apeh chapter 1.notebook...aug 24, 2015  · •the iberian peninsula was conquered by arab muslims...

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APEH Chapter 1.notebook 1 August 24, 2015 Chapter 1 Characteristics of European Civilization in 1400 Christianity: Europe was otherwise known as Christendom. Most of Europe was Catholic, and the Roman Catholic Church was the most important institution in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. It preserved learning and continued using the Latin language. (Eastern Europe was Orthodox Christian. The Orthodox Church is centered in Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire until 1453.) Europe shared a classical GrecoRoman heritage, which included law, political systems, art and architecture, literature and the Latin language, science, and philosophy. The synthesis of Christian and pagan Greco Roman civilizations occurred in the beginning of the Middle Ages. Those tribes, mostly Germanic, which had overrun the Western Roman Empire eventually embraced the Catholic faith and also contributed to this new medieval Christian European civilization.

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Page 1: APEH Chapter 1.notebook...Aug 24, 2015  · •The Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Arab Muslims (known as Moors) in 711. As Christians resisted Muslim rule, they began a Christian

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Chapter 1Characteristics of European Civilization in 1400

• Christianity: Europe was otherwise known as Christendom. Most of Europe was Catholic, and the Roman Catholic Church was the most important institution in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. It preserved learning and continued using the Latin language. (Eastern Europe was Orthodox Christian. The Orthodox Church is centered in Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire until 1453.)• Europe shared a classical Greco­Roman heritage, which included law, political systems, art and architecture, literature and the Latin language, science, and philosophy. The synthesis of Christian and pagan Greco­Roman civilizations occurred in the beginning of the Middle Ages. Those tribes, mostly Germanic, which had overrun the Western Roman Empire eventually embraced the Catholic faith and also contributed to this new medieval Christian European civilization. 

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• Catholic beliefs and practices are based on the Bible and on tradition. Worship continued being in Latin, even after it had died out as a spoken language.• The Catholic Church is governed by a (male) hierarchy. Each local community has its own priest who leads worship and administers the sacraments. A bishop is responsible for all the Catholics in a given area, known as a diocese (usually a city and its surrounding countryside). A bishop's church, and thus the principal church in a diocese, is the cathedral.• The pope is the bishop of Rome. Popes claim supremacy over the entire Church because he is the successor to Peter, the leader of the twelve apostles. Peter is considered the first pope. The pope is considered to be the Vicar of Christ, the representative of Jesus on earth. He therefore has authority over faith and morals. By the Middle Ages, popes began to be elected by cardinals, who are the principal bishops in the Church.• Popes ruled central Italy like kings between the 8th century and 1870. In addition to ruling the Papal States, popes in the Middle Ages also claimed authority over other rulers in Europe as vicars of Christ.• Orthodox Christians deny papal supremacy, believing that all bishops are equal in authority. Otherwise, Orthodox and Catholic Christians share the same beliefs and practices.

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• A sacrament is a ritual necessary for salvation, administered by a priest or bishop. There are seven sacraments.• Examples of sacraments: 1) baptism, which initiates one into membership in the Church. It is usually received during infancy. 2) The eucharist, which is the most important sacrament. During the mass, which is the basic Catholic act of worship, the priest transforms bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, which are then consumed by the faithful. This (to the faithful) literal transformation is known as transubstantiation. 3) Marriage between a man and a woman. It must be freely chosen to be valid. A marriage lasts until the death of one of the spouses, so divorce is not allowed. An annulment is a declaration that the marriage was never valid. 4) Ordination as a priest or a bishop, which can only be performed by a bishop and is only available to men. By the late Middle Ages, all ordained men had to remain celibate. Celibacy is a state where one never marries.• Excommunication is denial of the sacraments to someone, which therefore condemns that person to hell. It was used politically by medieval popes as a weapon against disobedient rulers in political disputes. Popes claimed the right to appoint bishops and to control Church revenues within a kingdom, which could lead to disputes with rulers.

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• Monasticism is a life of withdrawal and Christian contemplation which arose in the early Middle Ages. Monks and nuns live cloistered lives of prayer, work, and study as a community according to a rule. Monks live in a monastery and nuns in a convent. Monks and nuns take vows of chastity, obedience, and poverty.• They preserved culture and learning during the Middle Ages by copying books and maintaining libraries. Many monasteries also became major landowners during the Middle Ages, and often controlled many serfs.• The Catholic Church was also responsible for establishing Europe's first universities during the Middle Ages. Education was in Latin. Medieval scholars were able to synthesize Catholic theology with Greco­Roman rationalism. • For Catholics, saints are people in heaven. Catholics pray to them to intercede with God on their behalf. Saints are associated with specific occupations or needs or places, and devotion to them was very popular. Each saint has a feast day, and celebrations of the feasts of patron saints, as well as other communal festivals like carnival, marked the medieval and early modern calendar. The faithful went on pilgrimages to the shrines of saints, and honored their relics. Churches were filled with images of saints.

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Feudalism• Feudalism was the social and economic system of medieval Europe. There was a rigid social hierarchy based on birth, land ownership, and military service. Everyone was a member of a collective (serf, artisan, clergy, noble) which determined one's rank, rights, and duties in society.• Political authority was very decentralized, as most of it was in the hands of local landowners, whether nobles, bishops, or monasteries. Kings did not have standing armies, the power to tax, or the power to administer justice.

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• The Holy Roman Empire was the result of a dream of reestablishing a Christian empire in Europe. Charlemagne (King of the Franks 768­814) was crowned Roman Emperor by the Pope in 800, thus using papal approval to enhance his own power.• For most of the empire's history, however, the imperial title was purely honorific, as the empire remained decentralized. Cities, local lords, bishops, and monasteries largely retained their independence. Despite the pope's wishes, it never included all of Europe, remaining confined to Germany and northern Italy.• It was an elective monarchy. Emperors were elected by the leading lords and bishops of the empire, and then crowned by the pope. The empire lasted until 1806, although coronation by the pope ended in 1530.

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England• After Rome fell in the 5th century, Anglo­Saxon invaders established various feudal kingdoms in England which gradually united.• Norman Conquest (1066) William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England, having claimed the English throne. His forces defeated the Anglo­Saxon king who contested his claim, and William was then crowned King of England. He established the modern English monarchy. Kings of England remained Dukes of Normandy, creating a legacy of conflict and tension between future Kings of England and their feudal lords, the Kings of France.

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France• The Franks established a kingdom in France after they conquered Roman Gaul and converted to Catholicism. The Carolingian dynasty died out in 987, and a nobleman, Hugh Capet, the count of Paris, was elected King of France by the French lords. This marks the birth of the modern French monarchy.

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• The Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Arab Muslims (known as Moors) in 711. As Christians resisted Muslim rule, they began a Christian Reconquest, beginning in the North. Small Christian kingdoms, like Castile, Portugal, Aragon, and Navarre, replaced Muslim rule. Iberian identity was based on a militant Catholic faith.

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• The Crusades were a series of wars (11th­13th centuries) fought to seize the Holy Land from its Muslim rulers.  The Christians ultimately failed, but the Crusades increased contacts and stimulated trade in luxury goods with the Middle East. For the first time, national armies under a king fought against a foreign enemy.• As trade increased, European cities began to grow as mercantile, manufacturing, and financial centers. A new urban class of artisans, merchants, and bankers arose. They were usually organized into guilds. This new class is the bourgeoisie. It is neither servile nor noble, and its status is determined by skill and wealth, not by birth. Medieval cities were typically self­governing even when under the jurisdiction of a monarch, who offered protection in return for tax payments. Guilds often played leading role in governing cities.

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