facsimile. Adobe's portable document format (PDF) has become the standard for electronic publication. PDF files can be exact facsimiles of their print counterparts. Paged by issue. Some periodicals, mostly magazines and newspapers, start every issue at page one. Paged by volume. Most journals page issues continuously from issue to issue through a volume, which usually spans a year, but may not coincide with a calendar year.

APA Documentation: Reference Sources

The APA Manual provides sample references to 95 different sources. Many of these are minor variations that have been covered by the rules presented in lesson 1. For example, the rule for listing one author to a work to six or more. The APA Manual devotes four examples to this rule while covering a couple of other details in the process. Some of the sources are extremely rare in research publications, such as tracks on a music CD or messages posting to electronic mailing lists. It is useful to know that the Manual has examples for such a varied array of sources, should you need them. There are some things to note:

APA style uses standard punctuation in references. Each element---author, date, title, publisher---ends with a period (not URLs). Commas follow standard usage in references and citations. Space once after most punctuation.

APA references have a passion for parentheses!

The goal is to provide enough information to enable the reader to locate the source. Follow the basic rules and satisfy this goal to apply APA style effectively.

3.1. APA Sources: Journals, Magazines, & Newspapers

Titles in periodicals follow the rule presented in lesson 2. The titles of parts of works, articles or chapters, are lowercased in references (sentence capitalization) in plain text; the titles of the works they're in are set in italics. This works for all titles, both books and periodicals, as long as you remember to treat the names of periodicals as proper nouns. Sometime in the evolution of references it was deemed unnecessary to note the place and name of the publisher of a periodical, unlike references to books. However, other bits of information are required.

Journal Articles Aggleton, J. P., Bland, J. M., Kentridge, R. W., & Neave, N. J. (2004). Handedness and longevity: Archival study of

cricketers. British Medical Journal, 309, 1681-1684.

Conway, L. G., III. (2001). Number and age of citations in social-personality psychology over the lifespan of the field: Older and wiser? Dialogue, 16(2), 14-15.

Citations: First, (Aggleton, Bland, Kentridge, & Neave, 2004); next, (Aggleton et al., 2004); (Conway, 2001).

A standard journal article follows the format of the first example. The basic rules presented in lesson 2 are applied in formatting the list of authors, the date, the title of the article (lowercase, plain text), and the name-title of the journal (italics). Journal names are formatted as proper nouns, uppercased in heading caps. The volume number is set in italics, an APA affectation. The page numbers follow after a comma.

The second example again applies the basic rules. This time the author is a "III" which is formatted like "Jr." However, this journal starts over at page one with each issue. This article is found in volume 16, issue 2, on pages 14-15 of a journal named Dialogue. Journals like this, paged by issue, are not too common. The issue number is placed in parentheses (a practice common to nearly all reference styles), but is not set in italics. There is no space between the volume number and the (issue number).

Variations on a theme. Journals are available in a variety of formats: as printed hard copies, electronic facsimiles of the print version; and as Web







pages. Some journals charge for access to articles which are protected behind firewalls. Others use database engines to retrieve documents, which may have changing URLs. APA style makes provision for all these possibilities.

Fauci, A. S. (2006a). Pandemic influenza threat and preparedness. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12, 73-77.

Fauci, A. S. (2006b). Pandemic influenza threat and preparedness [Electronic version]. Emerging Infectious

Diseases, 12, 73-77.

Fauci, A. S. (2006c). Pandemic influenza threat and preparedness. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12, 73-77. Available from the Centers for Disease Control Web site, www.cdc.gov/eid

Fauci, A. S. (2006d). Pandemic influenza threat and preparedness. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12, 73-77.

Retrieved April 30, 2006 from www.cdc.gov/eid/05-0983.htm

Citations: (Fauci, 2006a); (Fauci, 2006b); (Fauci, 2006c); (Fauci, 2006d).

The first example is to the print version, the second to the electronic facsimile, a PDF file. The designation [Electronic version] is added in brackets after the title to indicate this. In the third example the article is available on this Website, accessible through an index, perhaps after paying a fee. The URL does not lead to the specific document, so no retrieval date is noted. Finally, the article may also be available as a Web page which may differ from the print or PDF versions. This calls for a full retrieval statement. These variations are all common sense. The print version carries the most authority and credibility in research; the PDF facsimile is nearly equivalent. Web pages are less reliable since they are more subject to hacking, manipulation, and change.

Multiple works by the same author published in the same year are designated by placing a lowercase letter after the date.

Magazines

Wilson, E. O. (1998, March). Back from chaos. Atlantic Monthly, 281, 41–62.

Pricing terror: America's government still has role to play in insuring against a big terrorist attack.

(2005, November 19-25). The Economist, 377, 45.

Citations: (Wilson, 1998); ("Pricing Terror," 2005).

Magazines are like journals paged by issue, however, the month or full date is a more useful designation of the issue than an issue number, even when it is available. The second example is to a news magazine published weekly. The author of the article is not given so the title is placed in the author position. The citation to this article uses just the first few word of the title to avoid cluttering up the text. Titles in the text, whether article or book titles, whether in a citation or in the text, are capitalized in standard English usage (heading caps), and in APA style.

Newspapers Goleman, D. (1991, October 24). Battle of insurers vs. therapists: Cost control pitted against proper care.

New York Times, pp. D1, D9.

Citation: (Goleman, 1991).

Newspapers sometimes have strange page numbers. As a result, APA style insist in putting the abbreviation "pp." before all page numbers in references to newspaper articles, whether strange or not (the abbreviation "p." is used for citing single pages). Otherwise, references to these sources follow the same general form as for other periodicals, including those reproduced on Web pages.

3.2. APA Sources: Books

A passion for parentheses. The following examples all present variations on the common format for referencing books, the basic format describe by the rules presented in lesson 2. A discerning eye note that all the variation make use of parentheses. Texts found on the Internet follow the basic form.

Books (Other Than Parts of Compilations) Allport, G. W. (1979). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. (Original work published 1954)

Beers, M. H., & Berkow, R. (Eds.). (1999). The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy (17th ed.). Retrieved

January 17, 2003, from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/

Friedman, H. S. (Ed.). (1990). Personality and disease. New York: Wiley.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Schuman, H., Steeh, C., Bobo, L., & Krysan, M. (1997). Racial attitudes in America: Trends and interpretations (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Citations: (Allport, 1954/1979); (Beers & Berkow, 1999); Friedman, 1990); (Kuhn, 1970);

first, (Schuman, Steeh, Bobo, & Krysan, 1997), next, (Schuman et al., 1997).

References to reprints require a note added to the reference. This is set in parentheses in the form shown and tacked to the end of the reference. There is no period after the closing parenthesis (no one know why?).



Editions other than the first note that fact by placing the edition number in (who would guess?) parentheses, trailing the title. In addition to editions in succeeding numbers, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on, revised editions (Rev. ed.) and abridged editions (Abr. ed.) are common.

Compilations of articles by various authors are common. Usually a reference is to a specific article in the book. This reference format is covered below. The entire compilation can also be referenced. In this case, the compiler or editor for the volume is placed in the author position with a note in parentheses (who would ever guess?) trailing. Notes in parentheses almost always start with a capital letter, the noteworthy exception is the abbreviation pp.

Parts of Edited Books or Compilations These are among the more complex references found in any style. Both the author of the article or chapter must be noted as well as the editor of the compilation. The title of the article, and of the volume, must be given, along with the page numbers in the volume.

Alderson, A. S., & Corsaro, W. A. (2000). Cross-cultural analysis. In E. F. Borgatta (Editor-in-Chief) &

R. J. V. Montomery (Managing Editor), Encyclopedia of sociology (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 546-553).New York: Macmillan Reference USA.

Beers, M. H., & Berkow, R. (1999). Mood disorders. In M. H. Beers & R. Berkow (Eds.), The Merck manual

of diagnosis and therapy (17th ed., sec. 15, chap. 18). Retrieved January 17, 2003, from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section15/chapter189/189a.htm

Bourdieu, P. (1993). The market of symbolic goods. In R. Johnson (Ed.), The field of cultural production:

Essays in art and literature (pp. 112-141). New York: Columbia University Press. (Original work published 1983)

Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social

psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599-658). New York: Random House.

Citations: (Alderson & Corsaro, 2000); (Beers & Berkow, 1999); (Bourdieu, 1983/1993); (Stephan, 1985).

Reversed? All names in the author position in references go last name first. Names of editors (and translators) not in the author position go in their normal order. The Chicago Manual of Style follows the same practice so it has legitimacy, but it is one more detail that simply must be remembered. The names go in the order they are presented in the source, not necessarily in alphabetical order. Again, the APA passion for parentheses is fully evidenced. The abbreviation (Eds.) follows the name of the editors, the edition, volume, and page numbers are placed in parentheses after the title. The reference to Bourdieu is a reprint, a fact noted in parentheses at the end of the reference.

Most references to works in edited books will cite just page numbers. The need to cite editions and volumes is not too common except with reference

works such as a encyclopedias. It is rare to see the title of an editor, as in Alderson and Corsaro (2000), cited in a reference, although the practice is covered in the APA Manual (2001, sec. 4.16, ex. 36).

3.3. APA Sources: Papers, Reports, & Web Pages

Most papers and reports are referenced like books. APA style formats the titles of most works that stand alone (i.e., nonperiodicals) in italics. This includes dissertations (whether published or not), reports, and even Web pages. The only exception is for software, computer programming languages, and software manuals (who knows why?). Otherwise, references to these sources follow the basic rules, adding information as needed.

American Psychological Association. (2001). Electronic references: Reference examples for electronic

source materials. Retrieved November 21, 2001, from http://www.apastyle.org/elecsource.html

Downey, D. B. (1992). Family structure, parental resources, and educational outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.

Dr. Abel Scribe PhD. (2006a). AScribe! APA reference manager (Version 6.0) [Computer software]. Retrieved

June 30, 2006, from http://www.docstyles.com/archive/apasetup.zip

Dr. Abel Scribe PhD. (2006b). The writer's guide to APA psychology (Version 2.0). Boulder, CO: Author. Available from Doc Scribe's Web site, http://www.docstyles.com

Taylor, B. N. (1995a). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication

811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Taylor, B. N. (1995b). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811). Retrieved June 25, 2003, from http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf

Citations: First, (American Psychological Association [APA]. 2001), next (APA, 2001); (Downey, 1992);

(Dr. Abel Scribe PhD, 2006a); (Dr. Abel Scribe PhD, 2006b); (Taylor, 1995a); (Taylor, 1995b).

The first reference above is to a page on an APA Web site. The title is formatted as if it were the title of a book. The same is true for the second reference to a dissertation. The work is unpublished, so information is added about the department and university, but not in the format that would be used for a published work (i.e., Bloomington: University of Indiana). "Dr. Abel Scribe PhD" is the name of a group, not a person. The first reference is to a computer program so the title is in plain text; the second is to an electronic text so the title is set in italics. The logic behind the difference is bewildering, but it is what the APA Manual calls



for (2001, p. 280).

The reference to Taylor is to a report. The title is set in italics, followed by the report number in parentheses. Many agencies, organizations, and think tanks issue a plethora of reports. The report number is an aid to locating a specific report and should be referenced when available. Both a print version and PDF facsimile are available, but the shortcut used with journal articles, [Electronic version], is not used for other documents.

3.4. APA Text Citations: Variations Citations are the same, whatever the source. A goal in research writing is to adequately cite sources without intruding unduly in the text. For example, when an author's name is noted in the text, it is not necessary to to repeat it in a citation, "The paradox was first noted by Bailey (2002)." Alternatively, "The paradox was first noted a few years ago (Bailey, 2002)." Or perhaps, "Bailey was first to note the paradox (2002)." As always, clarity and consistency guide practice.

Give both last names for joint authors (Able & Baker, 1998). Always use an ampersand, &, in citations, but and when authors are mentioned in text, "Able and Baker (1998) concluded . . ."

Cite works with three to five authors by listing all authors in the first citation (Andrews, Baca, & Cole, 1999); in subsequent citations use "et al." (Andrews et al., 1999), or in running text, "Alt et al. (1999) demonstrated the favorable outcome."

With six or more authors, give the lead author et al. in all citations. There is no comma between the name and abbreviation. The only Latin abbreviation used in text outside parentheses is et al., followed by the date. Other common abbreviations must be written out in their English equivalents: for example (e.g.), that is (i.e.), and so forth (etc.) (APA, 2001, sec. 3.24).

Citations to works by different authors are combined in a single set of parentheses, listed alphabetically, and separated by semicolons (Alt, 1999; Baca, 1998; Cole, 2001).

Cite the full name of a corporate author in the first citation, giving the abbreviation in brackets (American Psychological Association [APA], 2001). Thereafter, give just the abbreviation (APA, 2001). Do this sparingly, only with citations that are used frequently throughout the text, or within the next couple of paragraphs.

Cited pages follow the year after a comma and the abbreviation p. for "page" or pp. for "pages" (Smith, 2000, pp. 123-126). A quotation by an author introduced in the text ends with a page citation. For example, Smith (2000) concluded "direct quotation" (p. 23) or (pp. 23-26). Do not drop digits in inclusive page numbers.

Cite works by two different authors with the same last name by adding initials (J. B. Smith, 1998) and (K. C. Smith, 2000). If a work has no author, the title usually goes in the author position in the reference. Cite the first few words, uppercased (heading caps) in the citation. Use

"in press" as the date for works awaiting publication. When there is no date use "n.d." for the date. Titles are uppercased (heading caps) when noted in the text, and in citations, but are lowercased (sentence caps) in references.

3.5. APA Sources: Reference Lists

Alphabetize references by name. Also:

List several works by the same author chronologically, the oldest first, the most recent last.

When there are several works by the same author published in the same year, add lowercase letters to the date in chronological order, oldest first, as best you can ascertain it (list July before December).


Two general features of APA references and citations are emphasized in this lesson: (a) the passion for parentheses, and (b) the use of conventional punctuation. The lesson has also explored the more common variants of the basic form. Most of these are rare in practice where 90% of references follow one of the basic forms. The following references are formatted in Chicago bibliography style. Reformat them in APA style and add the text citation.

1. Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition. 1958. Reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998.

2. Barry, John M. The Site of Origin of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic and Its Public Health Implications. Journal of Translational Medicine 2, no. 1 (January 20, 2004): 3-7. http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/2/1/3 (accessed November 18, 2005).

3. Erikson, Robert S., Gerald C. Wright Jr., and John McIver. Political Parties, Public Opinion, and State Policy in the United States. American Political Science

Review 83 (1989): 729-50.

4. Feds Close Vail Logging Road. Colorado Daily (Boulder), July 29, 1999, 2.



5. Hemingway, Ernest. The Big Two-Hearted River. In The Nick Adams Stories, edited by Philip Young, 159-80. New York: Bantam Books, 1973.

6. Jonsson, Patrick. A Bill of Rights, Looted Long Ago is Stolen Back. The Christian Science Monitor, April 22, 2003. http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0422/p01s01 (accessed April 27, 2003).

7. Kelly, John D., and Martha Kaplan. Ritual Studies. Annual Review of Research in Anthropology 19 (1990): 119-50.

8. McFadden, Maggie. Weaving the Cloth of International Sisterhood. Unpublished paper presented at the National Women's Studies Association conference,

Minneapolis, June 1988.

9. McNeary, Stephen A. Where Fire Came Down: Social and Economic Life of the Niska. Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr College, 1976.

10. Morrissey, Elizabeth. Work and Poverty in Metro and Nonmetro Areas. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1991. Rural Development Research Report No. 81.

11. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Using American Psychological Association (APA) format, 2003. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/

r_apa.html (accessed February 18, 2003)

12. University of Chicago Press. The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.



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APA 101.4: Page Formats and Headings

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Page Formats & Headings for Final Manuscripts Synopsis: The APA Manual is focused on preparing papers for review and publication, copy manuscripts. However, a chapter in the Manual is devoted to preparing manuscripts to be presented to the reader, final manuscripts. The distinction is important since some aspects of formatting final manuscripts are not covered in the Manual and must be inferred when preparing a paper for class use.

Article. A published paper.

Appendixes. The APA preferred spelling of the plural of appendix. Block spacing. Blocks of text---long quotes, headings, references, titles---single-spaced within and double spaced from surrounding text. Copy manuscript. A research paper formatted for typesetting and publication---the focus of the APA Publication Manual.

Final manuscript. A paper formated to emulate an article as printed in an APA journal. Heading caps. A style of capitalization where the first letter of most words is capitalized. APA style has a rule for this. Paper. An unpublished document or manuscript. Sentence caps. A style of capitalization where just the first word, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns are capitalized.

The APA Style Page Formats for Final Manuscripts

Final manuscripts are meant to be read, not typeset. Unlike copy manuscripts, this allows tables and figures to be inserted appropriately in the text. (In copy manuscripts they are placed on separate pages at the end of the manuscript.) Since there is no need to separate the author's name on the title page from the abstract to facilitate anonymous review, these pages can be combined. There is no need for a "running head" (as shown in the Manual0, since this is used only for publication. The APA Manual encourages block paragraph spacing for long quotes, headings, references, and tables, and the placement of page numbers to improve presentation (2001, chap. 6). APA101 is focused on the research paper, 10-20 pages in length or 2,000-4,000 words. This is comparable in length and complexity to a paper prepared for publication. A thesis or dissertation is often organized into chapters and may require more levels of headings as well as front material (preface, acknowledgements, table or contents, etc.) not featured in this course. (The APA Manual offers little help, the Chicago Manual of Style more.)

4.1. Title and Text Pages for Final Manuscripts







Figure 1. APA style title and text pages for final manuscripts.

Every page must be numbered. This page number is centered at the bottom of the title page, then combined with a short title header (in heading caps!) at the upper right corner of each succeeding page. Pages are numbered consecutively. The short title header is a condensed version of the title, the first few words or significant keywords.

Margins are a minimum one inch around the text. A wider left margin may be appropriate when using an binder. Leave the right margin of your text unjustified (ragged) and turn off the hyphenation feature of your word processor. Hyphenation can introduce ambiguity in a text by altering the possible meaning of a word, something that must be avoided.

Block quotes are covered in detail in lesson 6, the first of the two lessons on text rules. Single space within the block, double space before and after. This is block paragraph spacing.

Footnotes are discouraged in APA style to report content that might better be included in the text. The exception to this is a copyright permission footnote when large amounts of material or a table or figure from another author are being directly quoted in a paper to be published. The original author's permission is required in these cases. Works not for publication, including a thesis or dissertation, generally call for an acknowledgement, but not express permission.

APA Rule. A serif font is required for APA style papers. This is a font with small cross bars on the letters. Common serif fonts are Courier and Times Roman. Use a 12 point font (or a size equivalent to an elite or pica typewriter font). Do not proportionally space or hyphenate words, use a compressed typeface, or justify the right margin.

Heading Caps. APA style, like most styles, uses heading caps for titles and some headings in the text. They have a rule explaining how to do this.



APA Rule. Heading caps capitalize the first word, the first word after a colon; all words of four letters or more; and all adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns in a heading or title. Articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are not capitalized. Capitalize all words of a hyphenated compound word.

Headings help organize a paper in meaningful topics. APA style makes provision for five levels of headings, but in a complex hierarchy that changes depending on the number of headings used. Three levels are consistent in their order of use and these are usually adequate for most papers. These are labeled levels A, B, and C below, corresponding to APA levels 1, 3, and 4. The APA Manual does not suggest using a bold font for headings, although published articles often do, thereby adding clarity to the organization of a paper.

Figure 2. APA headings for research papers.

Seriation is the technique of enumerating a series of topics in the text. This is essentially an extension of the process of using headings to organize a paper. APA style provides for two types of series: (a) topics enumerated in running text with lowercased letters in parentheses, and (b) numbered paragraphs. Numbered paragraphs are used to list the steps in a procedure or itemize the parts of a conclusion. For example, APA101 is organized around three groups of topics:

1. Documentation is the process of citing and referencing sources referred to in the text. This is a minimal requirement for research writing. If you are unable to get this right then . . .

2. Page formatting follows a style that is uniquely characteristic of APA style papers. However, many features, such as the width of margins, are conventional. Block paragraph spacing is encouraged for final manuscripts as noted in . . .

3. Text rules reflect APA preferences for modes of writing and presentation that are not fixed by convention. For example, APA style uses unconventional symbols for some statistics, and has rules for when to spell numbers and when to . . ..

The items enumerated must be conceptionally equivalent, that is, one cannot be a subset of another. Many students find it difficult to find enough to say to fill 10 or 20 pages. However, once you have a topic that is robust enough to merit publication the opposite is more often the case. Seriation is a useful technique for condensing text as well as keeping it organized. Remember, use letters in the text, numbers for paragraphs.

4.2. Tables & References: Block Spacing Block paragraph spacing single spaces within blocks of text, but double spaces between the blocks and the rest of the text. Double space most of the text, except for headings and titles, the title page, block quotes, tables, and references where block spacing is more appropriate. Note, copy manuscripts



must double space everything. This can be hard to read, especially with tables and references.

Figure 3. APA style table and reference list for final manuscripts.

Tables and figures are covered in detail in the next lesson, lesson 5.

Appendixes (APA prefers this spelling) are rare in publication. However, the APA requires authors to make their raw data available to anyone for 5 years after publication (APA, 2001, sec. 8.05, p. 354). If you are working with research data it is appropriate to include it in an appendix. Otherwise, if the material is central to your paper, why is it not included in the text? If it is not important enough to include in the text, why include it at all?




What's to study? Page formatting is straightforward in APA style. Chapter 6 of the APA Manual gives instructions for research papers not destined for publication. The short of it: Make it look good to the reader. There is not much point to testing your ability to format heading caps, or reset the font in your word processor to Times Roman. Therefore, the exercise for this lesson will introduce you to the classic organization of the research paper. Research papers usually follow the IMRAD model. This stands for Introduction, Method, Results and Analysis, and Discussion. The APA Manual prefers to shorten this to IMRD, but the initials are hard to pronounce and remember. There are other kinds of papers, such as reviews, theory papers, or commentaries, but it is surprising how often the IMRAD model appears even in these papers. You begin with what you are going to talk about and why it is important, an introduction. How you are going to investigate the topic reasonably comes next; the method you are to employ. This is followed by what you discovered, the results and what you make of them (analysis). Finally, you discuss what the results mean, how they might be interpreted in the context of the topic presented in the introduction. This is the organization of the classic research paper. Lesson 1 introduced the following article and explored the findings the study reported. Your assignment is to find this paper and identify the IMRAD parts to it. There are no headings in the text, and it has just 12 paragraphs, but the classic construction of the paper is evident. Can you find it? Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The elements of (APA) style:




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APA 101.5: Tables & Figures

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Formatting Tables & Presenting Figures Synopsis: APA style has strict requirements for formatting tables and graphics---imposed by the demands of typesetting for publication. These are not unique to APA style but are widely shared by other popular styles. Simplicity is a virtue, relevance is essential. The question of when to use tables and graphics is subject to discussion in the APA Manual. The focus of this lesson is on their presentation.

Body/Cells/Data Field. The body or data field of a table contains the data cells, the numbers in the table as distinct from title, headings, and notes. Caption. The title and/or description below a figure or graph. Column. The vertical alignment cells in of a table. Column Heading. The heading or description at the top of a column. Dependent Variable. The dependent variables in a table are its rows. Changes to the dependent variable are displayed horizontally across the table. Independent Variable. The variables presented vertically in the columns of a table. Legend. "In APA journals a legend explains the symbols used in a figure [or graph]" (APA, 2001, p.199). Some styles used the term interchangeably with caption.

Probability Note. It is common to identify statistically significant results in a table. These are marked with asterisks in the data cells. A probability note then goes below the table and other notes to display the significance level, e.g., *p < .05, **p < .01. Row. The horizontal alignment of cells in a table. Rule. The horizontal line that spans a table. Stub/Stub head. The left side of the table is called the stub. The stub includes the row headings or descriptions as well as the stub head, the description of the dependent variables in the rows below. Stub (Row Heading). The description of the dependent variables at the left side of the table rows. Table Notes. Table notes are placed below a table. They come in three categories, (a) general notes, (b) specific notes, and (c) probability notes.

Formatting Tables and Presenting Figures in APA Style

Tables and figures were high on the list of problem areas identified in the survey of journals editors by Brewer et al. (2001). This was discussed in lesson 1. The survey did not identify the specific source of the problem, that is, were the problems with presentation or formating? Or were the problems with expression or content? APA101 is focused on the presentation of research papers in APA style. Content issues are dealt with at length in the APA Manual, Chicago Manual, and the AMA Manual. However, the APA Manual presents a list of Standards for Figures that merits repeating, and readily applies to tables as well (2001, sec. 3.67). The standards for good figures [and tables] are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure [or table]:

augments rather than duplicates the text; coveys only essential facts; omits distracting detail; is easy to read---its elements (type, lines, labels, symbols, etc.) are large enough to be read with ease in printed form; is easy to understand---its purpose is readily apparent; is consistent with and is prepared in the same style as similar figures [and tables] in the same article; . . . and; is carefully planned and prepared.

5.1. Formatting APA Tables

Three horizontal lines, or rules, are a feature of APA tables (as well as AMA and CMS tables). Vertical lines or rules are allowed only in exceptional circumstances. The first rule comes below the title, the second below the column headings, and the third at the bottom of the table. There is no specific instruction specifying the size or height of a rule; a slightly bold line may help the table standout. Whatever your preference, be consistent, use the same height for rules in all tables in your paper.

Table # Title of the Table in Heading Caps and Italics Flush With the Left Margin

Stub head Column head

Column head

Incorrect values

a

Correct values

Stub (row heading) Data Data 123 123.0







Stub (row heading)

Data Data 2,123 2,123.0

Stub (row heading)

Data Data .123 * 0.1

Stub (row heading)

Data Data 2232.12 b 2,232.1

Note. General table notes apply to the entire table. These may include clarifications of the values in the table, an attribution to the source or copyright permission, explanations of abbreviations, and so on. These are set in a smaller font. Need not be complete sentences. aSpecific notes follow general notes, beginning on a new line flush left with the table margin. bNotes can continue within the same block of text. *p < .05 [a probability note comes last]

Tables are double-spaced in copy manuscripts. Chapter 6 of the APA Manual (2001), "Material Other Than Journal Articles," notes

that "double-spacing is required throughout most of the manuscript. When single-spacing would improve readability, however, it is usually encouraged. Single-spacing can be used for table titles and headings, figure captions, references (but double-spacing is required between references), footnotes, and long quotations" (p. 326).

Table formats are readily explained by illustration. There are some details to observe as well:

Tables are numbered consecutively through the paper. Partial or fractional numbering is unacceptable (i.e., no 5a or 5.1). Titles should adequately explain the content of a table without referring the reader to the text. Titles are placed in heading caps and italics, positioned flush left with the table margin. Every column and row must have a heading, set in sentence caps. Columns should report comparable values down all rows. That is, the same number of decimal places should be displayed; commas put in the same places;

the same units of measure used. Leave empty cells (the intersection of a row and column) blank. Use a smaller font or typeface for notes, but large enough to be readable. General notes are used to explain abbreviations, symbols, units of measure, sources and permissions. A general note begins with the word Note. in

italics followed by a period. Specific notes are indicated with a superscript lowercase letter and explain a particular item in the table. Probability notes are used to identify statistically significant results. Asterisks are used to mark values in the table and in the probability note. Once a

probability level is assigned in a table that value must be carried to all succeeding tables. For example, *p < .05 is generally the lowest level of significance acceptable in behavioral research, **p < .01 is better. The symbol p is placed in italics.

When to use a table, and what to put in it, can be challenging questions. The APA Manual (2001) advises "tables that communicate quantitative data are effective only when the data are arranged so that their meaning is obvious at a glance" (p. 148). Lesson 1 reported the results of a survey of problem areas in using APA style found by journal editors (Brewer et al., 2001). These results were reported in table 3. However, they were reported in text in the article:

Respondents cited references (M = 3.23, SD = 1.07), tables and figures (M = 3.00, SD = 0.98), and mathematics and statistics (M = 2.81, SD = 0.99) as the categories in which they most frequently observed deviations from APA style. Similarly, deviations from APA style in mathematics and statistics (M = 2.31, SD = 1.32), references (M = 2.27, SD = 1.32), and tables and figures (M = 2.23, SD = 1.27) were identified as having the strongest impact on editorial decisions.

APA style uses the symbol M for the mean, and SD for the standard deviation. Judge for yourself how clear the results are when read in the text as compared to the presentation in the table (link to the table). The decision was made to drop the standard deviations and present the two sets of responses side by side. Differences in the rankings are nearly insignificant, especially with the second set of numbers (Influence, 2.31, 2.27, 2.23). The standard deviations are different. The first set of data identifying problem areas cluster around a standard deviation of 1.0 (0.99 to 1.07) suggesting greater agreement in this area than in the area of influence where the standard deviations were greater (1.32, 1.39, 1.27) indicating a greater scattering of results across a wide range. The point of the table was to emphasize the problem areas, and to suggest the consequences for publication (or a class grade). The standard deviations were a distraction. Does the following table more effectively convey this message?

Table 4 APA Style Problems Identified by Journal Editors

Problem Area Frequency Influence Mean SDa Mean SDa

References (Documentation) 3.23 1.07 2.27 1.39

Tables & Figures (Graphics) 3.00 0.98 2.23 1.27

Mathematics & Statistics 2.81 0.99 2.31 1.32



Note. Values are the mean of reported scores on a 5-point scale (1 = none, 5 = a lot). A frequency score of 3 indicates a fairly common occurrence; an influence score of 2 indicates some influence on the decision to accept or reject a paper. Adapted from "The Elements of (APA) Style: A Survey of Psychology Journal Editors," by B. W. Brewer, C. B. Scherzer, J. L. Van Raalte, A. J. Petitpas, and M. B. Andersen, 2001, American Psychologist, 56, p. 266. aStandard deviation.

The column headings for Frequency and Influence are called cell spanners. The mean and standard deviation are presented with the same number of decimal places. This makes it difficult to focus on the relevance of the two columns. The important statistic is the mean since this indicates the relative seriousness of the problem area. The standard deviation indicates the quality of the agreement: greater for Frequency, less for Influence, a point that might be more effectively made in the text. For example, "The standard deviation was about 1.00 for Frequency (range, 0.98-1.07), and about 1.30 for Influence (range, 1.27-1.39), indicating greater agreement on identifying the problems areas relative to their influence on editorial decisions." Reference? References in table and figure captions follow a special format found in the APA Manual in the section on tables (2001, sec. 3.73)

"Judicious use of noncanonical forms can be effective but must always be motivated by the special circumstances of the data array" (APA, 2001, p. 149).

In other words, depart from the accepted format only in "special circumstances."

5.2. Presenting Figures and Graphs

Figures, pictures and graphs, are not typeset like tables but are photo reproduced. The question of when to use a figure is as important as what figure or graph to use. The APA Manual has a discussion of these issues (2001, secs. 3.75-3.86). These issues aside, the presentation of figures revolves around the caption or legend for the graphic.

Figure 4. Cases of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) confirmed in the Four Corner states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah) from 1993 through 2002 by quarter of onset of symptoms. From "Hantavirus in Indian Country: The First Decade in Review," by R. Pottinger, 2005, American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 29(2), p. 42. Used with permission of the author.

The bar graph illustrates quantitatively the episodic character of this very lethal disease (the mortality rate is about 40%). The outbreaks are contrasted with the low endemic or background rate in a manner that would be difficult to describe in the text since the time scales and severity vary. Labels. The graph meets APA standards for presentation and labeling the axes. The Y-axis, the vertical axis on the left side of the graph, is labeled with the text in heading caps parallel to the axis (readable when the graph is rotated 90 degrees clockwise). These are APA requirements. The X-axis, the horizontal axis, is self explanatory and need no additional labels. Legend. The legend of a graph identifies what each line or segment indicates. In this case there is only one metric, HPS cases, but the legend identifies periods of outbreak of the disease in contrast with periods when few cases are reported. Legends must be presented within the dimensions of the graph, not outside it. Caption. Figures are numbered like tables, starting with 1 and continuing in whole numbers through the text, the word Figure and number in italics. The caption explains enough about the content so the reader need not refer to the text.



Figure 5. Safe descent route, Andrews Glacier, Rocky Mountain National Park. The small dot above the red line is a party starting the 150 m vertical descent. Right (north) of the crest of the glacier the slope drops dangerously into rocks. Doc Scribe photo.

A picture is worth a thousand words. Illustrations, pictures, are expensive to print, especially color pictures. That is not a limitation with the word processors and inkjet printers used for final manuscripts. If it makes sense to use a picture, do so. This picture would be difficult to describe in the text, and would likely require a specialized language to do so (cornice, fall line, glissade, tarn, grade). Legend. A legend explains the symbols added to an image or provides a scale. This picture has been edited to show a safe descent line (red), the crest of the glacier (thin grey line), and the dangerous north side of the glacier marked with the universal no-go sign. All of these markings show up well against their respective backgrounds; important when labeling images. They need no further explanation beyond the caption. (Click on the figure for a larger image.)


Draft a table. Turn the data in the following paragraph into a table. Organize the information to illustrate the point the paragraph is making.

The consequences of economic development, or its lack, are illustrated by data from the chapter on "Comparative International Statistics," in the Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002, (Washington, DC: U. S. Census Bureau, 2002). The United Kingdom (UK) serves as a frame of reference. With a population of 59,508,000 the UK had a per capita income of $23,500 (U.S. dollars), and an average life expectancy of 77.1 years, based on data from 2000-2001. A proportionate share of the of the population, 18.1%, was under 15 years of age. The figures for China (population 1,261,832,000) were $3,920, and 71.6 years, with 25% of the population under 15; and for India (population 1,014.004,000) were $2,340, and 62.9 years, with 33.1% under 15. This is sharp contrast to Ethiopia and Nigeria where, respectively, 44.7% and 43.7% of the population was under 15, the per capita income was $660 and $800, and life expectancy was 44.7 years and 51.1 years. With a population of 126,636,000, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. The population of Ethiopia, the second most populous country in sub-Saharan Africa, has doubled in just a generation to 64,117,000.

Answer to Exercise


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APA 101.6: Text Rules

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APA Text Rules Synopsis: Text rules are instructions for formatting portions of text. These sometimes merge with standard English usage. Abbreviations and emphasis (use of italics and quotes to highlight words), the presentation and editing of quotations, and text presentation (typeface, fonts, and character spacing), all follow instructions in the APA Manual (2001) that merit attention.

Acronym. A word formed from the first (or first few) letters of a word---NASA, Radar---and pronounced as a word. Block quote. Any direct quote of 40 words or more is set as a block of text, the entire block indented from the left margin. In final manuscripts the block is single-spaced within, double-spaced before and after. Initialism. The Chicago Manual of Style term for abbreviations pronounced as initials: APA, FBI (2003, p.558). Contraction. This is the term Chicago prefers for common abbreviations: abbr. (abbreviation), chap. (chapter). Latin abbreviation. Abbreviated Latin words used in research writing: e.g. (exempli gratia, for example), i.e. (id est, that is), etc.

APA Editorial Style: Selected Text Rules

"When editors or typesetters refer to style, they usually do not mean writing style; they mean editorial style---the rules or guidelines a publisher observes to ensure clear, consistent presentation of the printed word. Editorial style concerns uniform use of punctuation and abbreviations, construction of tables, selection of headings, and citation of references, as well as many other elements that are part of every manuscript" (APA, 2001, p. 77). Editorial style, text rules, includes such things as capitalization and hyphenation---subjects where it is difficult to draw a firm line between APA style and conventional usage---as well as documentation and page formatting. The boundary is made more fuzzy by nuanced inconsistencies. The first two sections in this lesson present instructions that are not unique to APA stye. The third restates an APA rule presented in lesson 4. When you get these wrong the mistakes are glaringly obvious to knowledgeable readers, so they merit attention. Text rules for numbers and statistics are the subjects of the next lesson, lesson 7.

6.1. Abbreviations & Emphasis

These two subjects are lumped together because they share the same "first-time" rule. That is, acronyms and emphasis rules are applied at the first usage, thereafter the acronym or word emphasized is continued in plain text (subject to an exception for clarity).

Abbreviations: Acronyms & Contractions Common contractions are not used in the text unless they are placed in parentheses. Units of measure and acronyms are. The term acronym is used broadly to include true acronyms as well as initialisms. Familiar acronyms that are pronounced as words usually find their way into the lexicon, appearing in a dictionary. For example, most people understand that radar is used to sense objects in the air or space. Few may be aware the term stands for radio detection and ranging. These common acronyms, along with terms like AIDS or FBI, need not be defined in the text, but most do. Often we are unaware that terms like radar are acronyms, so the need to define them passes unnoticed, which is fine.

Acronyms are used to unclutter the text. The acronym APA is used throughout APA101. The first time it was used, in the syllabus, it was defined. This is a requirement for all acronyms that have not merged into the language. For example,

"The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a style guide, the Publication Manual American Psychological Association. The APA Manual is a standard reference in psychology and education. The manual is revised from time to time by the APA."

This example (a) defines the acronym the first time it is used; but (b) does not use the acronym in a formal block of text, a title (if it is not in the original, do not use it in the text); (c) an amalgam of the acronym and title is used to transcend this limitation; and finally, (d) the acronym is used in appropriate context. The example might also be written, "The APA (American Psychological Association) publishes. . . ." The key thing is to define the term. Note, APA101 uses the short form APA Manual, the APA Manual prefers the term "Publication Manual," without the "APA." Neither the APA, nor APA101, bother to define these respective usages, leaving it up to reader to figure it out. The important thing is not to confuse or distract the reader.

"To maximize clarity, APA prefers that authors use abbreviations sparingly. . . . Abbreviations introduced on the first mention of a term and used fewer than three time thereafter, . . . may be difficult for the reader to remember" (APA, 2001, p. 103). Contractions, including Latin abbreviations, are not used in plain text. The equivalent phrase in English must be written out. An exception to this is the Latin abbreviation et al. which may be used with citations outside of parentheses. For example, Brewer et al. (2001) found authors commonly had problems with references.







Emphasis: Italics & Quotation Marks It is sometimes useful to draw attention to a word or phrase. This is usually done by placing it in italics. For example, when editors refer to style, they mean the rules and guidelines to ensure clear and consistent presentation. Italics are also used when presenting a foreign word. For example, the mountaineers advanced to the south col, a French term for mountain pass. But foreign words that have entered the English language---are listed in an English dictionary---are placed in italics only if they merit attention in the context. As a general rule, use italics to draw attention to a word or phrase, but only the first time it is used, unless it is used sparsely and might confuse the reader if the italics are not retained in subsequent uses. "Scare quotes" are quotation marks around a term or phrase to alert a reader to a nonstandard or ironic usage, a coined or invented term, or slang. For example, Brewer et al. (2001) referred editors who have rejected papers for failing to meet APA style requirements as "APA style sticklers." A popular talk-show host blasts the "drive-by media," journalists who endlessly spin the news into failures of conservative policy. Scare quotes are rare in practice, and applied only with the first use of the term.

APA Rule. Define acronyms and highlight terms only the first time they are used. Highlight the first use of keywords and terms in italics; ironic or coined terms with scare quotes. If the reader may not recall a definition or the special use of a term later in the text, do it again.

6.2. Quotations

Direct quotations are not too common in research writing, but not rare either. A skillful writer can strengthen the authority of his or her argument by weaving quotations into the flow of their text, adding them to their discourse and arguments. The paramount rule in quoting another's work is to be absolutely faithful to the original, not only word for word, but faithful to the context and meaning the original author intended. These two themes, working a quote into the text and reporting it faithfully, govern the rules for quotations. They are not always compatible. Therefore, rules have evolved for editing quotes to fit the context while remaining true to the source. An attribution to the original source is an added requirement.

In their survey of journal editors Brewer et al. (2001) made the following statement.

"Consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style" (p. 267).

As originally written the quote is difficult to work into another text. It can be edited to do so.

Example 1

Drawing on a survey of journal editors, Doc Scribe cautions authors to "prepare their manuscripts in general compliance [italics added] with APA style" (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267).

The quote is faithful to the original, but also uses italics to draws attention to a specific word choice. The authors could have used terms like full compliance, or strict compliance, but instead chose the term general compliance. This was the only reasonable phrasing given other information reported in the study, notably that most editors gave greater weight to content than style. APA101 is focused on general compliance, on getting the more visible aspects of APA style right. This quote reinforces the wisdom of this strategy. A note must be added to the quote [italics added] in brackets to indicate the original authors did not emphasize this point, but the current author is.

Example 2

After surveying over 200 editors, Brewer et al. (2001) stated, "It behooves authors . . . to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style!" (p. 267).

This example introduces the quote formally, making it appropriate to uppecase the lead character in the quote following a colon. The original began: "Consequently, it behooves . . ." The first word was dropped and "It" was uppercased. A lowercased word can be uppercased, and vice versa, without adding a note, and words beginning or ending a quote in the original can be dropped, also without adding a note. A part of the original---"seeking to publish in psychology"---was dropped and replaced by an ellipsis, three periods with a single space before, between, and after each. An ommission within a quote must be so noted. Finally, an exclamation point was added to the quote. This too can be done without a note of explanation.

Example 3

Class papers are a prelude to publication, "consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology [or education] to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style" (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267).

The first word of the quote was lowercased to fit the syntax. The phrase "[or education]" was added in brackets to suggest that journal editors in that field are likely no less demanding than those in psychology (e.g., the Harvard Educational Review follows APA style too). The brackets indicate text that was not in the original.

The page number always follows the quote. The citations in examples 1 and 3 come at the end of the quote. Example 2 introduces the authors in the

the text, followed by the year in parentheses. A second citation with the page number comes after the quote.

APA Rule. Quotations must fit the sense and syntax of your text and may be edited to do so. A quote must be faithful to the original, but an explanation is not needed to change case and punctuation; brackets are used to note added text or emphasis; an ellipsis is inserted in place of ommissions. Block format long quotes or 40 words or more.



Longer quotations, quotes of 40 words or more, are set as block quotes. Block quotes indent the entire quote 1/2 inch from the left margin (the same distance as a paragraph indent). In final manuscripts single-space within the quote, double-space before and after. Do not add a second indent to the quote even if the original begins a paragraph. But if you are quoting more than one paragraph, begin subsequent paragraphs with a paragraph indent. A block quote is typically in the text following a colon:

In contrast with the preponderance of their peers, a subset of journal editors (approximately one fifth of the sample) ascribe high importance to preparing manuscripts in a manner consistent with APA style. . . . Consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style. (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267)

The two sentences come at the beginning and end of a paragraph. An ellipsis is inserted after the period in first sentence indicating the ommission. The citation follows the quote, after the final period. There is no period after the citation. This indicates the citation applies to the entire block, not just the last sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style (2003) follows the same practice.

6.3. Fonts, Spacing, & Capitalization Chapter 4 introduced the APA preference for serif fonts, and rules block paragraph spacing and heading capitalization. They merit repeating and elaboration.

APA Rule. A serif font is required for APA style papers. This is a font with small cross bars on the letters. Common serif fonts are Courier and Times Roman. Use a 12 point font (or a size equivalent to an elite or pica typewriter font). Do not proportionally space or hyphenate words, use a compressed typeface, or justify the right margin.

Do not proportionally space or hyphenate words, use a compressed typeface, or justify the right margin. Word processors can be set to produce a straight right margin. This may be attractive, but to achieve the effect words and spaces are usually strung out on a line of text. Even worse, words may be hyphenated at the end of lines. This can introduce ambiguity into the meaning of words. Research styles are focused on clarity of communication. Anything that impedes that objective is ruled out. Therefore, research styles require a ragged right margin in manuscripts. APA style goes further, asking that you space just once after all punctuation (with the exception of commas after initials or abbreviations, where no space is appropriate). This applies to the spacing after colons as well as at the end of a sentence. This rule rests of a tenuous foundation, since it is hard to see how it improves clarity. If you elect to violate it, for example, at the end of sentences where two spaces are often preferred, be consistent!

APA Rule. Heading caps capitalize the first word, the first word after a colon; all words of four letters or more; and all adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns in a heading or title. Articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are not capitalized. Capitalize all words of a hyphenated compound word.

Capitalization should otherwise be straightforward, following common usage in the text. But the APA Manual offers several nuances and exceptions. These are the sort of details you might not think to check. They illustrate why the APA Manual is an essential reference when writing important papers.

Capitalize the first word after a colon if the clause following can stand alone as a complete sentence (APA, 2001, sec. 3.04). For example, Jack noted two obstacles on the climb: a gendarme on the ridge, and a cornice above the head wall. Jack rested after the climb: He was exhausted.

Capitalize tables and figures in your text, for example, Table 3, Figure 4, and words that designate a specific place in a series, Trial 3, Table 4, Figure 3. But, do not capitalize nouns that denote common parts of books or tables followed by numerals or letters, for example, lesson 4, chapter 6, page vi, row 7, column 8 (APA, 2001, sec. 3.15).

Do not capitalize nouns that precede a variable, for example, trial x and item y. But when these become specific, they are capitalized, for example, Trial 5, Item d (APA, 2001, sec. 3.15).

6.4. Avoiding Bias Tripwire Issue! The following is from the APA Manual (2001): "As an organization, APA is committed both to science and to the fair treatment of individuals and groups, and this policy requires authors of APA publications to avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes and biased assumptions about people in their writing" (p. 61). Assigned Reading. The APA "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language" are reasonable and well articulated, although, perhaps, verging of politically correct. The section is just nine pages:




Apply the Rules. The following sentences or phrases may contain errors. Apply the rules presented in this lesson to correct them.

Q1. Her French friend wished her bonne année, a happy new year.

Q2. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) prefers a pharmacological approach to treating mental illness: the APA (American Psychological Association) would like psychologists to to have the same authority. Q3. The study focused on homosexuals and lesbians while ignoring other schizophrenics.

Q4. The alcoholics went through detoxification cold turkey.

Q5. The title of the little book is "Life among the South Seas savages."

Q6. According to Brewer et al. (2001, p. 267) "[A] subset of journal editors . . . ascribed a high importance to . . . (following) . . . APA style."

Q7. Brewer et al. (2001) presented their statistics in the text, but APA101 presented them in table 3, lesson 1, and table 4 in lesson 5.

Q8. The authors of the study argued that it behooves writers to follow APA style so as not to be rejected by APA Style Sticklers.

Q9. The study (Brewer et al., 2001) observed that writers had a variety of problems in a number of categories, i.e., formatting the title page and abstract, presenting statistics, documentation (p. 266). Q10. When editors' speak of "style," they generally refer to the clear expression of ideas (APA, 2001).

Answers to the Exercise


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APA 101.7: Presenting Number & Statistics in APA Style

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Presenting Numbers & Statistics in APA Style Synopsis: The presentation of numbers in APA style is fraught with challenges. You need to approach explanations in the APA Manual with a crisp understanding of the character of numbers, and the ability to recognize the nonstandard use of common statistical symbols. Lacking this early awareness it is easy to get confused and not quite know why. APA journals use the metric system for physical measurements.

Cardinal number. Simple counting (whole) numbers that give no information about the order of the count or relationship among the numbers. Common fraction. Simple fractions expressed as words---one quarter, two fifths, etc. Descriptive statistics. Measures of populations that provide a concise description of various characteristics. The mean (arithmetic average), standard deviation, median, and mode are examples of descriptive statistics.

Inferential statistics. Methods that tell how much we can generalize about a population based on an analysis of a sample of that population. Ordinal number. A number indicating order or succession---first, second, third, etc. SI. The International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI (from the French Le Système International d’Unités), is the modern metric system of measurement.

Presenting Numbers & Statistics in APA Style

Three topics merit attention in the presentation of numbers and statistics in APA style: (a) when to use words for numbers, (b) physical measurements in the metric system, and (c) statistics. It is useful when considering these topics to think of the difference between a rule and a practice. It is helpful when practices follow general rules or accepted conventions. When they don't they become exceptions that challenge the validity of the rule. The APA presentation of numbers and statistics occasionally does this. Measurements in APA style requires are governed by the International System of Units (SI). The SI is rigorously consistent, but sometimes measurements appear to defy common convention. The lesson in all this is to check the APA Manual when you have doubts, and to proof read the final draft of a paper specifically for the accepted APA usage of numbers, measurements, and statistics.

7.1. Presenting Numbers as Words in APA Style

"The general rule governing APA style on the use of numbers is to use figures to express numbers 10 and above and words to express numbers below 10" (APA, 2001, p. 122). This general rule applies to cardinal numbers (whole counting numbers) and their ordinal counterparts (first through ninth). Figures---numerals---are used with all other numbers. This rule is simple enough, and quite straightforward until you confront actual practice. The following all conform to APA practice: row one of three rows, row 2 of 5 rows, fourth edition, 5th percentile, chapter 6, Table 6, page 7, Figure 7, eighth grade, Grade 8, ninth trial, Trial 9.

The APA Manual (2001) notes an array of exceptions. For example, numbers that "denote a specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and tables, and each number in a list of four or more numbers" are written as numerals (sec. 3.42f, p. 125). But this exception does not explain why chapter 6 is lowercase and Table 7 is uppercase. For this you go to section 3.15 (not Section 3.15) on capitalization of Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters where you find an exception noted for chapters and sections, but not for Figures and Tables (and presumably Trials).

The point is that there are many exceptions, and when you must get it right check the APA Manual. Otherwise, do what seems reasonable and be consistent.

APA Rule. Write numbers under 10, common fractions, centuries (e.g., twentieth century), and numbers beginning a sentence as words. Use numerals to express all precise measures, a specific place in a series, numbers grouped with numbers over 10, percentages, percentiles, times, dates, ages, points on a scale, and sums of money.







Exceptions & Qualifications

Never begin a sentence with a numeral, even if it is over 10. Write the number as a word. If possible rewrite the sentence so it does not begin with a number. Use numerals when numbers under 10 are being compared with numbers over 10. For example, "The health department tested 27 mice, finding 6 infected

with Sin Nombre Virus." When two sets of comparable numbers are combined in the same sentence, write one set as words. For example, "Among the 27 mice trapped, sixteen

were deer mice, but five of the 6 infected animals were deer mice. Combine numerals and words to express large imprecise numbers. For example, "The expected cost of the new F-22A fighter plane is $345 million, each." Form the plurals of numbers by adding s or es, without an apostrophe, to words or figures. "The gambler rolled several sixes in a row." "The 1960s taught

a generation about war first hand." Put a zero before decimal fractions less than one. Write 0.23 not .23, unless the number can never be greater than one, such as a probability or correlation,

p < .01. Check the APA Manual when in doubt. If you are still confused (you are not alone!), be consistent in whatever you decide.

7.2. Presenting Measurements

The APA requires the use of the metric system in its journals. The presentation of measurements is governed by the International System of Units, or SI for short (from the French Le Système International d'Unités). The lead authority on the SI in the United States is the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), although some groups also issue their own interpretation of the system. The NIST publishes a free guide to using the SI (see below). Especially useful is the checklist for authors. Sophisticated measurements are not too common in general psychology, while the SI is a highly sophisticated system for measuring all conceivable quantities. So it is appropriate to refer to a manual when the need arises. There are, however, a few things you should know.

SI numbers have three parts: the numerical value, the prefix (multiplier), and the unit symbol (abbreviation). Each of these parts is strictly defined. The number 25.3 kg is an SI number. Numbers are always formatted in plain text (no italics), there is always a space after the numerical value (never a hyphen or other character), there is never a period after the units (except at the end of a sentence).

Numerical values are presented without commas in SI notation. For example, the distance between Chicago and Denver is 1600 km (not 1,600 km). The km stands for kilo-meters. The prefix kilo indicates the units are multiplied by 1000. There are about 1.6 km to a mile. If it is important for clarity in your text you can note the conventional U.S. measure in parentheses after the SI number: 1600 km (1000 miles).

There is always a space after the numerical value, and only a space. This can look awkward. For example, the temperature at the beach was 25 °C, or about 77 °F today. There is a space after the numerical value before the degree symbol and temperature abbreviation. Conventional notation, 77° F, is not an acceptable SI number.

The APA Manual (2001) shows a number used as a compound adjective with a hyphen after the numerical value, "a 5-mg dose" (sec. 3.42c). This is wrong! SI numbers are not subject grammatical conventions other than those of the SI. Only a space may follow a numerical value, no exceptions!

Common prefixes are k (kilo-, multiply by one thousand), M (mega-, multiply by one million), and m (milli-, multiply by one-one thousandth [0.001]). For example, KVOD broadcasts at 90.1 MHz on the FM dial. This number is read ninety point one megahertz. A hertz is a measure of frequency, after a man by that name, so the abbreviation is capitalized Hz. A complete listing of prefixes is found in the APA Manual (2001, Table 3.5), and the NIST Guide (1995, Table 5).

Units of measure are always abbreviated when presented with numerical values, but written out when noted in the text without a numerical value. For example, a liter is about a quart; "It took 22 L to top off the gas tank."

Units of measure never take periods or other punctuation except at the end of a sentence. Numerical values less than one are preceeded by a zero. For example, one yard is 0.91 m, or about three inches short of a meter. An exception is made

for statistical values that by definition cannot be greater than one, for example the probability, p < .05. APA style requires all measures to be presented as SI metric numbers, except when the instrument used is calibrated in U. S. conventional units. Then the conventional unit is presented followed by the SI measure in parentheses. For example, the thermometer at the beach read 77 °F (25 °C); the maze was laid out with a tape measure on a 3 ft by 3 ft (0.91 m x 0.91 m) grid pattern.

APA Rule. Present all physical measures in the metric system using the format and symbols of the International System of Units. Space once after all numerical values (except for percents). Use only the unit symbol or abbreviation, without a period, with numerical values; write out the unit of measure when used without figures.



Review the section on metrication in the APA Manual, or refer to the NIST Guide if your paper includes many physical measurements or unconventional measures. Conventional units are widely used in medicine. The American Medical Association Manual of Style (1997) has an extensive table of conventional medical units and their SI conversion factors and units (chap. 15).

Taylor, B. N. (1995). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (Special Publication 811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Link to NIST: (http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf). Free, PDF.

Free Style Guide for Numbers. The NIST is the official representative of the United States before the Convention du Metre which in turn is the body that defines the International System of Units (SI) for the world scientific community. A free 80 page style guide is available from their website. This link (click on the title above) is directly to the document which is in Adobe PDF format. To download rather than display the document click the right mouse button on the link and select "Save Target As" (400 KB).

7.3. Presenting Statistics APA style uses nonstandard symbols for some common statistics, most notably the mean and standard deviation. In their place are characters from the alphabet that more readily typeset. This can present a diconnect to authors expecting to find conventional symbols in the APA Manual, or who simply assume conventional symbols are acceptable. The style also places some statistics in parentheses. The only rule for this is found in the section on punctuation, and that does not fully encompass APA practice. Once past these hurdles, the presentation of statistics in APA style is straightforward. This stylized but unconventional usage may help explain why this was a problem area identified by journal editors (Brewer et al., 2001). Nonstandard Symbols The mean is represented by a capital M in APA style, in italics. The standard symbol for an arithmetic mean is (x-bar), or the lowercase Greek letter µ (mu). However, the uppercase symbol for mu is M, so there is some correspondence. APA style represents the standard deviation with the letters SD in italics (almost all statistics are placed in italics). The accepted symbol is the lowercase Greek letter (sigma). Following this formula, the sum of squares becomes SS in APA style; the standard symbol is X 2, the uppercase Greek letter sigma followed by an uppercase X squared. All but the simplest pocket calculators usually have these basic statistics built in, with the symbols , , and on the appropriate keys. Most other symbols are conventional, but it is prudent to check the table in the APA Manual(2001, Table 3.5) when presenting any statistic. Italics & Spacing Most statistical symbols are placed in italics each time they are presented, whether in the text or in tables. There are a few exceptions, but they are sufficiently rare that the author using them would be familiar with their accepted form of presentation (also see the APA Manual, 2001, p. 140). Put a space between each part of a reported statistic or equation (with an exception noted below). That is, instead of writing (M=3.23, SD=1.07) write (M = 3.23, SD = 1.07). The APA Manual (2001) observes that "a+b=c is as difficult to read as wordswithoutspacing [sic]" (p. 145). Write a + b = c, with a space after each variable and arithmetic symbol. Statistics in Parentheses In the APA Manual (2001) section on punctuation, writers are advised to use parentheses "to enclose statistical values" and "to enclose degrees of freedom" (sec. 3.07). This instruction is applied in the article by Brewer et al. (2001):

Respondents cited references (M = 3.23, SD = 1.07), tables and figures (M = 3.00, SD = 0.98), and mathematics and statistics (M = 2.81, SD = 0.99) as the categories in which they most frequently observed deviations from APA style. Similarly, deviations from APA style in mathematics and statistics (M = 2.31, SD = 1.32), references (M = 2.27, SD = 1.32), and tables and figures (M = 2.23, SD = 1.27) were identified as having the strongest impact on editorial decisions. (p. 266)

Descriptive statistics like the mean and standard deviation are routinely placed in parentheses. A descriptive statistic offers a terse and concise measure of a population, a measure that would be more meaningful than a repetition of the raw data. Other simple statistics are also placed in parentheses depending on the context. For example, "The findings of the study were highly significant (p < .001, two-tailed test)." A probability is not a descriptive statistic, but is simple in that it is a brief statement, and appropriately noted in parentheses. Inferential statistics are statistics that infer or reason from a sample to the characteristics of a population. It answers the question, "What do we reliably know about the population being sampled, what can we infer or deduce from studying a sample?" APA style wants the degrees of freedom reported (and sample size when relevant). The APA Manual (2001) instructs authors to "include sufficient information to allow the reader to fully understand the analyses conducted and possible alternative explanations for the results of these analyses" (pp. 138-139). It offers this example:

x2(4, N = 90) = 10.51, p = .03





This is read: "The chi-square statistic of the sample of 90---with 4 degrees of freedom---is 10.51. This is statistically significant at p = .03" (events like these are observed to occur by chance in only 3 of 100 trials of samples of 90). The APA Manual also observes, "What constitutes sufficient information depends on the analytic approach [statistic] selected" (p. 138). It offers this example:

The high-hypnotizability group (M = 21.41, SD = 10.35) reported statistically greater occurrences of extreme, focused attention than did the low group (M = 16.24, SD = 11.09), t(75) = 2.11, p = .02 (one-tailed), d = .48.

This example first reports the mean and standard deviations of two samples, (M = 21.41, SD = 10.35) for the high group and [M = 16.24, SD = 11.09] for the low group. It then answers the question "Did these differences occur by chance?" by using the t statistic, t(75) = 2.11, p = .02 (one-tailed), d = .48. This is not the best example. When using the t test for significance between sample means the degrees of freedom are always N - 2, in this case 75 (where N is the sum of both samples) . So the sample size is 77. The statistic could have been reported t(75, N = 77) = 2.11, but doing so would be redundant to any knowledgeable reader, and presumably to the author using this test. The probability statistic, p = .02, is followed by a note in parentheses: (one-tailed). A frequency distribution like the t distribution or a normal curve has a low end and high end, its two "tails." Most tests are presumed to be two-tailed tests unless otherwise specified.

APA Rule. Place statistics in italics using symbols specified in the APA Manual (or standard symbols if there is no APA preference). Place descriptive statistics in parentheses; inferential statistics are followed by degrees of freedom (or other meaningful characteristics) in parentheses. Space before and after variables and operators.


Apply the Rules. The following text contains numerous errors. Find and correct them.

Popular at a Cost: Psychology Students Rate Their Department

Annabelle Scribe Ivy and Oak University

Psychology graduate students at Ivy and Oak University were unhappy. They were paying huge tuition fees, $25 thousand a year, and

going deeply in debt to attend this prestigious private school, but were unable to find good jobs in their field. The students felt that faculty-course evaluations were biased toward popularity at the expense of competence. Popular professors were promoted: highly competent but less popular instructors were denied tenure. The faculty was becoming increasingly mediocre as a consequence, devaluing their degrees in the job market. They designed a survey to test this hypothesis.

The survey included questions to measure the competence of the instructor, the demands of the course, and popularity. Also included was

an assessment of physical appearance. The grad students hypothesized that instructors that were physically attractive would be more popular. These instructors could spend some of that popularity by teaching more demanding courses. One metric of physical appearance is the Body Mass Index. This index is computed by dividing the weight in kgs. by the square of the person's height in mtrs. A BMI over 25 is considered overweight: a BMI over 30 qualifies as obese. Stature was measured on a three-point scale: short (men under five feet four inches, women under five feet), medium, and tall (men six feet and above, women five feet ten and above). All other measures were on a five-point scale. It was also noted whether faculty were tenured, or not.

The survey was sent to all third- and fourth-year students majoring in psychology at IOU. There were 237 surveys returned, with just

nine discarded as unusable. Instructors with high popularity scores, mean 4.5154, median 4, sigma=.913, rated only average on competence, mean=2.81, median=2, sigma=1.473. But as expected, instructors rating high in attractiveness (BMI<25) were both somewhat popular, mean=3.8, median=4, sigma=1.33, and very competent, mean=4.1, median=4, sigma=1.2. Just 5 faculty, 11%, fell into this group. Still, the results were highly significant p<0.01, t = 2.918, 229 df. Tenured male professors (N=16) had an average BMI of 32, with an average height of five feet nine inches (175 cms), and average body weight of 216 lbs. (98 kgs). There were just 3 tenured female instructors so results were inconclusive. Nontenured faculty had a BMI=24.3.

A extensive and elaborate statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS, but the students could make no sense of the data.

The statistics requirement for a degree in psychology at IOU had been dropped in 1998.






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APA101.8: Review

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Review Lesson: APA Style for Research Papers How do you know what you know? You apply what you have learned. This lesson asks you to go through an article published in the American Psychologist and identify all the applications of APA style as featured in APA101. What makes a style complex and hard to use is not knowing that there is an underlying order and consistency to it. Can you find the rules applied (and misapplied) in this paper? What have you learned in APA101?

The Elements of (APA) Style

The article by Brewer et al. (2001), "The Elements of (APA) Style: A Survey of Psychology Journal Editors," is required reading for APA101. You may have noticed that the article displays a wide range of APA style features. The exercise in lesson 4 asked you to assign IMRAD headings to the article, and data from the article is used to illustrate the format of tables in lesson 5. Now the assignment is to go through this article and identify all the APA style rules that are being applied, or perhaps, misapplied. Start with the title. It is set in heading caps, but in a sans serif font. The former is consistent with APA rules, but the font is not. It should be a serif font. The authors names are in plain text, but their affiliation is in italics. Lesson 4 showed a title page, with the title in heading caps, in plain text along with the author's name, but with the abstract and author affiliation in italics. Did you notice? (Did you also happen to notice in passing that an abstract is not indented as a paragraph? This, too, is APA style.) The first sentence is: "For over seven decades, the American Psychological Association (APA) has offered guidelines for scholarly writing in psychology (VandenBos, 1995)." There are three style features that stand out in this one sentence: (a) the number seven is written as a word in accordance to the under 10 rule (lesson 7), (b) the acronym APA is defined at its first use (lesson 6), and the sentence ends with a standard citation (lessons 1 & 2). How many style features and rules can you find? Do not count repetitions. What rule or rules do each feature illustrate? Count the references as well. What is the source (e.g., book, journal article, etc.). What unique features are illustrated? The answers are given by paragraph and line number; it is helpful to number paragraphs. Can you find all 30?


Postscript: APA Preferences and Nuances

APA101 has focused on the general rules underlying APA style. But when it comes to presenting simple numbers in a text the rule becomes a bit vaporous. There are exceptions that simply must be memorized. For example, writing chapter 5, Table 6, seventh grade, and Grade 8. There are other nuances that merit attention, not so much as things to be memorized, but to alert you to double check with the APA Manual when you must get it right. These example illustrate the usefulness of getting to know the Manual by simply paging through and exploring the various topics. Pet Spelling (APA, 2001, p. 89) The APA Manual insists that data is plural, although common usage (and the dictionary) allow the word to be used in both a singular and plural sense. There are a few others.

appendix (appendixes not appendices) datum (data is plural only!) matrix (matrices not matrixes) phenomenon (phenomena is plural) schema (schemas is plural)

Pet Usage (APA, 2001, pp. 54-56) That versus which. "APA prefers to reserve which for nonrestrictive clauses and use that in restrictive clauses" (APA, 2001, p. 55). That is more specific than which. Generally, use that instead of which unless which seems to fit particularly well (or study the APA Manual on the subject). "Consistent use of that for restrictive clauses and which for nonrestrictive clauses, which are set off with commas, will help make your writing clear and precise" (APA, 2001, p. 55). While versus since. Use these words only in their precise temporal sense. For example, "While Tom is a good fellow, he’s not all that bright" makes sense in everyday conversation. While in this context means "even though." But in the temporal sense, the example would read, "During the time (While) Tom is a good fellow, he’s not all that bright." This makes no sense. Write instead, "Whereas (or Although) Tom is a good fellow, he’s not all that bright."







APA101.8: Review

Although conveys no sense of time and so is preferred to while when introducing an exception. Since in the temporal sense is to be read "since 11:00 AM all air traffic was shut down." That is, the term introduces events after a specific point in time. APA style wants you to read since as meaning "after that" not "because." Because introduces a casual connection. Because since is to be used only in its temporal sense, because is preferred when indicating cause and effect.

Inclusive Page Numbers (APA, 2001, pp. ?-???) The APA Manual does not remind you that digits are never dropped from inclusive page numbers, or any range of numbers, in APA publications. However, the practice is quite common. The Chicago Manual of Style (2003) has an elaborate system for doing this, dropping digits from large numbers: 1087-89, 11564-615 (p. 396). Unless you are aware that APA style does not permit this practice you may do it without realizing the mistake. This gives critical readers something to find fault with. It is one of the subtle nuances of the style, like placing the volume number in references to a journal articles in italics. It is easy to overlook---but glares ineptitude to those who know the style---if you do. The only way you would know this is by studying APA journals, so it is a great "gotcha."


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