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"Vital Contact": Eugene O'Neill and the Working Class

Author(s): Patrick J. ChuraReviewed work(s):Source: Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 49, No. 4 (Winter, 2003), pp. 520-546Published by: Hofstra UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176038 .Accessed: 22/09/2012 15:00

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"Vital Contact":EugeneO'Neilland theWorking lassPatrickj. hura

O'Neill nteredpon he cene s onedarklyandsomeailorwith urningyesndburningmbition,ith ndiscoveredal-ent ndunproducedlays. -Leona Rust gan153)A amoushotographfEugeneO'Neill shows heplaywrighttthethresholdf hiscareer,azing almlyeawardrom he horenProvincetown..e iswearinghenavy-blueailor's niformerseythathe hadbeen givenuponhispromotion rom rdinaryeamanto able-bodied eamanon boardtheAmerican Line cruise shipPhiladelphian 1911. O'Neill's at-

titudescontemplativend ranquil,hisposture eposed nddignified,but his clothing uggests hysi-cal labor.He is inwardly poet-playwrightndoutwardlysailor.Well-groomed,elaxed,ndpensivebetweenea and and, e advertisesaffiliation ith theworking lasswhileengagedna type f eisurethat xcludes imfromt.As an icon of theplaywright'sYaleCollectionfAmericaniterature,Beinecke areBook andManuscriptLibrary,Yaleniversity

Twentieth-Centuryiterature9.4 Winter 003 520

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Eugene'Neillnd heWorkinglasslifendwork, 'Neill'sailor'serseyas een ariouslynterpreted,utitwas ertainlyorehanust souvenirfhis ast oyages a seaman.Innearlyverynterviewegave uringhe irstecade fhis areer,O'Neillwas arefulomentionis pprenticeshipsa commonailor,oftendding therworking-classredentials,ncludingstint oing"manual ork or he wiftackingeople"qtd.nMindil),but arelyfailingo drawttentiono what heerseyertified-thate"becamean able eamanntheAmericanine hips"nd pentlmostllof woyearst ea.More han 0yearsfterehad eft is eafaringife,is hirdwife arlottaad hemoth-eatenweater endedndpresentedt tohim;he ifteft impeechlessith leasureSheaffer97).Allhis ife,O'Neillkeptheersey.Arecentiographernterpretshe ignificancef heerseyn ome-what onventionalerms,peculatinghattexpressedthe irstutwardindication.. thatugenemightver ave he eastuccessntheworldorbeself-supporting"Black 15).On anotherevel, owever,he ni-formweaterith oldwhiteetterspellingutAmericanine espokenot onventionalityut ts enial,ymbolizingdeterminedf onflictedrejectionfmiddle-classanons.

In1916, 'Neill eemsohavettemptedousehis ailor'sniformtofacilitateis irstntrynto he heater.t he ge f 8, ive earsfterhis eavoyages,edonned is ldAmericanineerseyor is rrivalnProvincetownndhis uditionith he rovincetownlayers,ostuminghimselfsa seasonedeamannd arryingsailor'snapsackull fplays."Dressedlacklyike sailor hohadust umped hip,"'Neill hadcome otownrampishly"Kemp5), pparentlyrawingna somewhatremoteeagoingxperienceo end redibilityo his urrentramaticefforts.Theecisionopresentimselfsa workerothe rovincetown-erswas hrewd;he layershemselvesore lannelhirtso dentifyiththeworkinglass.Partlyecauseome fthe riginallayersaw hrough'Neill'sstaged orking-classdentity2ndpartlyecause heplayhe initiallyofferedo the rovincetownersas avery lightiece"Ranald06),3O'Neill's irstryoutidnotgowell. t the econdmeetingetweenO'Neill nd he layers,owever,somethingecidedlylicked"Kemp96).When Bound ast or ardiff"one-actlay bout hedeathfa commoneamanna ship'sorecastle,asread or heProvincetowngroup, pprovalwas unanimous.t was "thebreakthroughheyhadhoped

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Patrick .Churafor" Egan 11). SusanGlaspell'sProvincetownmemoirrecalls hat fterthisO'Neill reading,Then we knewwhat we were for" 254).AsHarryKemp explained, This time no one doubted that herewas a genuineplaywright"96). Ifthefledglingheatrical ompanyhad found tsdra-matist, he dramatist ad also discovered,pparently hrough rialanderror, social theme and artistic ormula hatwould sustainhis rise toprominence.Though"Bound East"may egitimatelye called an innovative lay,itsattempt o provide hemiddle classwith ntimate ccess toworking-classrealitywas not an unusual socialphenomenonor artistic heme nthe 1910s.Numerousnonfictional ownclassing xperimentsuggesthigh evel of historical oncernwithbothexperimentally otivated ndreform-drivenffiliation ith the lower classesby genteel nterlopersbeginning round the 1880s and peaking-along with thefurthermostinroadsof socialism ntoAmericanpolitics-in the decade and a halfprecedingWorldWar .4 MarkPittenger'study fnonfiction arrativesproducedbymiddle-classwriterswho "passed" spoorworkersnorderto investigatehe underclass r experience poverty dentifies 9 suchtextsntheProgressiveraalone (55).By the1910s, newphrase-"vitalcontact"5-had become currentmongrebelliousHarvardundergradu-ates and New Yorkpolitical iberals, iving name to thefrequent x-perimentalnteraction etweengenteelradicals nd workers. hristineStansell's ecentwork,American oderns,bserves hat vitalcontact,"term ngeneraluse in thepre-WorldWarI decade,"distilledn ethos ofcross-classxchange" 64).The theorywas that privileged outh .. wereenervated yovereducation nd overrefinementnd that hey ould re-vivifyhemselveshrough ontactwithsupposedly impler, ardier, orespirited eople" (61).For male seekers f "vitalcontact," lass descent deallyresultedna restoredmasculine dentity hrough he exchange of the softeningconditions fprivilegedifefor heruggedhardshipsf a labor environ-ment.6 ntertwiningmasculine elf-renewal ith themesofpastoral s-cape,downclassingmirroredspects fTheodore Roosevelt's deal ofthe"strenuousife" s a methodofphysically ebuilding verly omesticatedmale selfhoodn the ateVictorian ge.WilliamJamesmade explicit helink betweenRoosevelt's masculine deal and the downclassing f theProgressivera n TheVarietiesfReligious xperience1902). Searching ora vibrant,reativemiddlegroundbetweenwhathe termedmilitary"nd

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EugeneO'Neill and theWorkinglass"saintly"sceticism,ames oncludedthat ocioeconomic self-denial asthe ogicalanswer:May notvoluntarilycceptedpoverty e thestrenu-ous life,'without heneed ofcrushingweakerpeoples?" 367).Alludingdirectlyo Roosevelt'sbehavioral tandardndterminology,Jamesrguedthat povertyndeed isthe strenuousife"while implicitlydmonishingsnobbery,autioning gainstmaterialmeasures fsocialworth, nd con-demningthe obscene acquisitionof wealth thatcharacterizedurn-of-the-centuryinance apitalism.Not surprisingly,emale vitalcontact" ifferedrom he malemodel,producing or tsdevotees differentindofsociological uthority.WhenJaneAddamsfoundedHull House in 1889 in one of Chicago's mostimpoverishedwards,her exampleinspired ducatedupper-classyoungwomenin Chicago and several thernorthern ities o relinquishmate-rial comforts o live and work among thepoor.The femaleparadigmof theproletarianourney in theProgressivera involved meliorativesocialwork,not simply assing hrough nd embodying he owerclassbut reforming t-actively inculcatingbourgeoismoral,spiritual,ndaesthetic tandardsmong working-classubjects. hroughtheirdesireto nurturend make overthe ower classes n their wn image, he "oldmaids at Hull House" embodieda surrogatematernal unction hat t-tenuated heirdeclarations f sexual independence nd bespoke onlyapartial iberation rom he conventions fgender.In addition to thesemodels of class interaction,he Paterson silkworkers' trike f 1913 produced n influentialheatrical isplay fcross-class nteractionuring he formativeeriodof O'Neill's dramatic areer.The Paterson trike rought ohemian ntellectualsnd theworking lasstogether efore20,000 spectators n thestageofMadison SquareGar-den to create hespectacular aterson trikePageant, n unprecedenteddisplay fpossibilitiesorcross-classnity hat s now understood yarthistorians s "an importantncident n the history f radical self-con-sciousness nd in thehistory fpublic art" Nochlin 64). The PatersonPageant-which reenacted ventsfrom hePaterson trike s a way ofpublicizing he violentreality f the classwar and raisingmoneyfor hestrikefund-forged an innovative oalition between strikingworkersand leisure-classntellectuals,xemplified fascinatingdeal of societalrevitalization,ndproduced n expressive,evolutionaryramatic ext hatis still ctively eing nterpreted.7s theprincipal orcebehindthepag-eant,Harvardgraduate nd Greenwich illageradical ohnReed exerted

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Patrick.Churaenormousnfluencenpublic erceptionsfthe trikenparticularndthe lasswar ngeneral.8Anumberf he ounding embersf heProvincetownlayersadbeen nvolvednorpresenttthePatersonageant,nsuringhatwhatawaitedO'Neill atProvincetownn 1916 was a highlylass-consciousgroup fpoliticallyngagedrtists howere articularlyeceptiveo thenotion fdramatizingorking-classxperience.9eedhimself asprob-ably hemost ynamic emberf hePlayersn1916;he wasthegroup'scoleadernd uthor fthePlayers'onstitution.eed'splay reedomasperformednProvincetownnthe ame ummersO'Neill's authorialdebut n"Bound East forCardiff,"hichReed acted n. In terms fpersonality,O'Neill shared ithReed that rive orub lbowswith hetoughower-classlementsf ociety"Rosenstone 50), drive hat sas visible ninfluencenReed'sPatersonxperiences t s nO'Neill'searlyife ndearly lays.YearsaterO'Neill acknowledgedhat t wasReed's nfluencehat irstroughtim oProvincetown.'oWhileReedwas particularlynstrumentalndevelopinghePlayers"(Rosenstone 48),he did o incoalition ithGeorgeCram Jig" ook,thePlayers'rtisticirector,ho hadorganizedhegroup'sirsteasonnthe ummerf1915.Two earseforeoundinghePlayers,ookhad atenthralledt thePatersonageant, hichhe saidhadgiven im nsightinto what hetheatermight e" (Glaspell 50).Reed andCook were"thefirsto believe"ntheProvincetownlayers'deaof nexperimentaltheaterhatwouldprovidevitaldrama" yportrayingthepassion ftheprimitiveroup." hat uchanguage uriouslyesemblesye-witnessdescriptionsfthePatersonageantsperhaps ot coincidental.ookhadreferredo thepageants "thefirstabor lay" ndprofuselyraisedthe feelingf oneness"with he trikershatReed hadconveyedqtd.inGlaspell 50).Thus he rtistictances fboth fO'Neill'smajor ol-laboratorst Provincetownere nsomewayderivativefPaterson. sat east ne historianfAmericanheater asnoted,"The atersontrikePageant reparedhewayfor heProvincetownlays"Egan106)."The pageant'srtisticuccesswasundeniable,ut theassumptionsuponwhichReed's Patersonnterventionadbeenpredicated ereinfinitelyore omplicated.nfinancialerms,or xample,hepageantwas fiasco hatctuallyostmoney or he trikeund;nterms f trikersolidarity,he ffort ayhavebeen evenmoreharmful.WhetherrnotorganizersikeReed fullyealizedt atthetime,heirxertionsaused

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EugeneO'Neill and theWorkinglassenormousdisharmonynd a loss ofmoraleamongthe workers heyhadmeantto help.12Though Reed himself ame to embodyan exampleofclasscooperation hat s stillegendaryn the annals ftheAmericanLeft,it s ikely hat ispersonal ctionswereultimatelyeleteriouso thecauseof thestrikers.13oremost mongtheproblematicessons dumbrated tPatersonwas the crucial ndication-clear in hindsight ut apparentlynot to the Paterson ctivists-of the impracticabilityfpoliticalunionbetween he aboring lass ndsympatheticourgeois ntellectuals.oulda middle-class adical/dramatistirsteamlessly ross classesand "be" aworker,hen nterpret orkers' ives n waysthatultimatelyided themin theclass truggle? hat are therealeffects-for othdownclasser ndworking-classubject-of classbarrier ransgression?Judgingby his earlycareer,Eugene O'Neill seems to have beenextremelyntrigued ythesequestions.n hisearly lays, 'Neill repeat-edly explored ituationshatwould haveboth troubled hepageant ndcomplicatedthe thinking f the settlementmovement-situations hatsuggested hat heharsh essonsfrom aterson, longwiththepracticallimitationsfthe Hull House paradigm f"vital ontact," ereultimatelynot oston theself-proclaimedailor-playwright.Theesult s thatwhileO'Neill's actions, ublicpersona, nd public discourse xplicitly ccepttheviabilityf vitalcontact" s a methodof bothself-realizationnd so-cialprogress,isplays etray ther,esssanguine onclusions.14Moreover,the relationbetweenO'Neill's personal vitalcontact" nd the deepertheorization f identicallyituated lass ssues n his earlydrama s de-finedbydisillusionment-disillusionmentngendered ya willingnessoconfront hecontradictionsndpotentially egative ffects f cross-classinteraction.

JoelPfister as referredo O'Neill's role as author f theearlyGlen-cairnplays s that f a "tourguide"for middleandupperclass hatwas"fascinated y exhibitsof exotic' workers" 109). This formula eemsapplicablenotonlyto O'Neill's audition nProvincetown ut also to thepremier veningof"Bound East forCardiff"-the first 'Neill workeverproduced-on 28 July1916.The atmospheren the wharf heater,notesSusanGlaspell, ecreated hefeeling fa shipat sea:"There was afog,just s thescript emanded, nda fogbell in the harbor.The idewasin,and itwashedunderus andaround, prayinghrough heholes n thefloor, ivingus therhythmnd theflavor fthesea" (254).As Glaspellindicates,thepeople who had seen theplays, nd thepeople who gave

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Patrick.Churathem,wereadventurersogether.The pectators erepartof thePlayers."What thespectatorsawwas"a kindof realism nd naturalismnexploredon theAmerican tage" Pfister 09),a new typeof dramawith a focuson theworking-classubjectas its crucial element. n the play,Kemprecalls,we heardtheactualspeechofmenwho go to sea;we shared hereality f their ives;we felt he motion andwindy,wavebeatenurgeofa ship" 96).For the Provincetown roup, heplayconfirmed hatO'Neill's as-sumption f the outwardmarkersfthe aboring lass-a class dentifica-tionpreviouslyudged dubious-was not shallow or exterior utdeep,visceral,ndgenuineenoughto move middle-class udiences.While heplaywright'sdoptedsailor's lothingwas certainly artof theequation,what mpressed hegroupabout O'Neill hadmore to do with the llu-sion that hisplayfostered-the creation f a form f shared xperiencebetweentheclasses.Several criticshave viewed the playas a turning oint in theaterhistory,nd the ong-term ollaboration etweenO'Neill and the Prov-incetownPlayers hat eganwiththisplay s a milestonen thedevelop-mentofAmericandrama.15The artisticmerits f the work stemfrom tsplausible reatmentftragic motions nder ower-class onditions nd tsaccurate enderingfworking-classialect. s Pfister asnoted,O'Neill'sdepiction f the onely asthoursof a sailor's ife n thestiflingorecastle"brought he lower class ife and idiom to theAmericanstage" 109).The play's etting,onsidered longwithO'Neill's self-identifications acommonseaman, uggestshecorrespondence etweenwhat Reed and"Jig"Cook termed nativeart" qtd. n Glaspell252) and radical ocialtheory.

Considering hereception fO'Neill's early ubjectmatter mongnot onlytheProvincetown layers ut also the wharf heater udience,theplaygoing xperience s describedbyGlaspell ndicates heways nwhichO'Neill's drama atisfied he needs of a middle class eeking elf-validation n the laboringclass.Eric Schocket describes hisprocessas"middle class ngst uredbyproletarianain" 121),a form f which wasinherent lso in the Paterson ageant.Glaspell's ecollectionsfO'Neill'spremier re curiously imilarn vocabulary o famous accountsof theemotionaleffect f thepageant: It is notmerely igurativeanguagetosaytheoldwharf hook withapplause.... I have never atbefore moremovingproduction"254). Like the Paterson ageant, heplay's atharsis

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EugeneO'Neill andtheWorkinglasswould have been a oint function f ts esthetic owerand itsrole n al-lowingtheaudienceto experience substituteorm f"vital contact."Thus O'Neill's propitiousmerging fsailor's arbwithsailors'ives sproblematic.tmay ndicate hat,ngaininghis firstrofessionalootholdin Provincetown, 'Neill presaged nd intentionallyccommodatedhisaudience's desire to form ower-class ffiliations.t maysuggest hat atthisstageofhis career,O'Neill genuinely cceptedcertainpremises f"vitalcontact" s an idealform f class nteraction.tmaymean thathedid both. n anycase,Glaspell's bservation hat The sea has been goodtoEugene O'Neill. It was there orhisopening" 254) assertshe centralimportance f the sailor'sworld-the locus of the author's ersonal n-counterwiththe lowerclasses-among O'Neill's distinguishingrtisticinnovations.An equally mportantutrarelyonsidered ocument romO'Neill'searlycareer s the unpublished nd unperformed lay"The PersonalEquation,"one of O'Neill's first ramatic fforts,ompletedabout thesametime he wrote"Bound East,"or about one yearbeforehis arrivalin Provincetown.his play suggests hedegreeto whichO'Neill, fromtheinceptionof hiscareer, ad been interestedn thepoliticalmeaningandpsychological ffectsfcross-classnteraction.he central haracteris Tom Perkins, middle-class ollegedropoutwho has become a radi-cal labor activist s a memberofthe International orkers fthe Earth(IWE). Described by O'Neill as "a broken-down ollege boy" (9), theprotagonists in severalways self-portraitf theyoungO'Neill (Floyd90). Tom's experience n theplay s similar o O'Neill's: he is thesameage as O'Neill would havebeen intheplay's 911 setting,ndhe ships sa stoker n an ocean liner ndwitnesses reparationsor general trikein Liverpool, s O'Neill did in hisfirst ea voyage. ike themiddle-classradicals tPaterson, om has trouble inding tenablepositionon eithersideof theclasswar.The labor activist nwrightnotes thathe "isn'tourtype" 8) and attributesom'smotives o eitherhis ove for hebeautifulfellowradicalOlga or a puerilecombination f"curiosity"nd"cravingfor dventure."When theplayopens,Tom is thepicture fvacillating adicalcom-mitment. mong the radicalsof the IWE, as O'Neill's stagedirectionsindicate,His manner s one ofboyishly aiveenthusiasm ith a certainnote of defiance reepingn as ifhe werefightingn inward mbarrass-ment and was determined o live it down" (8).Tom's ove forOlga has

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Patrick. huraled him nto he nner ircle f the WE,where eis nformedhat heorganizationlans o usehim na projecthatwill nvolve risk f m-prisonmentrdeath. e neverthelesscceptshe ssignmentsa way fprovinghedepth fhis abor-classommitmentohimselfndtoOlga.When helearns hat he chemenvolveshedynamitingftheengineroom fthe S SanFrancisco,hevery hip n whichhisfathers secondengineer,e still oesnot hesitate.he climacticmoment ftheplaypits omagainst isfatherna confrontationver ontrol fthe ngineroom.16HereTom's ather olds tbay crowd f trikersedbyhis on,who s ntent nsmashinghe hip's ngines,o which he lder erkinsfeels strongttachment.17erkinss thus orced ochoosebetween islovefor he nginesndhis ovefor is on.When ewounds is on ndefense fthe ngines,edemonstratesis llegianceocapitalistndus-trial urposesndcapitalist-definedspirations.Theplay's inal cene s na hospital eeks fterhe ncident.A oc-tor xplainsoPerkinsndOlgathat hemaimed omwillprobablye"like child or herest f his ife"69). ronically,erkins asreceiveda promotiono chief ngineeror hestand e tookagainsthe strik-ers, hough e explains o Olga thathe neverntended o harm om.Meanwhile, arhasbrokenut nEurope,ndthe greatadicaleaders"(74) havedecided o forgo herevolutionn order o "crushGermanmilitarism."Thoughlgacalls hem blind ools"75)andexpresseserlastingaithnsocial evolution,hepersonallyithdrawsromhe adicalmovementnorder obecome om's aretaker,urse,ndthemother fTom's hild, ithwhich he spregnant.ttheplay'slose, heprincipalcharactersrereconciled-Tom ndOlgaas conventionalusband ndwife,ndTom andPerkinss fathernd son.Theywill ll ivetogetherinthecomfortableiddle-classomethatwas to be Perkins'seddingpresentoTom ndOlga-the home hat,sO'Neill indicates,adbeen"meant"70)for hem llalong.In "The Personal quation,"he final econciliationf the threeprincipalselies he ocial ndpoliticalonflictshat adalienatedhemfromachother,uggestinghat hedownwardffiliationsfradicalsreonly sdeepas a needfor ersonalulfillmenthats, fterll, vailablewithin heparametersf a bourgeoisociety.lga,for xample,ealizesthat he oves ommore han hedoestheclasswar ndembraceshetraditionalocialroles fmotherndcaretaker.omdisguisesimselfsa worker nd rejects hebourgeoismoralcode,but because of deeper

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EugeneO'Neill andtheWorkinglasscommitments ithinhis own classmilieu, e is lessthan ompletelyiableas a revolutionary.A similar evelopmentnd class rajectoryreapparentnthehistoryofthe PatersonPageantandJohnReed, who claimed thathe belongedamong the workers ut ultimatelyeturned o the comforts f thelei-sure class. om'spolitics nd theactionsofReed weremotivated,t eastin part,by"curiosity,"cravingforadventure,"nd a desire to impressa woman who took the side of social revolution.Referring o Tom'sradicalism, lga remarks,he was doing it onlyforme" (71). Afterhiscomplex mpulseshaveplayed hemselvesut,Tom's evolutionaryctiv-itybecomesrecognizable s onlyan approximationf his realdesires ndpermanent ommitments.It is interestingo note that Perkins's 0-yearlove for his ship'scapitalist-producedngines svalidated ytheplay'sdenouement,whileTom's affiliation ithradicals s belittled. t the end of theplay,whenOlga seeswhattheclasswarhas done toTom,sheprofusely pologizesboth to himand to his father or eadinghiminto the conflict. onsid-eringthat he crux ofthe divisionbetweenTom and Perkinshad beenone ofclass affiliation-asTom argues, you're n one world and I'm inanother"-O'Neill's playultimatelyffirmshesuperiority ot onlyoffamilial ies but of innate,ntrinsic lass oyalties ver thoseformed nresponse o theextrinsicdeologicalpromptingsfradicalism.The own-classer s physicallymaimed, nd the deals of aboractivism re, houghnotfully ismissed,ubordinatedo what arepositioned s deeperpsychicpromptings-romanticove and familial ffiliation.his dialecticessen-tiallydescribesradicalism nd class-transgressingdeologyas temporaryand ineffectualubstitutesorthe genuinepsychologicalneeds of themiddle class.Not until1922,with TheHairyApe,would O'Neill developan in-terpretationfcross-class elations hat ully eveals hesplit etween thepersonaeof seaman and playwright,etween thesailor-poetwho bothassumedand acted upon the ability o translate erception crossclassboundaries and themore deeply questioning rtistwho perceivedthedisabling aradoxesofdownclassing xpeditions.n TheHairyApe, thecontact etween lasses ntended oresultnmutualunderstandingspre-sented s a violent onfrontationhat roduces nlyheightenedufferingand alienationon both sidesoftheclass divide.The unmistakablepexof theplay'sdramatic ction is a harrowing ross-classncounter-the

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Patrick.Churaface-to-facemeetingbetween MildredDouglas, a self-absorbed ocialworker n a slumming xpedition, ndYank,a powerful, airy-chested,coal-blackenedngineroom stoker.Themeaning f theplayderives romthe confusion hatoccurs in Yank's sense of self s a result f Mildred'sintrusionnto thestokeholels-an ntrusion hat pitomizes potentiallyharmful ocial transaction asic to both reform-drivennd adventure-driven vitalcontact."The play's opening scene presents ife in the crampedstokehole,where the ceilingcrushesdown on the men'sheads" 121) and the at-titudes f the stooping, roto-simianworkers uggestbeasts n a cage,"imprisonedbywhitesteel."As the actionbegins,Yankhas achieved amodus vivendiwithin hecapitalistystem, positionmorefulfillinghanMildred's mpty osingas a sincere ocial reformer. s the"mosthighlydeveloped ndividual"n thefireman'sorecastle,Yankepresentso thestokeholeworkers a self-expression,he very ast word in what theyare."Yanks theauthoritymongthe stokers nd refers o the stokeholeas "home" (124). He is self-aggrandizing,rrogant,ivento outbursts frage, nd he exults n hisability o cause theshipto move,givinghim aform f control ver his environment. s he sees t,he is a servant ftheship's ngine,but theenginealso responds o him: I start omepinandthe woild moves" 128).Yankhas achievedwhat Maria Miliorarefersoas"self-cohesiveness"415), a sustainingenseofself hat nableshimtofunctionwithina milieuto whichhe has adaptedbothphysicallyndemotionally.Theentral nabling onstruct fYank's ense ofwell-beingis a belief hathe is superior o theupperclasses.We're bettermen dandey are" (125),Yank asserts:One of us guyscould clean up de wholemob wit one mit.... Dem boids don'tamount to nothin."While ank'srelation o his aborand to the worldmayexemplify hatMilioratermsa "blissful randiose antasy"419),he neverthelessfeelsrelativelyohe-sive .. becausehisselfobject eeds aremetbyhis social milieu" 418).The first ssault nYank'scohesiveness omes from ong,the social-ist activistwho attemptso induceYank to embrace class consciousnessbyblanketing isexperience n thevocabulary f theclass war.Callingthe stokers Comrades" (125) who have been made "wage slaves"by"thedamnedCapitalist larss,"ong offersocialist erminologys a wayof superficiallyeorderingank's relation o his environment.ut Yankrejects ong'stheorizationf aboras "SalvationArmy-Socialistull" thathe has heard before.His responseemphasizes wo points.First, ong's

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EugeneO'Neill and theWorkinglassview involves loss ofmasculinity ecause it respondsverbally atherthanphysicallyo material onditions:Talk is cheap,"Long is told, nd"the ob" that"takes a man" is what "belongs." Under Yank's direc-tion,Long is called cowardlyand reminded that"we don't need noone cryin'over us . .Makin' speeches" 128). Second,Long's social-ism involves n unwelcomerecognition f the inherent owerlessnessof the laboringclass-a cancellationofYank'sfantasy f cohesiveness:"Slaves,hell!We run de wholewoiks" 129).Yank'scontempt orLong'soutlook thereforetemsfrom ts mplicit enial of his superiorrelationto thehigher-ups n thesocial scale.Revealingly, ong fails o influenceYankbecausehis "talk" s insufficiento induceYank to contemplateninterconnectedelation etween heupper nd owerclasses: What'sdemslobs n the foist abingotto do witus?" 125).Later in scene 1, the IrishmanPaddy attempts o awakenYank toanother ssential eature f modernworking-classife-alienation fromcontactwitha natural nvironments a result ftechnological rogress.Paddy nostalgically escribes henow-numbered aysofsailingvessels,when"menbelongedtoships .. a shipwaspart f thesea, nda man waspartoftheship, nd the sea oined all togethernd made it one" (126).Yank'sresponse s to claim an identityhathe admits s "new stuff" utapparently o lessspirituallyatisfyingecausehe feelshimself partofthe engines.Not needingthewind and thesun to whichPaddyrefers,Yank resolves o "eat up the coal dust"and dismisses addyas he doesLong:"I belongand he don't" 128).ThusYank's tate fbeing nscene1allowshimbothtofunctionna manufacturedecuritynd to be a "man"to himself-an insular osition, utone tenable noughtowithstand s-saults romwithinhis own class.Scene 2 introduces nd describesMildredDouglas, a "bored" do-gooderwho hasbeen playing t socialwork, xperiencing he "morbidthrills fsocial service" 131) on New York'sLower East Side,and whois attemptingo use herinfluence s thedaughter fa steelmagnate oarrange tourof theship's tokehole n order o"see how the otherhalflives."Mildred snow on herwaytoEnglandon a ourneyherauntrefersto as a "slumming nternational."ikeYank,she is outwardly rrogantabout theposition-a credentialedworkerforsocial reform-thatshehasachievedwithinherown milieu,buther"superiority"130) is"dis-contented" nd "disdainful" ventowardherformidable unt.The conversation etween the two women on thepromenadedeck

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Patrick.Churasuggestsstronglyynical iewofMildrednd ndirectlyfthemotivesof the female ettlementorkers howereconspicuousn theplay'searly-twentieth-centuryetting.ffectivelyoreshadowinghe ransactionbetweenMildred ndYank, he unt tates,How theymust avehatedyou, ytheway,hepoorthat oumade o muchpoorerntheiryes"(131).Conflict hus erives rom he unt's erceptionhat hetype fsocialwork racticed yMildredsactually form fpredationn thelower lasses. espiteMildred's laims fsincerity,eraunt cornfullyrefersoher s "artificial"130) in her ocial oncern nd a "poser"nher xpressedesire o find "newthrill"nd touchife" yvisitinghestokehole. escribed yO'Neill inrelationo thenaturalnvironmentofthe ea,Mildreds"incongruous.. inertnddisharmonious."s thestage irectionsndicate, ildred'sossibilitiesor incerityndempathyhavebeen bred utofher"byan effetelasswithneitheritalityorintegrity-a lasswhoseostensiblymeliorativeffortsnly urthere-grade hepoor.The crucialmoment f theplay s the brief ut ntensecene3confrontationn the tokehole etweenMildred ndYank.During hisencounter,'Neill's stagedirectionsndicate hat ank"feelshimselfinsultednsomeunknown ashionnthevery eart fhispride"137).In generalerms,heeffectnYank s twofold:t"makes impainfullyaware fhis social nferiorityndsuddenlyonscious f his nadequa-ciesasa human eing"Floyd 41). n attemptingofathomarticularsabout hemannernwhich ank s victimizedyMildred, e ascertainessentialsbout he lass elationshipsO'Neillpicturedt atthepeakofhiscreativessociation ith heProvincetownlayers.AsthenumerousisdainfulllusionsoMildredsa "skoit"for x-ample 42)confirm,ssues fboth lass ndgenderre t the oreof heencounter.Thehip'sngine hat ivesYankis dentity,ndwhichYankis intheprocess fservicingsMildredntrudes,s notonlyfiguredsunequivocallyeminine,ut she" salsothefocus f umultuousctivitythat ears trongonnotationsf frenziedexual ct-a factnsistentlyindicatedyYank's epeatedxhortationso"pilesomegrubn her ..openherup! .. trow t ntoherbelly!.. letherhave t! .. slingt ntoher!" 135).Forherpart,Mildred eeks ontactwith he ower lassesnot implynorder o enhance er ocial ervice redentialsut s a re-sponse opsychologicaleficienciesncludingublimatedexual esires.She enters he tokehole ecause he would ike obe sincere,otouch

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EugeneO'Neill and theWorkinglasslifesomewhere" 131).When theanemic,pale, slender, elicate" 130)Mildred ppearsdressednwhite, he seems nattenuated emininentity,one whosevitality as been"sappedbefore hewas conceived." he lackssexualenergy f thekindthatflowsnaturallyrom ank and permeateshiseverymovement.n thestokehole,Yank'snaked andshameless"137)masculinitysappalling o Mildred.Havingbeen interruptednhis furi-ous and sexually harged toking ftheengine,Yank urns gaze uponMildred hat sphysically enacingndsuggestivef sexualpenetration.tthemoment ftheirnteraction,he glaresntohereyes,urned o stone ..his eyesbore into her."As O'Neill indicates, er"whole personality"s"crushed" n thestokehole. hat thesymbolic apeYank enactsdestroysboth him and her-that theirvictimizations mutual-is a figurativeindicationof the depthof effectnd potential rauma hat, s O'Neillundoubtedly ealized, ould be comprehended ythecross-classransac-tion, n exchangethat ould notbutreproduce everal ypes fpsychicand socialpowerdisparities-forwhichrape s an aptmetaphor.This relation s furthermphasizedby the surrounding roup ofworkers,who witnesstheYank-Mildredencounter and sense a deepemotionalparleybetween them.Paddytaunts ankwithhaving fallenin love" withMildred.Yank retorts,Love, Hell! Hate, dat'swhat. I'vefallen n hate,getme?"Paddy'sremark hat Twould takea wisemantotellone from heother" lucidates hepotentiallyestructive,mbivalentrelationshipt the center fcross-classontact.Concerningthisbipolarclassrelation, obertJ.Andreach heorizesthatYank eels ove forMildredbecauseshe has descended nto hisworldto awaken him.As he awakens his love changesto hatredbecause sherejects im" 53).Byherverypresence,Mildred wakensYankothepur-poselessnessf abor-classifewithout fferingherealchance ofanythinghigher. fter heencounter,sAndreachpointsout,Yank's urychangesfrom hatofa spurned overto thatof a betrayed uestor."His quest sa searchfor dentity rompted ythecomplexawakening r awarenessarousedbyMildred.Yank sbewildered incehe cannotunderstand hatmotivatesMildred,whatshe seeks n thestokehole,ndwhyshewouldawakenhimtoa reality igher hanhimself:I don'tgether. he's newtome.Whatdoes a skoit ike hermean,huh?" 142).Yankcannotknowthatin seeking reality"Mildred s drivenbythesameneed for ohesivenessthatcompelshim.The "reality"he seeksthrough downclassing orayeludesher, nd she is insteaddeeplyharmedbyherawareness f Yank.

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Patrick.ChuraThat relations etween aborer nddownclasser re nevitablyestructiveunderscoreshewaysthatdownclassing oraysre not exemptfrom heidentical owerrelations hat reate lassdisparityn the first lace.

While Mildred's ntrusion nto the stokeholestagesthe disablingparadoxof"vitalcontact,"t is not theonlyexampleofpsychologicallydisruptiveross-classontact n the drama. he playmaybe viewed as aseriesof calculated respassingsf classboundaries, unctuatedwithdra-matic ituationshat rerecognizablesparadigmsfsocial conflictn theera n whichO'Neill wrote. cene 5 findsYank ndLong on NewYork'sFifth venue,where the adornments f extremewealth retantalizinglydisplayed"144) andYank and Long are"trespassers."n contrast o hissurroundings,hichhe describes s "too clean and quietand dolledup"(145),Yank s covered n coal dust, nshaven, ressed s a stokern"dirtydungarees"144) and a fireman'sap.Yankadmits hathe seeks anotherencounterwithMildred's kind" (145) in orderto "get even with her."Throughout hescene,Long againtries o indoctrinate ank to socialistpolitical deals and vocabulary, hich are summarily ejectedbyYank:"Votes forwomen ...Force, dat'sme!" (147).Though there scross-classjuxtaposition ere s in scene2,there s no interaction etweenYank ndthe richbecause thebarrier ransgressions notdownwardbutupward.The change nsetting--out fthestokehole nd onto Fifth venue-en-ables theupper-class gaudymarionettes"147) to remainoblivioustoYank'spresence.Even directphysical ontactbetweenYank and a "fatgentleman"149) is"as ifnothinghashappened."Scene 7 is locatedata chapter f the ndustrialWorkers ftheWorldnearthecity'swaterfront.Yankeeksmembership,skingCan'tyouseseeI belong?"Yank's nteraction ere s not with anotherworkerbut witha radical ntellectual hose politics ome from he WW manifesto. orthe real worker his s anotherupwardclassencounter,nd the contrastin spokendialectand socialphilosophy etweenYank and thesecretaryis nearlyas pronounced as that encounteredon FifthAvenue. In anexchangethatunderscores basic lack ofunderstandingf the workeramong the intellectual lass, ank'sdesireto "fixtings" 158) throughviolenceandsabotage sviewed as a "wrong lant" ythe W\XWecretary.Yankis,however, nlytaking iterallyheespoused WW determination"to changetheunequalconditions fsociety y egitimate irect ction"and seeking concrete olution n order o"square tings"with Mildred.The IWW official eacts ureaucraticallynd intellectuallyoYank's ub-

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EugeneO'Neill andtheWorkinglassjectivenarchismnd o his xpectationf nti-industrialction, ronglyconcludinghatYanks an"agent rovocator"159). ftheFifth venuecapitalistsail oseeYank tall, he WW secretaryails oseeYankforwhathe is.The play's inal ceneportraysn encounteretween ank andacagedgorillan themonkeyouse f heZoo" (160).Whereas ildred'sdownwardntrusionnto ank's ealm addestroyedYank'self-conceptand"crushed" he personality"f theslummingeformer,Yank's n-trusionnto heworldnwhich hegorillasking lsobringsbouthisphysicalestruction"Ranald281).Theaffinityetween he wo cenesisexplicit:ooking t thegorilla,Yankemarks,I wasyoutoher" 161).Significantly,tis only n theplay's ownclassingnteractionsnd classbarrierransgressionshat ealpsychologicalction nd nteractionreprecipitated.Yank'sntrancento hegorilla'sage,ikeMildred's escentinto ank's tokehole,nderscoreshe ntruder'sailure o countenancethe rue onditionfthe primitive"ndallegesheproductionf nju-rious age nd confusion ithinhe ntrusion'subject. rguably,his sthe entralroblemftheplay,nd t s theproblemf llclass-crossingeffortss O'Neill hascome to understandhem hroughoutisearlydrama ndup to TheHairy pe, heplay hatmarks is astproductiveassociation ith heProvincetownroup nder ig ook's eadershipndthe ulminationfO'Neill'searlyareer.Placedwithintshistoricalontext,heHairy pemay eunderstoodas O'Neill'sdrasticeevaluationfbothhis dventurousersonalown-classingthos nd of thereform-drivenvital ontact"ndemic o theplay's 910s etting.Throughoutheplay,Yankxperiencesthedisorient-ingaffectsf therapidlyhiftingocial nvironmentfearly wentiethcenturymerica"Miliora 16), mongwhich oth progressive"ocialideologynd drasticistinctionsnsocial lass" re rucial.Thisdeologyis exemplifiedyMildred ouglas, he ettlementorker ith socialserviceredentials."ildredtands ornarmyfmiddle-ndupper-classwomenwhoworked nsettlementouses nd strivedor ocialprogressthroughhilanthropicontact ithower-classife.n TheHairy pe, hesocialistongreferso thismultitudehenhewarns,"There's'olemobof em ikeher,Gawdblind em."Ininterviewshroughoutis arlyareer,'Neillhadoftenelied n"progressive"uppositionsoexpresshepurpose fhis rt,nd ndoingso he hadvoiced socialtheory uite imilaro thatwhichmotivates

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Patrick . huraMildredDouglas to visit the stokehole see forexampleBird).But asO'Neill meticulously xplores he classparadoxes ftheearly wentiethcenturyn TheHairyApe,he seriously uestionsthe basic precepts f"socialprogress"hatunderlie he historicaletting f the drama. n TheHairyApe,ostensibly rogressiveocialforces ecome agents f a harmfulassault n lower-classelfhood. rimarily hroughYanknd Mildred'sn-teractionn scene3, TheHairyApethusgivesus an"ironicdisfiguration"of theconceptofprogress,dramatizing ot a pattern fprogressionutofregression"Zapf36).Yankthe worker ecomes"a mereobjectofthehistorical rocess, eing imprisonedn theverystructures hichwereoriginallyntended o servehim"and,we must dd,beingalienated nddestroyed y the processof cross-classunderstanding"ersonified yMildred n thestokehole.In waysthat lluminate heHairyApe,cultural istorian .J.JacksonLears hasanalyzed he central oalsofthe settlementmovement,nd ofthedownwardlyocused ocial service ffortsf whichMildred s a rep-resentative.ears describes heways n whichthe movement oundedbyJaneAddams,with ts ttemptso create "fullerife" orfactory orkers,"paralleled he ongings f her own classformore ntense xperience ndwas in a waya projectionofthose ongings" 80). As Learsnotes, Therecoilfromovercivilized entility ervadedthe ethos of reform t theturnofthecentury.etermined to revitalize heir wn lives, eformersbecame convincedtheycould revitalizeworking-classives as well."Asthishappened, he focusof effortso share xperiencewith ower classes"beganto shift rom ocial usticeto personalfulfillment."Lears identifieshis hift s "a keymoment n the re-formationfcapitalist ulturalhegemony" 80), and it is a shift hatO'Neill dissectsin TheHairyApewithpainstakingrecision.f, s Learsasserts, ddamsandher followersbeganunwittinglyo accommodate hemselveso thecorporateystemforganized apitalism,"esultingn an attitudef"unc-tuouspaternalism,"n exaggeratedersion f suchan attitudesreflectedin Mildred.Her manipulation f capitalist owerrelations y drawingon herstatus s a millionairen order o acquireaccess to the stokeholeepitomizeswhatLears referso as a "compromisewithmodern ndustrialcapitalismt ... key points" 81). For this nalysis,he mostrelevant fthesecompromisess that of treating oluntary oraysnto lower-classconditions s"a source oftherapeutic evitalization,"s Mildreddoes inpursuingherdesire o"touchlife omewhere." nder O'Neill's control,

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EugeneO'Neill and theWorkinglasssuchtherapeuticnteractions transformedntoa crushingefeat orMildred'sthic f ocialprogress.In TheHairy pe,O'Neill suggestshe tarklienationf ower-classexistencendviews his lienation otasmitigatedut as exacerbatedbyupper-classntrusions.t the HullHouse LaborMuseum, s Learsnotes,workersearned hehistoricalnd ndustrialignificanceftheirjobs-a processhatmay ltimatelyave layedrole n egitimizingheirexploitation.romMildred, ho createsn awarenessnYankofwhatheactuallyoes n the hip ndwhoheactuallys,Yankains similarlyambivalentelf-knowledge.he identical mbivalencefeffect,hichseems ersistentlyo attend oth eal ndfictionalepresentationsfclass-crossingn theperiod,ncludinghat f thePatersonageant-which"exhibited"tarvingnd destitute orkers n thestage fan opulentcapitalistleasure alacewhilecausingrreparablearm o the strikeitself-isbyO'Neill bothconcretizednd correctedn TheHairy pe.What s strikingnd nnovativeboutO'Neill's method f nteractionbetweenlassess not implyhat tportraysn mpossibilityf ynthesisbetweenworkersnd downclassersut that vital ontact" ecomesperniciousndmalignantorce,ncompatibleith heworkers'ubjectiveneeds.BythetimeO'Neill beganwriting ong ay'sJourneyntoNightn1939,he seems o haveunderstood otonly he neluctable arm fcross-classnterventionsikeMildred's ut alsoa potentiallynjuriousoversimplificationnderlyingisownyouthfulnd adventure-driven"vital ontact."n acts3 and 4 of this lay,dmund yrone learlys-pouses he ocial heories f heyoung ugeneO'Neill,whileEdmund'sfatheramesyroneustaspersuasivelyxpresseshe ocial onclusionsreached ythematurelaywright.19eading dmund hisway uggeststhat heEugeneO'Neill ofthe arly 910shad mbibed spiritf classantagonismhat oloredhisperceptionsf classnteractionnidealisticshades. ikeO'Neillin1912, dmund asrecentlyeturnedrom slum-ming dventuret seawhere e hasdamaged ishealthwhile pparentlyformingrudimentaryocialistlass onsciousness.n act4 ofLong ay'sJourney,dmund xtols he ocially roductiveffectsf his vital on-tact,"laiminghatthas enabled im o relatemore ympatheticallyohisfather:

God,Papa, ver ince went o sea andwasonmy wn, ndfoundout what hardwork and little aywas,andwhat t felt

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Patrick.Churalike to be broke, ndstarve,nd campon parkbenches because Ihad no place to sleep, 've tried o be fair oyoubecause I knewwhatyou'dbeen up against s a kid. (109)

Tyronerealizes,however, hathis own childhood had been essentiallydifferentrom dmund's adventures-"Therewas no damned romancein ourpoverty"-and asserts here sno wayEdmund can understandtsactualconsequences:You saidyourealizedwhat 'd been up against s a boy. hehellyoudo! .. .You've hadfood, lothing. h, I knowyouhada fling f hardwork withyourback andhands, bit ofbeinghomeless ndpennilessna foreignand.... But it wasa game....Itwasplay. (110)

AlthoughEdmund expressesnostalgiafor his self-imposed rdeal andpride in itseffects,yroneviewsEdmund'stemporary ownclassing s"a game of romance and adventure" 146-47). Tyrone's hildhood inauthentic overtynableshimto discern hepretense fhis son'svolun-tary rivation. dmund'sbrother amie lso offers perceptive ppraisalwhen he remarks hat lthoughEdmund has "had thegutsto go off nhisown" (35), he "alwayscame home brokefinally,"resumablyo liveoff is father. dmund's rude theorizationf "vitalcontact"-reflectiveofa periodwhen O'Neill's classviewswere at an embryonic tage-isthusframedwith ronicrejoinders.But Edmund's ontempt or he values of his own class nd his com-pulsionto share xperiencewiththeworking lass re as central o LongDay's ourneys they re to O'Neill's early rt. he twokeycrises fthedrama-Mary's relapse nto morphineaddiction and the diagnosisofEdmund's onsumption-arethe direct esults f Edmund'sdownclassingadventure.he dramaunfolds n theverydayhe and the otherTyroneslearnthephysical rice of theyoungman'sslumming xcursionbeforethemast, he stunt" f "workinghiswayalloverthemapsas a sailor ..living n filthy ives,drinking otgut" 35). Edmund's"ruinedhealth"(33) is attributedyTyrone o the "mad life"he has led "ever sincehewas fired rom ollege"-a lifecentered roundformativeownclassingexperiences. s in TheHairyApe,theconsequencesof thedownclassingexcursion reutterly egative.Thathey re the result otof reform-ori-entedfemale vital contact"but itsadventure-driven ale counterpartsupports lexander'sssertion hatwith thisplayO'Neill "renounced he

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EugeneO'Neill andtheWorkinglassideas fhisyearsfrevolt"Tempering1), processhat nvolved severequestioningfhisownandhisgeneration'sownclassingmpulse.O'Neill oftenlaimed hat is real tart s a dramatist"amewhenhe"gotout of nacademyndamongmen, n the ea" qtd.nDownes10).This seems redible,orwithout is sailor'sersey nd sailor's laysit sunlikelyhat e wouldhaverealized he mportantrofessionalc-ceptancendencouragementf ike-mindedxperimentalistsnProv-incetown.Therovincetownersembraced 'Neill, ncouragedim,ndhelped im ocrystallizend rticulateisphilosophy"Gelb315).Tem-porallynd deologically,t snotfar oProvincetownrom hePatersonPageant,nd oanotheronjectureupportedy hisnalysisnvolvesheintriguingentralityfJohn eed'sPatersonageants an artisticnflu-ence.Cosgrove asnoted hat he associationfworkernd ntellectual"(265)firstormedt Patersonbecame raditionalnd crucialnfluenceonWorkersheatrenAmerica."Thisnfluenceasbeenunderestimated,undeniablyxtendingnto hecanonical rama fEugeneO'Neill andthebeginningsfAmericanheatertProvincetown,justifyinghe ecog-nition fthepageants a meaningfulvent nAmericaniteraryistory.It s toO'Neill's redithat isdrama espeaksgrowingnternaliza-tion fthe essons fPaterson,ndthatfter is cceptancetProvince-town ewent n toquestionhevery lass hilosophyhat acilitatedhatacceptance. hile tmaybe true,s Pfisterasasserted,hatO'Neill'srepresentationftheworkinglass tells s less bout he ctualwork-ingclass .. than boutwhatO'Neill wanted his lass o signifyorhim" 114), heresa qualitativeifferenceetweenhe ctofescortinga middle-classudience ntotheforecastleo experiencehepathos fa common eaman's eathn"BoundEastforCardiff"ndescortingnaudience nto he tokehole or heharrowingncounter etweenMil-dredDouglas nd the hairype."Looking t thedevelopmentf O'Neill'searly lays hrough heHairy pemakesteasier o understandhyEdmund's atheramesy-ronegets hecondemnatoryastword n his on's lummingdventuresinLong ay'sJourney.yrone'sersuasivenessoes not implyndicatechangenO'Neill's ttitudeowardvital ontact"r anacknowledgmentof the mpermeableaturef class arriers.t s also a ringing ecogni-tionthat he gameofromancendadventure"nvolvesonsequencesmoreharmfulven han dmund'suberculosis,nboth ides f he lassdivide.

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Patrick . huraNotes1.Lendley lackhasdated hephotographrom911, efore 'Neill arrivedinProvincetownn.pag.).Joelfister,owever,ocates hephoto nProvince-town nd offershe late1910s" s tsdate 9).Theexactocation fthephotoisnotcrucial,ut ts mphaticndicationfO'Neill'sbifurcatedlass dentifi-cation scentralomy ssay.2.Harry emprecallshat hePlayersasilydentified'Neill asmiddle lass.ThoughO'Neill "hadbeen sailor,twas aid" 96), hePlayers ere t first"dubious ftheir ewmember'sbilitynd doubtfulfhisfuture orth othem"95).WhenO'Neill showed hegroup book ofone-act lays ut lsoacknowledgedhat e hadpaidfor hem imself,his did notmateriallyor-wardhis ase."Kemp laims hatwhileO'Neillmayhave ooked ike vaga-bondworker,hegroupwas aware hat e wasactuallytillupportedyhisfather,ho senthim small llowance,enough okeephimunder helterndalive"97).3.The firstlayO'Neill offeredotheProvincetownroupwas called TheMovieMan," one-act lay bout nAmerican ilmmakerhofinancesMexican evolutionor he ake ffilmingtsbattles.empremembersheplay s"frightfullyad, rite ndfull fpreposterousokum"96).See alsoMargaretoftus anald506.4.From 888 to1894,NellieBlydisguisederselfsan unskilled orkerndmadewell-publicizedoraysnto weatshopsndfactories,nspiringumerousimitators.nthemid-1890s,tephen ranemade elebratedncognitoxcur-sions nto heNewYork lums,roducingumerouscityketches"ncluding"AnExperimentnMisery,"hich etailedhe emporaryransformationfa middle-classouthnto "bum" r hobo" oftheBowery.n 1899, osiahFlynt ublished rampingithramps,collectionf tudiesndsketchesf"vagabondife"nRussia,Westernurope,ndtheUnited tates. utchinsHapgood, Harvardraduatend Globe eporter,adefrequentoraysntothe ower nd criminal"lasses,ublishinghe piritf heGhetton 1902andAutobiographyf Thiefn 1903.Also n 1903,Jackondon ontributedhePeoplef he bysso the rowded ield f"down-and-outer"hronicles.5.Harvardtudentndradical ocialistee Simonsonswidely elievedohave oined he ermn1908, ut tsrepeatedse nprint yPrincetono-ciology rofessoralterWyckoffn an 1896 nonfictionarrativentitled heWorkers:AnxperimentnRealityontradictshis otion.Wyckoffxplainedhemotivationor isguisingimselfs a laborer ndvoluntarilyescendingntolower lassife:Poverty,hadthought,ould t oncebringme ntovital on-

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Eugene O'Neill and theWorkingClasstactwith hevery oor" 1: 16).Historian obertA.Rosenstone ttributeshecoinage fthe erm oSimonson,sdoes Christinetansell:Thephraserig-inatedwith heHarvard issidentee Simonson"Stansell55).Both cholarslocate he erm'sriginn an articlentheJanuary908 Harvard dvocate,nwhich imonsonexcoriated oth tudentsndfacultyor heirndifferenceotheproblemsackinghemodernworld nd thevital orcestrivingochangeit" Rosenstone3).Actuallyimonson sed he erm nly nce nthe rticle,toreferotheneedto ntroducennovativelaysnto heuniversity'sramaticrepertory,hus ringinghe chool intovital ontact ith ll that ssignificantinmodern rama."ohnReed gave hephrase wider ignificance,fonly ydirectlyuoting imsonson,nhisunpublished912essayHarvard enais-sance." eed applied he erm spart f broad olitical iscussionhat alledfor more elevanturriculumhatwould nclude oursesnsocialismndbring he chool nto vital ontact" ith he lass truggle.6.Whilenotreferringo "vital ontact"yname,James.Robinsonnotes hatwhenO'Neill"repudiated.. thevalues fthemiddle-classifestyleisparentsstroveo maintain.. heunwittinglyollowed latenineteenth-centuryara-digm fmasculine ehavior"96).7. IWW leader lizabeth urley lynn escribedhepageants "themostbeautifulnd realisticxample f rt hat asbeenputonstagenthe asthalfcentury"215).Nochlin alls hepageanta major ventnthehistoryfradi-cal theater.. stunninglyffectivesdrama,pectaclendpoliticalropaganda"(67).Morerecently,ouisSheafferas uggestedhat he mammothageant"was perhapshemost tirringvent ver tagedntheGarden"435).StuartCosgroveites he7June 913 date fthePatersonageants "thefirstig-nificantate nthehistoryftwentiethenturymerican orkersheatre"(265).Christinetansellbserveshat hepageantpitomizedanattractionomodern,revolutionary'ndpolitical'rt" hatwouldhenceforthun hroughAmericanulture,eading nlightenedudiences nd artistsoadvertiseheirsolidaritiesiththepeople'" 150).8.Reed hasbeen called he Byronic ero"Kazin216)ofpre-World arradicalism.rom isparticipationt Patersonn 1913 until isdeathnMos-cow n1920,Reed"sincerelyesiredn maginativentimacyithworkersandpeasants.. a passionatedentificationith heoppressed"Leach33).AsWalter atesRideout rgues, eedwas theprototypefthe dventur-ousyoung mericanntellectualhorefusedobe simply vagabond, hogaveupall hismiddle-classdvantagesor olidarityith heworkinglass,who even acrificedis ife otheRevolution"127).Praising eed's ctionsin abor onflictstPatersonndLudlow nd n ater oliticalevolutionsn

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Patrick . huraMexico andMoscow,eftisteaderMichaelGold hadreverentlyroclaimedthat therewasnogapbetween ackReed andtheworkersny onger"154).Among hePatersonmageshatUptonSinclairowed wouldnever assfromhis]memory"263)wasthat fJohn eed aspageant irector,withhisshirtleeves olled p, houtinghrough megaphone,rillinghosewho wereto serve scaptainsfthemass."9.AlongwithReed andGeorgeCram Jig" ook,this ist ncludes obertEdmund ones, hodesignedhe ets or hePatersonageantnd everalfO'Neill'sProvincetownlays,ncludingheHairy pe.MaryHeatonVorse,SusanGlaspell, abelDodge,Floyd ell,MaxEastman,daRauh,HutchinsHapgood,ndHarry empwere lsopresentt Patersonnd nvolvednProvincetown.10.The most etailedccount fthefriendshipetween eed andO'Neill,which egannGreenwichillagen1914, sprovided yArthurndBarbaraGelb.TheGelbs peculatehatO'Neillmay ctuallyave ccompaniedeedtoMexico n1914whileReed wasreportingbout heMexicanRevolu-tion or heMetropolitan,oncluding,Whether,nfact, 'Neill ever ottoMexico .. isa riddle"263). nany ase,Reed andO'Neill admiredachother rom heir irst eetingn 1914: Reedwasenchanted ith O'Neill's]storiesfhiswildyouth,is dventurestsea, ndhismoody harm. 'Neillwasequally akenwithReed" (262).11.This s not osuggesthat 'Neill hadwitnessedr shared irectlynthePatersonageant.Whenhepageantookplaceon 7June 913,O'Neill hadyet o write play ndhadbeendischargednly our ays arlier rom heGaylordarm anatoriumnWallingford,onnecticut,here e hadspentfivemonths nder reatmentor uberculosis.12.As several istoriansave sserted,"theublicityained rom hepageantwaspurchasedt thecostof theworkers'nity"Tripp 56).ElizabethGur-leyFlynn laimed hatealousies ver olesnthepageantreated muchdiscord. . in theranks"217)and that hepageant ivertedttentionrommoremportantork fthe trike:The firstcabs ot nto hePatersonmillswhileworkers ere rainingor hepageant."13.As well-intentionedshis emporarynterventionnthePatersontrikemayhavebeen, herewere everal ays hat ohn eed's actionsmayhavehurthe auseofthePatersontrike.irst,hedisappointmenthat ollowedwhen twasrevealedhat hepageant ad ostmoney,ll historicalccountsagree, as disastrouso strikerolidarity.econd, lmostmmediatelyfterhepageant,sthe trikepparatusegan ocrumble,eed andmillionaireifth

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Eugene O'Neill and theWorkingClassAvenuesalon hostessMabel Dodge leftNewYork on a luxuriousfirst-classpassageforEurope, apparently ithout elling hestrikers,ho had come toappreciateReed's uplifting heerleading. eed's departuret themomentwhen itbecame clearthat hepageanthad been a financial ailure ad an"immensepsychological mpact" Rosenstone 124) in deepeningthe strikers'disillusionment.14. Askedabout theprotracted orking-class ocusof hisdrama n a 1924TheatreMagazine nterview, 'Neill acknowledged hathe wrote often boutthe owerclasses, bout whathe referred o as "our brothers ardown on thesocial scale" (Bird 53). In explaininghis rationale ordoingso, however, heplaywrightxpressedhimselfn starklyontradictoryerms. n the first artofthe nterview, 'Neill stresses "wish to arousecompassion" n hisdramatocreate ympathyor the unfortunate.he suffering."fafter iewingthedramahis audience is"inspired o help thoseunhappybrothers,"'Neill explains, he"tragicplay sworthwhile."Later n the sameinterview, 'Neill's description ftheworking lasschangesdrastically,tressingot thesufferingnduredbyexploited aborersbut theirguilelessnessnd freedom rom ocialpretense: They havenotbeensteeped n the evasions nd superficialitieshich come with social life ndintercourse....Theyare more direct. n actionand utterance"52). His char-acters acka voice-"in manywaysthey re narticulate.. they annot writeof their wn problems," 'Neill explains-and so theplaywrightmustbe theirspokesman:I like to interpretor hem."A third erspective n theworking lassappears n the nterview sO'Neill waxesnostalgic orhisdays s a seaman, he timewhen hewas"oneof" theworkers:Life on the sea is ideal.The shipfor home. Meals provided.A resting lace" (53). Only for class nterloperikeO'Neill, however, ouldtheshipbe so described-as a site ofrespite nd disengagement,n escapefrom ourgeoisartificiality,place that omprised no economic pressure."fO'Neill had discerned n inconsistencyetween his views of theworking lassas embodying his ideal" and his first-handxperienceof the"tragic" ondi-tionsofworking lass ife-between a desire o"help" theworking lasses nda view of their ivesas free f economic pressures-he does not so indicate nthe nterview.Yetothing,tseems, ould be moreparalyzing o the mpulsefor ocial reformwith which O'Neill beginshisdiscussion fthe aboringclassthan theattitude,xpressedater n the nterview,hat here s a kindof free-dom andmanlyvirtue n enduring oor food and low pay.As I will argue, twas left o O'Neill's dramato confronthese theoretical ontradictions.15.MayaKoreneva asserts hat heperformancef"Bound East forCardiff"

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PatrickJ.Churaon 28July1916 "maybe regarded iterallys the birth fAmericandrama"(148).16.As Floydnotes 97), Olga's appearancewithTom amongthe stokers n"The PersonalEquation" foreshadows cene 3 of TheHairyApe--thestoke-hole visitof thefemalereformer ildredDouglas.17.The elder Perkins's ommitmento hisengines-"I love thoseengines-allengines" 27)-is described o as to resemble he central sychological eviceusedbyYank in TheHairyApeto ustify isposition n the stokehole.Askedif he sees himself s a "flesh nd blood wheel oftheengines,"Yank replies,"Dat's me" (127).Yank'sfully eveloped metaphor,"I'm teel" 129) suggeststheoriginof such "environmental"dentificationsn theprimalpsychicneedsof theworking lass.18.Mildred's ntrusion ausesa profound lterationnwhat clinicalpsycholo-gistMaria Miliora, n a discussion f theplay, efers o as the"selfobjectmi-lieu" (415) of theworking-classnhabitant.19.Undertakingn analysis f theautobiographicalourcesof O'Neill's classviews,Pfister lso concludes that n LongDay'sJourneyO'Neill can be readasboth Edmund ... and asTyrone" 106).

Works itedAlexander, oris."O'Neill as Social Critic."O'Neill andHis Plays. d. OscarCargill,N. BryllionFagin, ndWilliamJ.Fisher.NewYork: NewYorkUP, 1961. 390-407.-.TheTemperingfEugeneO'Neill. NewYork:Harcourt, 962.Andreach,RobertJ. O'Neill's Use of Dante in TheFountainnd TheHairyApe. Modern rama 10.1 (1968): 48-56.Bird,Carol."Eugene O'Neill-The Inner Man." Estrin50-55.Black,Lendley. ugeneO'Neill: BeyondMourningndTragedy.ew Haven:YaleUP, 1999.Cosgrove, tuart. From ShockTroupeto GroupTheatre."Theatresf heLeft1880-1935. Ed. Raphael Samuel,Ewan MacColl, and StuartCos-grove. ondon:Routledge,1985. 259-79.Downes, Olin."Playwright inds His Inspirationn LonelySand Dunes bythe Sea." Estrin6-12.Egan,Leona Rust. Provincetowns a Stage.Orleans,MA: Parnassus, 994.Estrin,MarkW.,ed. Conversationsith ugeneO'Neill.Jackson:U ofMississippiP,1990.

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Eugene O'Neill and theWorkingClassFloyd,Virginia.hePlays f ugene 'Neill:ANewAssessment.ewYork: n-gar, 985.Flynn,lizabeth urley.TheTruthbout hePatersonageant."SpeakMy

OwnPeace.NewYork:Masses ndMainstream,955.Gelb, arbara,ndArthur elb.O'Neill.NewYork: arper,974.Glaspell,usan.TheRoadto he emple.ewYork: tokes,941.Gold,Michael.John eed and theRealThing."MikeGold:ALiterarynthol-ogy.d. MichaelFolsom.NewYork:nternational,972.152-56.James,William.heVarietiesfReligiousxperience.902.Cambridge:arvardUP,1985.Kazin,Alfred. n Native rounds.ewYork: arcourt,942.Kemp, arry.Out ofProvincetown:Memoir fEugeneO'Neill."Estrin.95-102.Koreneva, aya. One Hundred ercent mericanragedy: Soviet iew."Eugene 'Neill:AWorldiew.d.Virginia loyd. ewYork: ngar,1979.145-71.Leach, ugene.The Radicals f TheMasses." 915:TheCultural oment.d.AdeleHeller ndLois Rudnick.New Brunswick:utgers P,1991.27-47.Lears,T.J.Jackson.o Place fGrace:Antimodernismnd he ransformationfAmericanulture880-1920.NewYork: antheon,981.

London,Jack.hePeople f he byss. ewYork:Macmillan,903.Miliora,Maria. A Self sychologicaltudy fDehumanizationnEugeneO'Neill'sTheHairy pe."ClinicalocialWorkournal4.4 (1996):415-27.Mindil, hilip.Behind heScenes." strin -5.Nochlin, inda. The Paterson trike ageantf 1913."Art nAmerica2 (May1974):64-68.O'Neill,Eugene.BoundEastfor ardiff."heProvincetownlays.st eries.NewYork: hay,916.5-25.--. TheHairy pe. heCompletelays. ol.2.NewYork: ibraryfAmer-ica,1988.119-65.-- .A Long ay's]ourneynto ight. ewHaven:Yale P,1956.- ."The Personalquation." heUnknown'Neill.Ed.Travis ogard.New Haven:Yale P,1988.3-75.Pfister,oel. tagingepth: ugene 'Neill nd he oliticsf sychologicalis-course.hapelHill:U ofNorthCarolina ,1995.Pittenger,ark. AWorld fDifference:onstructingheUnderclass'nPro-gressivemerica." mericanuarterly9.1 (1997):26-65.Ranald,Margaretoftus. heEugene 'NeillCompanion.estport:reen-wood,1984.

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Patrick.ChuraReed,John. HarvardRenaissance."1912.Unpublishedessay.Johneed Pa-pers,Houghton Library, arvardUniversity.Rideout,WalterBates.TheRadicalNovel n theUnited tates, 900-1954: Some

InterrelationsfLiteraturendSociety. ambridge:HarvardUP, 1956.Robinson,JamesA. "The Masculine Primitive nd TheHairyApe."EugeneO'Neill Review 9.1-2 (1995): 95-109.Roosevelt,Theodore."The Strenuous ife."The Strenuousife.NewYork:Macmillan,1902.Rosenstone,Robert A. Romantic evolutionary:AiographyfJohn eed.NewYork:Random, 1981.Schocket, ric. "UndercoverExplorations f the OtherHalf,'Or theWriter sClass Transvestite."epresentations4 (Fall 1998): 109-33.Sheaffer,ouis. O'Neill: Son andArtist. oston:Little, 973.Sinclair, pton.American utpost. ortWashington: ennikat, 932.Stansell, hristine. merican oderns: ohemian ewYorknd theCreationfNew Century. ewYork:Holt,2000.Trilling, ionel."Eugene O'Neill." EugeneO'Neill. Ed. Harold Bloom. NewYork:Chelsea, 1987. 13-20.Tripp,Anne Huber. The . WW and thePatersonilkStrikef1913. Urbana: Uof IllinoisP,1987.Wyckoff,Walter.he Workers:AnxperimentnReality. vols.NewYork: Scrib-

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